Engineering Ethics

Lecture 2

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 Objectives
Moral Reasoning:
Moral Choices and Ethical Dilemmas;
Steps in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas;
Right-Wrong or Better-Worse?
Moral Decision Making as Design;

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 Moral Choices and Ethical Dilemmas
Ethical (or moral) dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into
conflict, or in which the applications of moral values are unclear, and it is not
immediately obvious what should be done.
Ethical dilemmas arise in engineering, as elsewhere, because moral values are
many and varied and can make competing claims. Yet, although moral dilemmas
comprise the most difficult occasions for moral reasoning, they constitute a
relatively small percentage of moral choices, that is, decisions involving moral
values.
The vast majority of moral choices are clear-cut, although we sometimes fail to
act responsibly because of negligence and weakness of will.

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 Designing Aluminium Cans
The first aluminium can was designed in 1958 by Kaiser Aluminium, in the attempt to
improve on heavier and more expensive tin cans.
Aluminium proved ideal as a lightweight, flexible material that allowed manufacturing
of the bottom and sides of the can from a single sheet, leaving the top to be added after
the can was filled.
The first aluminium cans, like the tin cans before them, were opened with a separate
opener, which required additional manufacturing costs to make them readily available to
consumers.
In 1959, Ermal Fraze, in 1959, who owned Dayton Reliable Tool and Manufacturing
Company and was hence familiar with metal, envisioned a design for a small lever that
was attached to the can but which was removed as the can opened.
The idea proved workable and was quickly embraced by manufacturers. Gradual
improvements were made over subsequent years to ensure easy opening and prevention
of lip and nose injuries from the jagged edges of the opening.
Within a decade an unanticipated crisis arose, however, creating an ethical dilemma.
Fraze had not thought through the implications of billions of discarded pull tabs causing
pollution, foot injuries, and harm to fish and infants who ingested them.
The dilemma was what to do to balance usefulness to consumers with protection
of the environment.
In 1976 Daniel F. Cudzik invented a simple, stay-attached opener of the sort familiar
today.
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 Steps in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas
1. Moral clarity: Identify the relevant moral values.
2. Conceptual clarity: Be clear about key concepts.
3. Informed about the facts: Obtain relevant information.
4. Informed about the options: Consider all (realistic) options.
5. Well-reasoned: Make a reasonable decision. Arrive at a carefully reasoned
judgment by weighing all the relevant moral reasons and facts.

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 Moral Decision Making as Design
John Dewey (1859–1952) used engineering as a metaphor for thinking about moral
reasoning in general.
Caroline Whitbeck suggests that engineering design is in many respects a model for
“designing” courses of action in many moral situations, in engineering and elsewhere.
Whitbeck identifies five aspects of engineering decisions that highlight important
aspects of many moral decisions in general.

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 Moral Decision Making as Design
First, usually there are alternative solutions to design problems, more than one of
which is satisfactory or “satisfices.”
Second, multiple moral factors are involved, and among the satisfactory solutions
for design problems, one solution is typically better in some respects and less
satisfactory in other respects when compared with alternative solutions. No design is
ideal in every regard, and each had strengths and weaknesses.
Third, some design solutions are clearly unacceptable. In general, there are many
“background constraints,” for example justice and decency, which limit the range of
reasonable moral options.
Fourth, engineering design often involves uncertainties and ambiguities, not only
about what is possible and how to achieve it, but also about the specific problems
that will arise as solutions are developed.
Finally, design problems are dynamic. In the real world the design of any
engineering problem would go through much iteration, as feedback was received
from testing and application.

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 Resolving Moral Dilemmas

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 Ethical Cycle

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 Resolving Moral Dilemmas: Case Study
Engineer A is employed by a software company and is involved in the design of
specialized software in connection with the operations of facilities affecting the public
health and safety (i.e., nuclear, air quality control, water quality control). As part of
the design of a particular software system, Engineer A conducts extensive testing,
and although the tests demonstrate that the software is safe to use under existing
standards, Engineer A is aware of new draft standards that are about to be released
by a standard setting organization—standards which the newly designed software
may not meet. Testing is extremely costly and the company’s clients are eager to
begin to move forward. The software company is eager to satisfy its clients, protect
the software company’s finances, and protect existing jobs; but at the same time, the
management of the software company wants to be sure that the software is safe to
use. A series of tests proposed by Engineer A will likely result in a decision whether
to move forward with the use of the software. The tests are costly and will delay the
use of the software at least six months, which will put the company at a competitive
disadvantage and cost the company a significant amount of money. Also, delaying
implementation will mean the state public service commission utility rates will rise
significantly during this time. The company requests Engineer A’s recommendation
concerning the need for additional software testing.

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 Analyzing the Case

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 Analyzing the Case

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 Analyzing the Case

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 Analyzing the Case

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 Resolving moral dilemmas: Line Drawing

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 Line Drawing: Case Study

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 Line Drawing: Case Study

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 Line Drawing: Case Study

Although Victor’s acceptance of the voucher might not constitute a paradigm

instance of a bribery, the table suggests that it comes close enough to the
paradigmatic case to raise a real worry. In looking at the various features, it is
important to bear in mind just what is worrisome about bribery. Basically, bribery
offers incentives to persuade someone to violate his or her responsibilities—in
this case, Victor’s responsibility to exercise good judgment in behalf of his
company. Here, the worry is more about future decisions he might make rather
than the one he has already made, but it is a real worry nevertheless. In any
case, assessing the bribe requires more than determining where on the scale
the various factors fall. The importance of each factor in particular cases must
be weighted. Those two or three features that are judged most important in a
particular case can be identified. (For example, in this table, the X’s for gift size,
timing, and responsibility might be highlighted.)

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