REDOX REACTIONS

Learning Objectives
• recall concepts from earlier grades: oxidation as gain of oxygen and reduction as gain
of hydrogen, oxidation and reduction in terms of electron gain and loss
• know and be able to use the rules for assigning oxidation numbers and be able to
assign oxidation numbers to individual elements in compounds
• be able to write oxidizing and reducing half equations and to combine them into an
overall redox equation
• use electrode potentials to establish an electrochemical series
• understand the electrochemical cell in terms of conventional representations
• know that standard electrode potentials require standard conditions
• understand how cells are used to measure electrode potentials
• be able to use standard electrode potential to calculate the EMF of a cell and to
predict the directions of redox reactions
• understand electrochemical cells as a source of energy, including the constituents of
commercial cells
• understand the processes of charging and discharging cells
• understand the construction and operation of a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell
• understand the benefits and potential risks of fuel cells
Redox Reactions
• Involves two processes, reduction and
oxidation

• Redox can be described in terms of:

– loss or gain of hydrogen or oxygen
– electron transfer
– change in oxidation number
Redox Reactions
• The term oxidation was originally used to
describe reactions in which an element
combines with oxygen.

• Example: The reaction between Mg (s)

and oxygen to form magnesium oxide
involves the oxidation of magnesium.
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s)
Redox Reactions
• The term reduction comes from the Latin
stem meaning "to lead back."

• Example: The reaction of magnesium

oxide and carbon at 2000°C to form
magnesium metal and carbon monoxide
MgO(s) + C(s) → Mg(s) + CO(g)
Definitions: Electron Transfer
• Oxidation involves the loss of electrons.
• Reduction involves the gain of electrons.
• LEO – GER
– loss of electron = oxidation
– gain of electron = reduction
• OIL – RIG
– oxidation is loss of electrons
– Reduction is gain of electrons
 Definitions: Electron Transfer
2 Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2 MgO (s) 3 Mg (s) + N2 (g)  Mg3N2 (s)

In both reactions Mg is forming Mg2+ by losing electrons !

O And N respectively are forming O²ˉ and N3- by gaining electrons !

Cu(s) + 2 Ag+(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

- 2 e-
2 x +1 e-

Loss of Electrons = Gain of Electrons =

OXIDATION LEO REDUCTION GER
Definitions: Gain/Loss of O and H

OXYGEN HYDROGEN

Oxidation GAIN LOSS

Reduction LOSS GAIN

Definitions: Oxidation States
• The oxidation state is the apparent charge
of an atom in a free element, a molecule,
or an ion.
• Oxidation describes a process in which
the oxidation state increases.
• Reduction describes a process in which
oxidation state decreases.
Oxidation States
ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER
Assigning Oxidation numbers to the reactions and products, enables us to track
changes (electron transfer)
• All free, uncombined elements have an oxidation number
of zero. This includes diatomic elements such as O2 or
others like P4 and S8.
• Hydrogen, in all its compounds except hydrides (where it
is -1) has an oxidation number of +1
• The valence of O is -2, except in peroxides, where it is -1.
• In simple ions the oxidation number is the same as the
charge of the ion.
Oxidation States
ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER
Assigning Oxidation numbers to the reactions and products, enables us to track
changes (electron transfer)
• Chlorine and Fluorine in all it’s compounds is -1 (except for
chlorine in combination with O and F.
• Sodium and potassium all it’s compounds is +1. Aluminum
is always +3.
• The oxidation number of all atoms in a neutral (uncharged)
compound must add up to zero(0), ex: H2SO4 (0)
• The oxidation number of all atoms in a polyatomic ion
must add up to the charge of the ion, ex: SO4²ˉ(-2)
Oxidation States
EXAMPLE:
Sulfur in SO42-
overall charge -2
2) Oxygen (4×-2) = -8 Sulfur in H2S
3) S = +6
overall charge 0
Hydrogen (2×+1) = +2
Carbon in CO2 3) S = -2
overall charge 0
2) Oxygen (2×-2) = -4
3) C = +4
Oxidation States
Deduce the oxidation state of the specified
element in their compounds.
• Sulfur: SO32-, S, Fe2S3, H2S
• Carbon: CO2, C, CH4
• Nitrogen: NO3-, NO2-, NO, N2O, N2, NH3
• Manganese: MnO4-, MnO2, Mn2O3, MnO, Mn
• Chromium: CrO42-, Cr2O3, Cr
• Gold: AuCl4-, Au
Oxidation States
• Deduce the oxidation number of all the
elements in the following compounds.
NO2 KMnO4
N2O5 Fe(OH)3
HClO3 K2Cr2O7
HNO3 CO32-
Ca(NO3)2 CN-
Oxidation States

