Translation Procedures: The technical Component

of the Translation Process

Presentation
The process of translating

Translation, as perceived in this workshop, is a process

during which the translator:

a) makes a number of decisions on how to interpret the

source text (ST);

b) uses resources and apply technical skills to render the

text in the target language; and

c) re-expresses that meaning in the target text (TT); i.e.

the translation.

Therefore, translation is perceived as a problem-solving

process.
Skills needed in translation

In popular belief, to translate, a person only needs:

• Reasonable knowledge of a foreign language

• And a few good dictionaries

For some, translating is an intuitive process that is based on

the translator’s creative capability.

On the opposite extreme, there are those who believe that

only specialists like lawyers or scientists can translate.

Those who make these assertions fail to make a

distinction between factual knowledge and procedural
knowledge.
Distinguishing Factual Knowledge and Procedural Knowledge

Factual knowledge is the knowledge of special fields

Special terminology
Resources available
Foreign languages

Factual knowledge is essential but not enough. Translators

also need procedural knowledge.

Procedural knowledge relates to some kind of method or

procedure to help the translator in seizing the meaning of the ST
and re-expressing that meaning in the TT.
Procedural Knowledge: Options for translation

Basically, a translator has two options for translating:

1. Direct or literal translation

1. Oblique translation

There are several translation techniques available under each option.

Procedural Knowledge: Options for translation

1. Direct or literal translation

2. Oblique translation

Are these approaches applicable to the translation of

legal texts?
Direct translation

Possible because of parallel categories

1. Structural parallelism → grammatical categories

Are you there? → ESTAS AHI ?

2. Meta-linguistic parallelism → parallel concepts

The book → el libro

Oblique translation

There comes a time when direct translation techniques would not

work because:

1. They are structurally impossible

2. The target language does not have a corresponding

expression

And the generated text would have:

1. a different meaning

2. no meaning

3. a foreign structure
Oblique translation

Compare:

He looked at the map. → El miró el mapa

He looked the picture of health. → El miro el cuadro sobre salud.
(Back-translation: He was the image of health itself.)
(Back-translation: He was the image of health itself. He seemed in good
shape.)
I have a headache → me duele la cabeza

I → me
Have → duele (verb)
Headache → la cabeza

Both English and Spanish have the corresponding elements

But the structure of the statement is different in the two languages. A direct
translation is no longer possible. The translator needs to use oblique
translation techniques.
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

1. Borrowing

It is used:

To overcome a gap or lacuna (a new technical process, a new concept)

→ Dumping (trade law). There is no equivalent in Italian

Create stylistic effect

→ chic, déjà vu

To recreate the flavor of the source language (SL)

→ Margaritas, tortillas, Pisco sour, sushi, sauerkraut, spaghetti,

In the legal field, Latin expressions* are an excellent example of borrowing that have
been made through time. Prima facie, nolo contendere, pro se.

Generally, borrowings enter a language through translation, and just as with false
friends (false cognates) the translator should strive to look for the equivalents in the SL
that convey the meaning of the SL more advantageously.

*A great number of Latin expressions have evolved differently in the various

languages. Beware of spelling, among other things.
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

2. Calque

(From the French verb "calquer") Calques are special kind of borrowing
where a language borrows a word or an expression from another language
and translates literally each of its elements.

Lexical calque

Football → Fútbol → Balompié

4 X 4 → cuatro por cuatro (4 X 4)

Structural calque

Your are intelligent enough to realize that… →

(Back-translation → Your are intelligent and can realize that…)

 DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Both borrowing and calque may become lexicalized (fixed) in the

TL over time.

Science fiction → ciencia ficción; Carburator → r

Menu → menú

In the legal field, structural calque oftentimes arises from

oversight of the morpho-syntactic structure of both SL and TL.

As used in this section, "serious violent felon" means a

person who has been convicted of: attempting to commit
or conspiring to commit a serious violent felony

(Back translation → Attempting to commit a serious

violent felony or conspiring to do do.)
DIRECT TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

3. Literal translation

Literal translation refers to a translation technique that can be used

when the languages involved share parallel structures and concepts;
NOT to a translation made word for word: Literal translation carries
the imprint of the original.

This technique is used when it is possible to transpose the source

language (SL) message element by element into the target language
(TL) and obtain a text that is idiomatic.

The girl is sick → la bambina sta male

How are you? → come stai?

Good morning → buon giorno?

Spanish syntax requires that we add ¨s¨ to both words, but this
continues to be literal translation. It is just a case of syntax
normalization.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

4. Transposition

Transposition is the first technique or step towards oblique translation.

