Construction Problems

Basic Construction
Problems
1. Construction Labor
Productivity

ARCANGEL, ARIES
BENAWE, JOHN RAY
 ABSTRACT
 In construction industry labor cost 30 to 50% of total cost of the The objective of this paper is to explore the different mathematical tools applied in various areas of engineering and
science. With the increasing complexity of engineering problems, Laplace transform, Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors and Fourier Series are the simple approaches to solve complex problems
like beam deflection and natural frequency of the bridge and bending of beams These mathematical methodologies will be elaborated through different engineering applications. It will
discuss the application technique topics on Advance Engineering Mathematics in the field of Civil Engineering.
 KEYWORDS

Laplace Transform

Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors

Fourier Series

Advance Engineering Mathematics

 INTRODUCTION
Laplace transform, Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors and Fourier Series
methods have key roles in the modern approach as to the analysis
and design of engineering systems such on Strength of Materials
which establishes the relationships between the external forces,
acting on an elastic body, and the internal forces and deformations
which result from these external forces. These will be a stimulus in
developing a method for the systematic solution of ordinary
differential equations with constant coefficients, as it enables
different applications to solve linear differential equations with given
initial conditions by using algebraic methods.
 INTRODUCTION
The concepts of these method are applied in area of Science and
Technology such as electric analysis, communication engineering,
control engineering, linear system analysis, statistics optics, quantum
physics and structural engineering. In solving problems relating to
different engineering fields, one usually encounters problems on time
invariant, differential equations, time frequency domain for non-
periodic wave forms. This paper provides the reader the
fundamentals on structural engineering and gain an understanding of
some of the very important and basic applications to engineering
field and application problems.
APPLICATIONS OF
ADVANCED
ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
One application of the Laplace transform method in Civil Engineering
in computation for the deflection of structural elements like columns,
beams, and slabs. An example is finding the induced deflection
function y(x) of a cantilever beam by a uniform distributed load with
intensity w0 on half of the beam span as illustrated in figure 1.
Laplace transform method combined with a step function for the
loading situation is a viable alternative method in solving this
problem.
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Figure 1. A cantilever beam subjected to uniformly distributed load

The applied loading function for;

W(x) 0≤x≤L/2
0 L/2 ≤x≤L
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
The Euler-Bernoulli equation describes the relationship between the
applied load and the resulting deflection of the beam and is shown
mathematically and simplified as:
y””=W(x)/EI Eq.1
with the following boundary conditions:
y(0)= 0 slope deflection at x=0 (a.1)
y’(0)=0 zero slope at x=0 (a.2)
y’’(L)=0 zero moment at free end (a.3)
y”’(L)=0 zero shear at free end (a.4)
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Where W is the distributed loading or force per unit length acting in
the same direction as y and the deflection of the beam Δ(x) at some
position x. E is the modulus of elasticity of the material under
consideration and I is the second moment of area calculated with
respect to the axis which passes through the centroid of the cross-
section and is perpendicular to the applied load.
We thus need to derive the form of eq. 1 from the variable range (0,
L) to the domain (0,∞) in order to use the Laplace transform method
for solving eq. 1
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•W(x)=
  Wo [u(x)- u(x-L/2 )] with 0≤x≤∞ Eq. 2
y””=W_o/EI [u(x)- u(x-L/2 )] Eq. 3
Applying the Laplace transform in Eq.3, we will get the following expression:
S4 Y(s)-S3 y(0)-S2y’(0)-Sy”(0)-y”’(0)=() Eq.4
Y(s)=
Y(s)= ++ (1-
=. ++
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•y(x)=
  ++ Eq. 5
The unit step function appears in the equation will result in the following
solution in the two separate portions in the following expressions:
y(x)= + + for 0 ≤ x ≤ L/2 Eq. 6
y(x)= + + for x > L/2 Eq. 7
and in the solutions can be solved by the unused boundary conditions a.3 and a.4
Solving for and
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•at  x=L y’’(L)=0 y’’’(L)= 0
y(x)= + +
y'(x)= + +
y’’(x)= + +
y’’’(x)= 0+ +
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•y’’’(x)=
  +
y’’’(L)= 0
0= +
0= +
Eq. 8
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•y’’(L)=
  0
0= + +
0= - +

