PROBLEM SOLVING
AND REASONING
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is the process of
reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples.
The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next
number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
•Example:
Predict the next number
Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
Predict the next number
The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than
the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next
number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
We can use Inductive Reasoning to make a conjecture
Example:
Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Suppose we pick 5 as our Suppose we pick 6 as our Suppose we pick 10 as our
original number. Then the original number. Then the original number. Then the
procedure would produce procedure would produce procedure would produce
the following results: the following results: the following results:
Original number: Original number: Original number:
Multiply by 8: Multiply by 8: Multiply by 8:
Add 6: Add 6: Add 6:
Divide by 2: Divide by 2: Divide by 2:
Subtract 3: Subtract 3: Subtract 3:
We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.
COUNTEREXAMPLES
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true
in all cases. If you can find one case for which a
statement is not true, called a counterexample, then
the statement is a false statement.
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement
by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers For all numbers For all numbers
Counterexample: Counterexample: Counterexample:
Let . Then For we have Since is not greater Consider . Then . Since 3 is not
Because is not greater We found a than , we have found a equal to , we have found a
counterexample. counterexample. counterexample. Thus, “for all
Therefore, the statement that “for Thus “for all numbers ” is a false numbers ,” is a false statement
all numbers , ” statement.
is false.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive reasoning is the process of
reaching a conclusion by applying
general assumptions, procedures, or
principles.
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Let represent the original number.
Multiply by 8:
Add 6:
Divide by 2:
Subtract 3:
Westarted with and ended with . The procedure given in this example produces a
number that is four times the original number.
INDUCTIVE REASONING VS. DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
•Determine
whether each of the following arguments is an
example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past years, a tree has produced plums every other INDUCTIVE
year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the REASONING
tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The DEDUCTIVE
contractor estimated that my home improvement will cost PHP. REASONING
Thus my home improvement will cost more than PHP.
INDUCTIVE REASONING VS. DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an
example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
c. Emma enjoyed reading the novel Under the Dome by INDUCTIVE
REASONING
Stephen King, so she will enjoy reading his next novel.
d. Every English setter likes to hunt. Duke is an English setter, DEDUCTIVE
so Duke likes to hunt. REASONING
LOGIC PUZZLES
Logic puzzles can be solved by using
deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us
to display the given information in a visual
manner.
LOGIC PUZZLES
•Example
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different
occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues,
determine the occupation of each neighbor.
Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
The banker lives next door to Brian.
Example
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the
following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
The banker lives next door to Brian.
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.
LOGIC PUZZLES
Example 2.
Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers
(president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the sophomore class at Summit
College. From the following clues, determine which position each hold.
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest
members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
1. Ashley is younger than the president
but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both
the same age, and they are the youngest
members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door
neighbors.
KENKEN® PUZZLES
• KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the
Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun
“ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen
translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
• In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased at a dramatic rate.
More than a million KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and KenKen
puzzles now appear in many popular newspapers, including the New York
Times and the Boston Globe. KenKen puzzles are like Sudoku puzzles,
but they also require you to perform arithmetic to solve the puzzle.
KENKEN® PUZZLES
KENKEN® PUZZLES
KENKEN® PUZZLES
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies
• Single-Square Cages Fill cages that consist of a single square with the
target number for that square.
• Cages with Two Squares Next examine the cages with exactly two
squares. Many cages that cover two squares will only have two digits
that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, in a 5 by 5 puzzle, a 20×
cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 4 and 5 or 5 and 4.
• Large or Small Target Numbers Search for cages that have an unusually
large or small target number. These cages generally have only a few
combinations of numbers that can be used to fill the cage.
KENKEN® PUZZLES
•In aby puzzle, a cage with exactly three squares can only be filled
with and . A cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with
and .
Duplicate Digit in a Cage
Consider the 3× cage shown at the left. The digits 1, 1, and 3 produce
a product of 3; however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row
or the same column. Thus, the only way to fill the squares is to place
the 3 in the corner of the L-shaped cage as shown below. Remember:
A digit can occur more than once in a cage, if it does not appear in
the same row or in the same column.
KENKEN® PUZZLES
•
Remember the Following Rules
In an by puzzle, each row and column must contain every digit from
to .
In a two-square cage that involves subtraction or division, the order of
the numbers in the cage is not important. For instance, a cage with
two squares could be filled with and or with and . A cage with two
squares could be filled with and or with and .