• Operates at the grammatical level

• Consists of the replacement of a word class by another word class
without changing the meaning

Within the same language:

Reconstruction of the city is very important

Reconstructing the city is very important
To reconstruct the city is very important

(Back-translation: I don’t care about your anger. I don’t care

about your getting angry.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Public servants should be held accountable for their

management of public goods. →

The use of the pronominal passive allows a rendition that does not
indicate the subject of the sentence, like in the ST.

From a stylistic view point the transposed expression does not have
the same value, but the meaning is the same.

Transposed expressions are generally more literary in character.

It is important to choose the form that best fits the context.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Transposition can be:

Free: When the transposition used depends mostly on context and

desired effect.

The course is of interest to all of us. (Back-translation: The

course interests all of us)

Compulsory: When only a transposition is acceptable.

I will never forget the time when I got lost in the market.
(Back-translation: I will never forget the time that I got lost in the
market.)

When (adverb) → quando (relative pronoun)

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Types of transposition

Adverb→ verb
I only defended myself.
(Back-translation → I did nothing but defend myself.)

Adverb→ noun
I wrote to you early this year.
(Back-translation → I wrote to you at the beginning of the
year)

Adverb→ adjective
He lives precariously
(Back-translation → He leads a precarious life)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Types of transposition

Adjective→ noun
He found it difficult to arrange for the trip
(Back-translation → I had difficulty to make the arrangemets for
the trip)

Possessive adjective → definite article

Your hair is too long→ (Back-translation → Your have the hair too
long)

Verb or past participle → noun

I intended to tell you the whole truth. (Back-translation → My
intention was to tell you the whole truth.)

Adverb → noun
I wrote to you early this year. →
(Back-translation → wrote to you at the beginnig of the year.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

5. Modulation

A variation of the form of the message obtained by a change in the

point of view.

Although the main characteristic of modulation is a change of point

of view, it may involve also a change of grammatical categories.

It is used when the other techniques would generate a text that is

grammatically correct, but unsuitable, not idiomatic, or awkward.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Modulation can be:

Free

It is not difficult to show

(Back-translation → it is easy to show)

Remember → (if it fits the context better)

(Back-translation → Remember; do not forget)

Lexicalized (fixed by use, listed in dictionaries) or Compulsory

Dress rehearsal
(Back-translation → General rehearsal)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Modulation is a technique that experienced translators use to produce an

accurate and idiomatic text. It requires an excellent knowledge of both
languages involved in the translation. This includes knowing the mechanics
of the language. For example:

1. The manner in which negative and positive formulations are used in

the two languages. Do not enter. →Vietato entrare
2. The general register of the language. For example italians tend to
use more “intellectual” terms than English. Eye doctor → oculista;
bird watching → ornitología; dog show → esposizione canina

3. Use of the passive voice.

4. The greater the structural difference between the two languages the
greater the challenges for the translator
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Types of modulation

Most of the types are based on metonymy: e.g. referring to a

concept by an attribute of it. For example; “the crown” referring to
a monarch or “Washington” to refer to the United States
government.

1. Abstract → Concrete or General → Particular

I haven’t heard a word from him → Non ho avuto sue notizie

(Back-translation: I have not had news from him.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

2. Explanatory modulation:

cause → effect

Like a deer in the headlights. →fermarsi paralizzato

(Back-translation: remain paralyzed)
Blind flying → volare senza visibilità
(Back-translation: flight without visibility)

means → result, or viceversa

I’ll drive you home → Ti accompagno a casa in auto

(Back-translation: I’ll take you to your house in [my] car)

substance → object

Brain drain → Fuga di cervelli (double modulation)

(Back-translation: the exodus of experts)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

2. Explanatory modulation (continued):

A part → the whole

The cathedral’s ceiling draws the eye as soon as one

enters.
(Back-translation: The cathedral’s ceiling draws the view.)

A part → another part

I know the city like the back of my hand. Conosco la città

come le mie tasche (Back-translation: I know the city like
the palm of my hand.)

Hand to hand combat→ Combattere corpo a corpo;

(Back-translation: body to body combat.)
 OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

2. Explanatory modulation (continued):

Term reversal

This cage cannot hold an animal this size. → Questa gabbia

non mantiene animali did questa grandezza (Back-
translation: An animal this size will not fit in this cage.)

Negative contrast

Make sure you call us every week. → Non dimenticatre did

chiamare ogni settimana (Back-translation: Don’t forget to
call us all of the weeks.)