NO2 N= +4, O = -2
N2O5 N = +5, O = -2
HClO3 H=+1, Cl=+5, O = -2
HNO3 H=+1, N = +5, O = -2
Ca(NO3)2 Ca=+2, N =+5, O= -2
KMnO4 K=+1, Mn=+7, O= -2
Oxidation States

Fe(OH)3 Fe =+3, O=-2, H=+1

K2Cr2O7 K=+1, Cr=+6, O=-2
CO32- C=+4, O =-2
CN- C=+4, N=-5
 Redox Reactions
Cl2 + KBr  KCl + Br2
 0 +1-1 +1-1 0
Bromine is oxidized Chlorine is reduced

Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O

0 +1+5-2 +2 +5-2 +4 –2 +1-2
Cu is oxidized N in nitric acid reduced

2e- gained
0 +2 +2 0
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
2e- lost

Zinc is oxidized Copper is reduced

Redox Reactions
2H2SO4 (aq) + Cu (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O
Cu : From 0 to +2(it is oxidized)
S in SO42- from +6 to S in SO2 +4(Some S is reduced)

HNO3 + I2 → HIO3 + NO2

N is reduced from +5 to +4. It is reduced
I is increased from 0 to +5 It is oxidized
The hydrogen and oxygen remain unchanged
2Cs(s) + F2(g) → 2CsF(s)
Cs(s) increased from 0 to 1+ it is oxidized
F2(s) is reduced from 0 to -1 it is reduced

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

Mg is oxidized Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e−

H+ is reduced 2H+ + 2e− → H2
Oxidizing/Reducing Agent
• An Oxidizing Agent may be defined as
chemical which can act as an electron
acceptor. It causes the oxidation of
another substance (and itself is reduced).
• A Reducing Agent may be defined as
chemical which can act as an electron
donor. It causes the reduction of another
substance (and itself is oxidized).
Oxidizing/Reducing Agent
Mg + S → MgS
Mg + S → Mg2+ + S2-
Magnesium is oxidized
– Said to be the reducing agent
– Substance in the reaction that loses
electrons
Sulfur is reduced
– Said to be the oxidizing agent
– Substance in the reaction that gains
electrons
Oxidizing/Reducing Agent
Reaction Name Oxidation Reduction

Oxidation State Increase Decrease

of element

Number of
Loses e- Gains e-
electrons

Agent Reducing Agent Oxidizing Agent

Action Donates e- Accepts e-

Example: Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e- Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+

Oxidizing/Reducing Agent
Specify which of the following are oxidation-reduction
reactions, and identify the oxidizing agent, the reducing
agent, the substance being oxidized, and the substance
being reduced.

 Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → 2Ag(s) + Cu2+ (aq)

 HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)
 2Al(s) + 3I2(s) → 2AlI3(s)
 Fe2O3 (s) + Al (s) → Al2O3 (s) + Fe (l)
 2H2O(l) + Al (s) + MnO4- (aq) → Al(OH)4- (aq) +MnO2 (s)
Half Reaction
• A half reaction is a reduction or an
oxidation reaction

• A half reaction does not occur by itself, it’s

always a combination of reduction and
oxidation thus RedOx Reaction
Half Reaction
Balancing Redox Reactions with Half Reactions

When magnesium reduces hot copper(II) oxide to copper,

the ionic equation for the reaction is:

Split the ionic equation into two (reduction and oxidation)

and balance with electrons
Half Reaction
Balancing Redox Reactions with Half Reactions

Write a balanced equation to describe the redox reaction

between zinc metal and aqueous lead(II) nitrate
Half Reaction
Balancing Redox Reactions with Half Reactions

Write a balanced equation for the following redox reaction.