Eq. 9
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•Inserting
  the equations 8 and 9 to the equations 6 and 7, the expression for the
deflection of the beam y(x) will be:
y(x)= + for 0 ≤ x ≤ L/2
y(x)= +
y(x)= for 0 ≤ x ≤ L/2 Eq. 10
y(x)= + for x > L/2
y(x)= for x > L/2 Eq. 11
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Example:
A 10KN/m uniformly distributed load is applied from the fixed support to the
midspan of a 10-meter long cantilever beam. E= 69 GPa and I= 14.0625 x 106
mm4. Determine the deflections at:
a) 2.5 meters from the fixed support
b) The free end of the beam
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•a.)  x=2.5m , W= 10KN/m, E=69 GPa, I= 14.0625 x 106 mm4
W= 10,000 N/m
I= 1.40625 x10-5 m4

y(x)= for 0 ≤ 2.5 ≤ 5

y(2.5)=
y(2.5)= 0.285 m or 285 mm
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
•b.)  x=10 , W= 10KN/m, E=69 GPa, I= 14.0625 x 106 mm4
W= 10,000 N/m
I= 1.40625 x10-5 m4
 
y(x)= for 10 > 5
y(10)=
y(10)=1.88 m or 1878.7mm
 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
Eigenvectors are vectors which have undergone transformation in
terms of their magnitude without changing their direction. This
results to the new vector being parallel to the original vector. The
scalar value being multiplied in order to achieve this transformation
is called the eigenvalue. Eigenvalue tells whether the special vector is
stretched, shrunk, reversed, or left unchanged.
In Civil Engineering, Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors can be used in
order to calculate for the natural frequency of various structures such
as buildings and bridges.
 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
One example is for the calculation of the error in the design of
Tacoma Narrows bridge. Tacoma Narrows bridge was built on July 1,
1940 located at Washington State connecting the cities of Tacoma and
Kitsap Peninsula. Unfortunately, it collapsed just four months after it
was built due to a wind of 42 miles per hour. The bridge failed
because the engineers was unable to successfully factor the
importance of incorporating the aerodynamics into the bridge design.
Experts claimed that the collapse was due to wind induced
resonance. The wind amplified the natural vibrating frequency of the
bridge and become too close to the designed natural frequency of it.
 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
Here is when applying the concept of Eigenvectors is beneficial to
Civil Engineering, because the natural frequency of the bridge is
described by the eigenvalue of the smallest magnitude. This is one of
the reasons why eigenvalues are crucial to engineers in order to
prevent disasters. Because eigenvector is independent of direction
the value remains the same for when the oscillation amplifies.
 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
•Equation
  for natural frequencies that must be solved:
 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
•Calculation
  will be made as follows:
Finding the 2nd derivative of {u}

Plugging and {u} into equation 1

 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
•Multiplying
  [M] by inverse:

Equating the det to zero, in order to get the non-trivial solution for
 EIGENVALUES AND
EIGENVECTORS
•The
  determinant is 0 only at a certain set of eigenvalues . There is an
eigenvector , which satisfies equation 2 and corresponds to each eigenvalue.

Each eigenvalue and eigenvector define a free vibration mode of the structure.
The ith eigenvalue is related to the ith natural frequency as follows:
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•  An easy example to illustrate the method of Fourier Series takes a
simple beam with uniform cross section under the simultaneous
action of axial tension and lateral load (Fig. 1). Denoting by EI the
flexural rigidity, by N the axial tension and by p(x) the lateral
distributing load, the differential equation of the deflection curve is
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•The
  deflection curve in this case can be represented in the form of a sine series:
Eqn. 1
Each term of the series satisfies the end conditions, since each term, together
with its second derivative, becomes zero at the ends of beam. Thus, deflections
of the beam and the bending moments at the ends are equal zero.
The second & fourth derivatives of y with respect to x are, respectively,
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•Substituting
  these values in Eq. (1) and performing the Fourier sine
transformation, the following equation is obtained.