Active voice → passive voice (and vice-versa)

The votes (in an election) were counted. → I voti sono stati

conteggiati (impersonal form)
 OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

2. Explanatory modulation (continued):

Space → Time
In grammar school I was very shy. → (Back-translation: When I was
attending elementary school.)
Intervals and boundaries (in time and space)
A. In time: See you in a week → (Back-translation: We’ll see each
other in eight days from today.)
B. In space: No parking between signs →
(Back-translation: Limit of parking.)
Change of symbol
He earns an honest dollar. (Back-translation: He earns an honest
living.)
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Sensory modulation

A heavy coat → una giacca pesante

(Back-translation: A thick coat)

A goldfish → un pesce rosso

(Back translation: a little red fish)

In short, modulation is the technique that leads to a solution

that makes the reader - or the translator – exclaim, “Yes,
that’s exactly what you would say.”
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

6. Equivalence

Used to render expressions using different stylistic and

structural methods.

Most equivalences are fixed, and include idioms, clichés,

proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases, onomatopoeia, etc.

Stop splitting hairs → Non guardare il pelo nell’uovo (Back-

translation: Stop looking for five legs in a cat)

Challenge: To recognize that the expression to be

translated is an idiom / proverb; to know the equivalent
expression in the T.L.

Equivalence also refers to fixed (lexicalized) terms, such as

terminology of a field of knowledge.
OBLIQUE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

7. Adaptation

Used when the limit to translation is been reached, i.e. when a

simple translation would not work or it would produce a result
that is shocking in the target language and culture.

Titles of books, movies, and characters often fit into this

category

Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid → (Back-translation:

Two men and a destiny)

The Sound of Music

(Back-translation: Smiles and tears)
Other taxonomies (categorizations) of translation
techniques

1. Concretization or differentiation→ generalization

(Fawcett)

Abstract → Concrete or General → Particular modulation

Fratelli e sorelle → brothers and sister, siblings

(depending on context and desired effect)

2. Paraphrasing

Used when there is no equivalent in the target language

Paraphrasing is a type of explanatory modulation

To perform hazing [a crime] → efectuar o someter a

actos iniciáticos ilícitos (hazing) (Back-translation:
to subject to unlawful initiation acts)
Other taxonomies (categorizations) of translation techniques

2. Paraphrasing

Translation does not mean explaining or commenting on a text,

or writing it in our own way. “Paraphrasing, according to
Vásquez-Ayora, ´cannot be a translation method because using
it the text loses its characteristics. Too many explanations
destroys the conciseness of the work and makes it subject to
the same distortions of its counterpart – literal translation.´”
Other taxonomies (categorizations) of translation techniques

3. Logical derivation

Cause → effect modulation (logical modulation, according

to Fawcett)

Shorter [fewer] working hours (hours have become

fewer as a result of some action taken)
(Back-translation: reduction in working time / working
week)
Direct or literal translation techniques:

 Borrowings: borrowing from the source language a term or concept

to overcome a lacuna in the target language or to create a stylistic
effect. SUSHI, SAUERKRAUT, PIZZA

 Calque: a special type of borrowing, consisting of borrowing an

expression from the source language and translating literally each
element. Calque can be either lexical. CARBURATOR → or structural
MAYO 5, INSTEAD OF 5 DE MAYO

 Literal translation: the direct transfer of the source text into the
target language in a grammatically and idiomatically proper way.
GOOD MORNING
Oblique translation techniques:

 Transposition: replacing words from one grammatical word class with

another without changing the meaning of the message. RECONSTRUCTION
OF THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT RECONSTRUCTING THE CITY IS
VERY IMPORTANT, TO RECONSTRUCT THE CITY IS VERY IMPORTANT
 Modulation: changing the point of view without changing the meaning of the
message. (Vinay and Darbelnet identified 10 different types of modulation. IT
IS NOT DIFFICULT → IT IS EASY
 Equivalence: generally refers to the commonly accepted and used
equivalents of idioms, proverbs, idiomatic expression and lexicalized terms,
i.e. terms commonly accepted as equivalents of a source language term.
STOP SPLITTING HAIRS → DEJA DE BUSCARLE CINCO PATAS AL
GATO. BACK TRANSLATION: STOP LOOKING FOR FIVE LEGS IN A
CAT.
 Adaptation: adapting a source language situation when it does not exist in
the target language or would be considered inappropriate in the target
culture. THE SOUND OF MUSIC → SONRISAS Y LÁGRIMAS BACK-
TRANSLATION: SMILES AND TEARS
REFERENCES

 FAWCETT, Peter (1997). Translation and Language,

Manchester, UK: St Jerome.

 Sager, Juan C and M.-J. Hamel (tranls) (2000). Jean-Paul

Vinay and Jean Darbelnet. A Method for Translation, in
Lawrence Venuti (ed.) The Translation Studies Reader,
London: Routledge: 85-93.

 Vazquez-Ayora Gerardo (1977). Introducción a la

traductología, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University.

 VINAY, J. P. et J. Darbelnet (1958). Stylistique comparée

du français et de l’anglais, Montréal: Beauchemin