Balancing Redox Reactions
General
•   Guide
• Assign oxidation states for each atom in the reactant and
product species
• Deduce which species is oxidized or reduced
• State the half-equation for oxidation and reduction process
• Balance the half-equations so that the number of electrons
lost equals electrons gained
• Add the two half-equation to write the overall redox reactions
• Check the total charge on the reactant and product side
• Balance the charge by adding and to the appropriate sides.
Balancing Redox Reactions
•In ACIDIC medium
• Balance all atoms except H and O
• Add to the side deficient of O to balance
oxygen
• Add to the side deficient of H to balance
hydrogen
• Add electrons, , to the side deficient in
negative charge to balance the charge
Balancing Redox Reactions
Balance the following redox reaction in
acidic conditions.
Balancing Redox Reactions
Balancing Redox Reactions
Balancing Redox Reactions
In BASIC medium
Bases dissolve into OH- ions in solution; hence, balancing redox
reactions in basic conditions requires OH-. Follow the same steps as
for acidic conditions. The only difference is adding hydroxide ions (OH-)
to each side of the net reaction to balance any H+. OH- and H+ ions on
the same side of a reaction should be added together to form water.
Again, any common terms can be canceled out.

Balance the following redox reaction in basic

conditions.
Balancing Redox Reactions
Balancing Redox Reactions
Balancing Redox Reactions
 Balancing Redox Reactions
Balance the following in acidic and basic
medium.

Acidic medium

Basic medium
Electrochemical Cells
• An electrochemical cell is a device
capable of either generating electrical
energy from chemical reactions or using
electrical energy to cause chemical
reactions.
Electrochemical Cells
TYPES
• Voltaic (galvanic) cells – convert chemical
energy to electrical energy. Converts energy
from spontaneous, exothermic chemical
processes to electrical energy.
• Electrolytic cell – converts electrical to
chemical energy, bringing about a non-
spontaneous process.
Electrochemical Cells
• An electrochemical cell contains two
electrodes, the anode and the cathode.
• In both voltaic and electrolytic cells:
– Oxidation always takes place at the anode
– Reduction always takes place at the cathode

• However, the polarity of the electrodes

differs in the different types of cells.
Electrochemical Cells
VOLTAIC CELL
• The cathode is the positive electrode
• The anode is the negative electrode
• V CaP-AN = voltaic – cathode-positive –
anode-negative
Voltaic Cell
• consists of two half-cells
• oxidation occurs at one half-cell (anode)
and reduction occurs at the other half-cell
(cathode)
• Provides us with a way of harnessing
redox reactions to generate electricity
(basis of cells – batteries)
Voltaic Cell
•The
  metal/metal ion electrode
• Consist of a bar of metal dipped into a solution
containing cations of the same metal.
• Example:

• The vertical line in the cell notation represents a

phase boundary or junction
Voltaic Cell
When a piece of zinc is put into a solution of
copper sulfate, the piece of zinc becomes coated
with copper and the blue color of the solution
fades.
• Zn – oxidized
• Cu – reduced

What are the half-equations?

Overall redox equation?
Voltaic Cell
However,
•   if the two reactions are separated, exactly the
same reaction occurs except that instead of the electrons
being transferred directly from the Zn to the , they are
transferred via the external circuit
Voltaic Cell
• The two half-cells in a voltaic cell is separated.
• If solutions are mixed, spontaneous reaction
occur but there’s no movement of electrons
through the external circuit, and hence no
current.
• A liquid junction called a salt bridge is used in
order for the two electrodes to have electrical
contact.
Voltaic Cell
THE SALT BRIDGE
• A salt bridge contains a concentrated solution of
a strong electrolyte.
• The ions used in the salt bridge must be inert – it
should not react with the other ions in the
solution.
• It provides the connection between the two half
cells to complete the circuit. The flow of ions in
and out of the half cell balances the charges in
the half cell.
Voltaic Cell
THE SALT BRIDGE: Functions
• Allows physical separation of the cathode
and the anode (separation of reduction
and oxidation processes).

• Provides electrical continuity – path for the

migration of ions (anions and cations) in
the cell.
Voltaic Cell
THE SALT BRIDGE: Functions
• It reduces the liquid-junction potential. It is
the voltage generated when two different
solutions come into contact with each
other, which occurs due to unequal cation
and anion migration across the junction.
Voltaic Cell
• Cell diagrams are used as a shorthand representation of a
voltaic cell. By convention, the anode is always written on
the left and the cathode on the right. The salt bridge is
represented by two parallel lines.