Taking into account that and

An equation for determining the coefficient is found as follows:
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•Substituting
  such expressions, one gets the deflection curve:
Eqn. 1
In the particular case of a uniform load applied at the rate of p per unit length
run over from

And thus, the deflection curve is presented as,

FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
• 
Fig. 2

And the bending moment of the beam is obtained by differentiating the above
equation. Thus,
Eqn. 1
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•To  calculate the infinite series itself, this calculation may be performed as follows,
giving quite the same results as in the ordinary calculation of the differential
equation.
*Putting w=0 in the obtained deflection curve (Eq. 3) we attain,

In Equation,
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•which
  is recognized by expanding in a Fourier sine series. Therefore, it is seen
that the deflection is represented by:
Eqn. 5
Again, the deflection at the middle of the same beam which is
Using the relation
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
•It  follows that
Eqn. 6
In the same manner all the results represented in the form of the series,
concerned with the bending of the various kinds of beam with uniform cross
section having only a lateral load, can be reduced to the algebraic functions using
the following relations:
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
FOURIER SERIES IN THE BENDING
OF BEAM
 CONCLUSION
Advanced Engineering Mathematics has wide applications in the field
of civil engineering and has a great impact in our lives. Advance
Engineering Mathematics is a very effective tool to simplify very
complex problems.
Through this paper we were able to present Laplace Transform in
solving beam deflection from different locations. Major properties of
Laplace Transform and a few special functions such as Unit Step
Function were able to aid us in solving beam deflection. It goes
without saying that Laplace Transform is put to great use in civil
engineering computations.
 CONCLUSION
By the means of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, we are able to
identify the natural frequency that was missed on analyzing the
Tacoma Narrows Bridge. With the derivation of natural frequency
equation, it will help to avert any disaster that may result in future
bridges design.
The Fourier Series also gave us a way in computing the deflection of
a uniform cross-section beam under several loads and stresses. The
Fourier Series provides an easeful method of solving the beam
deflection with the consideration of all necessary factors and
scenarios. This paper shows as that the Fourier Series can be applied
in the civil engineering field.
 CONCLUSION
The researchers therefore conclude that the Advance Engineering
Mathematics is viable in many fields of specialties especially civil
engineering. Through the continuous research and studies and with
the help of advance computer aided programs, we will be able to
maximize its potential that will make our lives easier. It goes without
saying that Advance Engineering Mathematics is put to tremendous
use not just in civil engineering field but also in other field of
specialties.
 RECOMMENDATIONS
Advanced Engineering Mathematics has still a lot of varieties to be
explored. Few examples are in the field of Mechanical Engineering
with regards to thermodynamics, heat transfer and energy
conversions. In the field of Electronics Engineering, the use of vector
analysis for the study of electro magnets can be explored.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We hereby take the opportunity to thank everyone who helped in
making this paper. Our professor DR. AZUCENA A. PUERTOLLANO for
guidance and support.
 REFERENCES
 “Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (Tacoma Narrows Bridge Video Included)."
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (Tacoma Narrows Bridge Video Included). N.p., n.d.
Web. 18 Apr. 2013. <http://www.slideshare.net/pgeorge3/feb10-5293671>.
 Kaur, A. (2019). A Role of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors in Engineering. Journal of
Analysis and Computation (JAC), XII(I). Retrieved from
http://www.ijaconline.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/10-Reena-Antal.pdf
 Uma, S. (2017). Fourier Transforms and its Applications in Engineering Field.
International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and
Technology (IJIRSET), VI(VI). Retrieved from
http://www.ijirset.com/upload/2017/june/24_Fourier%20Transforms.pdf