KENKEN® PUZZLES
Make a List of Possible Digits
For each cage, make a list of digits, with no regard to order, that can be used to fill the cage. See
the following examples.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
STRATEGIES
George
George Polya
Polya After
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stay at
at Brown
Brown University,
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George
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moved to to Stanford
Stanford University
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his retirement.
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number of of articles
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outlines aa strategy
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solving
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from virtually
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discipline.
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problem. YourYour problem
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and ifif you
you solve
solve itit by
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enjoy the
the
triumph
triumph ofof discovery.”
discovery.”
POLYA’S PROBLEM-SOLVING
STRATEGY
1.Understand the problem.
2.Devise a plan.
3.Carry out the plan.
4.Review the Solution.
UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a
clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the
problem, consider the following questions.
■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the
problem?
■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
■ What is the goal?
DEVISE A PLAN
Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a
problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
■ Make a list of the known ■ Try to solve a similar but simpler
information. problem.
■ Make a list of information that is ■ Look for a pattern.
needed. ■ Write an equation. If necessary, define
■ Draw a diagram. what each variable represents.
■ Make an organized list that shows ■ Perform an experiment.
all the possibilities. ■ Guess at a solution and then check
■ Make a table or a chart. your result.
■ Work backwards.
CARRY OUT THE PLAN
Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
■ Work carefully.
■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may
have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.
REVIEW THE SOLUTION
Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could
apply to other problems.
Example 1
Consider the map shown in the figure below. Allison wishes to walk along the streets
from point A to point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?
Figure 1
Solution
Understand the Problem
We would not be able to answer the question if Allison retraced
her path or traveled away from point B. Thus we assume that on a
direct route, she always travels along a street in a direction that
gets her closer to point B.
Solution
Devise a Plan
The map in Figure 1 has many extraneous details. Thus we make a diagram that
allows us to concentrate on the essential information. See the figure at the left. Because there
are many routes, we consider the similar but simpler diagrams shown below. The number
at each street intersection represents the number of routes from point A to that particular
intersection.
Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to an intersection is the
sum of the number of routes to the adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above. For instance, the number of routes to the intersection labeled 6 is
the sum of the number of routes to the intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of
routes to the intersection directly above, which is also 3.
Solution
Carry Out the Plan
Using the pattern discovered above, we see from the figure at the left
that the number of routes from point A to point B is 20+15=35.
Review the Solution
Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems reasonable. If you were required to
draw each route, could you devise a scheme that would enable you to draw
each route without missing a route or duplicating a route?
Example 2
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In
how many different orders could they have two wins and
two losses in four games?
Solution
Understand the Problem
There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games and lost the
last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last two
(LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a Plan
We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is
a list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different
orders will be listed once and only once.
Solution
Carry Out the Plan
Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a strategy that makes sure each order
is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will produce
too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then and only
then do we write an L. This strategy produces the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)
Solution
Review the Solution
We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different
orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.
Example 3
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is
4590. None of the teens are the same age. What are the
ages of the teenagers?
Solution
Understand the Problem
We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that
have a product of 4590.
Devise a Plan
If we represent the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590. We are unable to solve this
equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor
of 5, which means that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at
least one number must have 5 as a factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor
is 15. Thus 15 is one of the numbers, and at least one of the other numbers must be an
even number. At this point we try to solve by guessing and checking.
Solution
•
Carry Out the Plan
151618 = 4320 No. This product is too small.
151619 = 4560 No. This product is too small.
151718 = 4590 Yes. This is the correct product.
The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.
Review the Solution
Because 151718 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a teenager, we know our solution is
correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
Example 4
A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90
more than the hat. What are the cost of the hat and the cost
of the jacket?
Solution
•Understand
the Problem
After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that the jacket costs $90
and the hat costs $10. The sum of these costs is $100, but the cost of the jacket is
only $80 more than the cost of the hat. We need to find two dollar amounts that
differ by $90 and whose sum is $100.
Devise a Plan
Write an equation using for the cost of the hat and for the cost
of the jacket.
Solution
•
Carry Out the Plan
Solve the above equation for .
Collect like terms.
Solve for h.
The cost of the hat is $5 and the cost of the jacket is $90+$5=$95.
Review the Solution
The sum of the costs is $5+$95=$100, and the cost of the jacket is $90 more than the cost of the hat. This
check confirms that the hat costs $5 and the jacket costs $95.