( 𝒂𝒒 ) ∨𝑪𝒖 (𝒔 )¿
 𝒁𝒏 ( 𝟐+¿ ( 𝒂𝒒 ) ∨¿ 𝑪𝒖 𝟐+¿ ¿
𝒔 ) ∨ 𝒁𝒏
Voltaic Cell
• Voltaic
  cell generates an electromotive force
(EMF) resulting in the movement of electrons
from the anode (negative electrode) to the
cathode (positive electrode) via the external
circuit.
• Electromotive force (EMF) or Cell Potential
(E); units is volts (V)
• =
Voltaic Cell
Reactivity of metals can affect the voltage reading.
Magnesium is more reactive than zinc and therefore,
has a greater tendency to donate electrons to
copper.
Voltaic Cell
• Cell voltages are normally reported at
standard conditions
– Pressure = 1 atm / 101 kPa
– Temperature = 298 K
– Electrolyte concentrations = 1M
– Electrode metals are pure

• Reference electrode = standard hydrogen

electrode (SHE)
Voltaic Cell
Standard Hydrogen Electrode
Voltaic Cell
• Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is used to
determine the standard electrode potential of
metals
Voltaic Cell
Calculating Standard Cell Potential
•  
• represents the standard electrode
potential at the cathode (right-hand side
electrode in a voltaic cell)
• represents the standard electrode
potential at the anode (left-hand side
electrode in a voltaic cell)
Calculating Standard Cell Potential
• In
  order to calculate for a spontaneous
cell, the cathode ( and hence ) is taken as
the more positive value chosen from two
standard electrode potentials and the
anode (and hence ) is taken as the least
positive value.
Calculating Standard Cell Potential
o o
Eanode = -0.76V Ecathode = +0.34V
Oxidation Potential Reduction Potential

Zn Cell 2e- SHE 2e- Cu Cell

Cell Potential

o o o
Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode
Calculating Standard Cell Potential
Consider the cell with a copper and zinc electrodes:
•  

Cathode (reduction)

Anode (oxidation)
Calculating Standard Cell Potential
•Work
  This Out!
• Work out the cell potential of .

+ 0.53 V

• Work out the overall reaction and calculate the

cell potential for a cell consisting of an half cell
and a half cell.
+ 1.53 V
Calculating Standard Cell Potential
Electrode potential can determine the polarity of the electrode.
Negative electrode has a more negative electrode potential value.
Electrons flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode.
Standard Cell Potential
• If the standard cell potential is positive,
redox reaction will occur spontaneously. A
negative value denotes a non-
spontaneous redox process.

• Standard electrode potential values can

give clues whether or not it favors
reduction or oxidation; or if the material is
a reducing agent or an oxidizing agent.
Standard Cell Potential
• A
  (very) positive value means that the reduction
is very favorable, and the substance has a
greater tendency to pick up electrons from other
species. This can also mean that it is a strong
oxidizing agent.
• A negative value means that the reverse
reaction is more favorable, and the substance
has a greater tendency to give electrons to other
species – that is, to reduce other species and
thus, it is a strong reducing agent.
• Consider the following table for of standard electrode potentials.
•  
/V
-1.66
-0.74
-0.28
+0.15
+1.36

a. Deduce the species which is the strongest oxidizing agent.

b. Deduce the species that can reduce under standard conditions.
c. Deduce the species which can reduce but not under standard conditions.
d. The electrode potential for the half-cell made from cobalt metal, Co (s), in a
solution of cobalt(II) ions, has the value of –0.28 V. Explain the
significance of the negative sign in –0.28 V.
• Consider
  the following table for of standard
electrode potentials.
/V
-1.66
-0.74
-0.28
+0.15
+1.36

Deduce the species which is the strongest

oxidizing agent.
– The higher the standard electrode potential, the
greater the ability of the species to gain electrons,
so the strongest oxidizing agent is chlorine gas (
• Consider
  the following table for of standard
electrode potentials.
/V
-1.66
-0.74
-0.28
+0.15
+1.36

Deduce the species that can reduce under

standard conditions.
– To reduce , we need a species with an less than –
0.74. the only species with that potential involves
Al as the reducing species
•• Consider
  the following table for of standard electrode
potentials.
/V
-1.66
-0.74
-0.28
+0.15
+1.36

Deduce the species which can reduce but not under

standard conditions.
– The only species than can reduce but not involves Co (s)
because its is lower than +0.15 V but higher than –0.74 V
•• Consider the following table for of standard electrode potentials.
 
/V
-1.66
-0.74
-0.28
+0.15
+1.36

The electrode potential for the half-cell made from cobalt metal, Co
(s), in a solution of cobalt(II) ions, has the value of –0.28 V. Explain
the significance of the negative sign in –0.28 V.
– When a negative is connected to a SHE, the SHE will act as the cathode
(+) and reduction takes place here. This means that at the anode, there will
be loss of electrons and electrons will flow from half cell (anode) to the
SHE (cathode).
Cell Potential
Under Non-standard Conditions
• Apply Le Chatelier’s principle to redox
equilibria
– If we increase the concentration of the species on
the left of the equation, the position of equilibrium
will shift to the right. So the value of E becomes
more positive / less negative.
– If two different ions are present in the half-cell, we
have to consider both ions.
Cell Potential
Under Non-standard Conditions

• If [Zn2+] is greater than 1 M, the value of E

becomes less negative / more positive

• If [Zn2+] is less than 1 M, the value of E becomes

more negative / less positive
Cell Potential
Under Non-standard Conditions
• By convention, if the E values of the two half
reactions involved differ by more than 0.30 V, the
reaction predicted using the E values is highly
likely to occur.
Cells and Batteries
• A battery is a portable electrochemical
device that produces electricity – it is
made up of one or more voltaic cells
connected in series.
Cells and Batteries
• Primary cells cannot usually be recharged
using mains electricity – the reaction in the cell
is non-reversible.

• Primary cells are very expensive source of

electrical energy compared to mains electricity
but are used because of their convenience and
portability. Examples of primary cells include
zinc–carbon cells/batteries, often used in
torches.
Cells and Batteries
• A secondary cell is one that can be recharged
using ‘mains’ electricity and is often called a
rechargeable battery. The chemical reactions in
a rechargeable battery are reversible and can be
reversed by connecting them to an electricity
supply.

• Secondary cells include the lead–acid battery

used in car engines and lithium-ion batteries
used in laptops etc.
Cells and Batteries
• A fuel cell differs from other cells in that it uses
a continuous supply of reactants from an
external source.
• Fuel cell use the reaction between a fuel (such
as hydrogen or methanol) and an oxidizing
agent (e.g. oxygen) to produce electrical energy
directly.
• All cells involve the conversion of chemical
energy to electrical energy.
Fuel Cell
• A fuel cell is a specialized type of
electrochemical cell in which a fuel and an
oxidizing agent react in the presence of
an electrolyte to produce electrical energy.

• In the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell,

hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce
water and electricity.
Fuel Cell
Hydrogen passes
through a porous carbon
anode that contains a
platinum catalyst and is
oxidized to form
hydrogen ions (protons)
and electrons (which
travel through the
external circuit).
Fuel Cell
• Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells rely on external
sources of a fuel and an oxidizing agent, which
are depleted during use and require constant
replenishing
Fuel Cell
ADVANTAGES
• Water is the only product made – no carbon
dioxide or harmful nitrogen oxides are released.
• They produce more energy per gram of fuel
burnt than petrol engines do.
• They are very efficient – the transmission of
energy from the fuel cell to the motor is direct.
There are no moving parts where energy is
wasted as heat.
Fuel Cell
LIMITATIONS
• High cost: the materials used to make the electrodes and
membrane are expensive.
• Manufacturing of fuel cells involves the production of
toxic by-products.
• Storage of hydrogen: high-pressure tanks are needed in
order to store a sufficient amount of fuel.
• Manufacturing hydrogen: the hydrogen needed for fuel
cells can only be produced cheaply by using fossil fuels.
• Fuel cells do not work well at low temperatures: if the
temperature falls much below 0 °C, the fuel cell ‘freezes.
Rechargeable Batteries
• Rechargeable batteries, or secondary
cells, are a portable type of
electrochemical cell that generates a
current via electrically reversible reactions.
Rechargeable Batteries
•Lead–acid
  battery
• One of the oldest forms of rechargeable cell.
• Used in the majority of car engines.
• The lead–acid battery consists of lead anodes
and cathodes made from lead covered with a
layer of lead(IV) oxide () in a concentrated
sulfuric acid electrolyte.
Rechargeable Batteries
Lead–acid battery
• A typical car battery is made up of six electrical cells
in series and provides a potential difference of about
12 V.
• As the battery discharges, lead at the anode is
oxidized, releasing electrons, while the lead(IV)
oxide at the cathode is reduced.
• The product of both reactions is solid lead(II) sulfate,
which accumulates on the electrodes within the
battery.
Rechargeable Batteries
Lead–acid battery
• REMEMBER: When the battery is discharging
the anode is the negative electrode and the
cathode the positive electrode.
Rechargeable Batteries
Lead–acid battery

• When a battery loses its charge, the lead(II) sulfate can

be converted back to lead and lead(IV) oxide by applying
an external electrical source – the chemical reactions
above are reversed.
Rechargeable Batteries
Lead–acid battery

• REMEMBER: When charging the battery the anode and

cathode labels must be changed around – the cathode is
the electrode at which reduction occurs. The cathode is
thus the electrode attached to the negative side of the
electricity supply.

• Lead–acid storage batteries are quite large and heavy

and are unsuitable for uses where they have to be
carried around.
Rechargeable Batteries
Nickel–Cadmium battery
• NiCad batteries are often seen as the classic small
rechargeable batteries (sizes AAA to D)
• Used for powering small electronic devices such as
clocks, calculators, remote controls and toys.
• They typically generate smaller voltages than lead–
acid batteries – around 1.2 V.
• NiCad batteries use a nickel oxide hydroxide
[NiO(OH)] cathode and a metallic cadmium anode
separated by a potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
Rechargeable Batteries
Nickel–Cadmium battery
• Reaction during discharge:

• The reactions are reversed when the battery is

recharged.
Rechargeable Batteries
Lithium–Ion battery
• These batteries are commonly used as
rechargeable cells in mobile telephones, laptop
computers and high-energy usage portable
electronic devices.

• They can generate higher voltages (around 3–4

V) than NiCad batteries.
Rechargeable Batteries
Rechargeable Batteries
Lithium–Ion battery
• During discharge, lithium atoms are oxidized at
the negative electrode and electrons are
released to the external circuit
• The lithium ions move through the electrolyte to
the cathode, where they become inserted into
the lattice of the transition metal oxide
• NET EFFECT: lithium atoms are oxidized at the
negative electrode and cobalt ions are reduced
at the positive electrode.
Rechargeable Batteries
Lithium–Ion battery
• The reverse reactions occur during charging,
and lithium ions move in the opposite direction.

• Both nickel–cadmium and lithium-ion batteries

are much smaller and lighter than lead–acid
storage batteries and are, therefore, suitable for
use in portable devices.
Comparison
FUEL CELL vs RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES
SIMILARITIES
• They both generate electrical energy from
chemical energy.
• They are both composed of an anode, a cathode
and an electrolyte.
• They both generate a current based on the
separation of reduction and oxidation reactions
and the flow of electrons through an external
circuit.
Comparison
FUEL CELL vs RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES
DIFFERENCIES
• Fuel cells require an external source of chemical
energy (fuel), but rechargeable batteries have
their chemical energy source within them.
• Fuel cells never run out so long as there is a
constant supply of fuel from an external source
• Rechargeable batteries are far cheaper than fuel
cells.
Comparison
FUEL CELL vs RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES
DIFFERENCIES
• Fuel cells are capable of generating a far greater
quantity of electricity than rechargeable batteries
because the fuel is supplied constantly.
• Fuel cells are non-polluting – hydrogen fuel cells
produce water as the only product; rechargeable
batteries may contain toxic metals (Cd, Pb) so
are difficult to dispose of.
Comparison
FUEL CELL vs RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES
DIFFERENCIES
• Fuel cells can produce drinkable water as a
byproduct; there is no byproduct of rechargeable
batteries.
• Rechargeable batteries can only be recharged
so many times – they have a finite life and must
be replaced eventually; fuel cells have much
better longevity.
Comparison
CELL MASS/SIZE VOLTAGE
TYPE
Fuel cells • Can be made in a variety of sizes. • Typically about
• Fuel cell stacks used to power buses are 0.6–0.8 V but
quite large and heavy, but small fuel depends on the
cells have been developed for laptops type of fuel cell.
etc. • Used in a stack
• Some fuel cells have a very high power- with multiple fuel
to-mass ratio and high power-to-volume cells connected in
ratio. series.
Lead–acid • Large and heavy – not suitable for • 2 V per cell –
batteries portable devices. usually used as a
• Low power-to-mass ratio and power-to- • battery with six
volume ratio. cells in series
Comparison
CELL MASS/SIZE VOLTAGE
TYPE
Nickel– • Small and light – used in a • 1.2 V
cadmium variety of portable devices.
batteries • Intermediate power-to-mass ratio
and power-to-volume ratio.
Lithium- • Small and light – used in a • About 3.7 V –
ion variety of portable devices. the highest
batteries • Produce the greatest amount of voltage per cell.
power per unit mass or unit
volume of the rechargeable
batteries.