CCE 490 – A

Engineering Ethics
CHAPTER 4 –ETHICAL PROBLEM -SOLVING TECHNIQUES

Michel Owayjan CCE 490 - A: ENGINEERING ETHICS 1

Objectives
Apply ethical problem solving methods to hypothetical and real cases
See how flow charting can be used to solve ethical problems
Learn what bribery is and how to avoid it.

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Electric Power Lines and Cancer

Is living next to electric power lines a cause of cancer?

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Introduction
In early 1990s, newspapers began to report on studies indicating that living near electrical-power
distribution systems leads to an increased risk of cancer especially in children. The risk was attributed to
the effects of the weak, low frequency magnetic fields present near such systems. Further reports
indicated that there might also be some risk associated with the use of common household items such as
electric blankets and clock radios.
Many studies were performed to verify these results. Power companies began to look into methods for
reducing the fields, and many engineers sought ways to design products that emitted reduced amounts of
this radiation.
In designing products and processes, engineers frequently encounter scenarios like the one just described.
Nearly everything an engineer designs has some health or safety risk associated with it.
How then does an engineer decide whether it is ethical to work on a particular product or process? What
tools are there for an engineer who needs to decide which is ethically correct path to take?
In this chapter analysis and problem-solving strategies will be developed to help answer these questions

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Introduction
In solving engineering problems, it is always tempting to look for an appropriate formula, plug
in the numbers, and calculate an answer. This kind of engineering problem-solving approach is
less useful for ethical solving-problems
There are theories that help us to frame our understanding of the problem, but there are no
formulas and no easy methods for reaching a solution.
Here methods for analyzing ethical problems and how to apply them will be examined. The kind
of these problems that are encountered by practicing engineers are unclear, and involving
conflicting moral principles which are not easily solved.

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Analysis of Issues in Ethical
Problems
A first step in solving any ethical problem is to completely understand all of the issues involved.
Once these issues are determined, frequently a solution to the problem becomes apparent. The
issues in understanding ethical problems can be split into three categories:
• factual
• conceptual
• and moral
Understanding these issues helps to put an ethical problem
in the proper framework and often helps point the way to
a solution.

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Factual
Factual issues involve what is actually known about a case: i.e. what the facts are.
The fact of a particular case are not always clear and may be controversial. As example for this
case is the abortion rights.
There is great disagreement over the point at which life begins and at which point a fetus can be
legally protected. The original decision legalizing abortion in USA, was decided by the Supreme
Court in a split decision. Even the justice of the supreme Court were unable to agree on this fact.

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Factual
In engineering, there are controversies over facts as well. For example : global warming is of
great concern to society as we continue to emit greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, also
emissions from automobiles and plants increase the carbon dioxide concentration in the
atmosphere. This issue is of great importance to engineers, since they might be required to
design new products or redesign old ones to comply with stricter environmental standards if this
warming effect indeed proves to be a problem. However, the global warming process is only
barely understood, and the need to curtail emission of these gases is a controversial topic . If it
were known exactly what the effects of emitting greenhouse gases into the atmosphere would
be, the engineer’s role in reducing this problem would be clearer.

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Conceptual
Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning or applicability of an idea. In engineering ethics,
this might mean defining what constitutes a bribe as opposed to an acceptable gift.
In the case of the bribe , the value of the gift is probably a well known fact. What isn’t known is
whether accepting it will lead to unfair influence on a business decision. For example,
conceptually it must be determined if the gift of tickets to a sporting event by a potential
supplier of parts for your project is meant to influence your decision or is just a nice gesture
between friends. Of course, like factual issues, conceptual issues are not always clear-cut and
will often result in controversy as well.

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Moral
Once the factual and conceptual issues have been resolved, all that remains is to determine
which moral principle is applicable to the situation. Resolution of moral issues is often more
obvious. Once the problem is defined, it is usually clear which moral concept applies, and the
correct decision becomes obvious.
In our example of a “gift” offered by a sales representative, once it is determined whether it is
simply a gift or is really a bribe, then the appropriate action is obvious. If we determine what is
indeed a bribe, then it cannot ethically be accepted.

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Controversies
Given that the issues surrounding an ethical problem can be controversial, how can these
controversies be resolved?
Factual issues can often be resolved through research to establish the truth. It is not always
possible to achieve a final determination of the truth that every one can agree on, but generally
further research helps clarify the situation, can increase the area of agreement.
Conceptual issues are resolved by agreeing on the meaning of terms and concepts. Sometimes
agreement is not possible , but further analysis of the concepts at least clarifies some of the
issues and helps to facilitate agreement.
Finally, moral issues are resolved by agreement as to which moral principles are pertinent and
how they should be applied.

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Case Study: Paradyne Computers
Paradyne a computer Co., bid to supply the Social Security Administration a new computer
systems.
We will look at the factual issues first: Paradyne did not have any such system running and had
never tested the operating system on the product they actually proposed to sell to the Social
Security Administration (SSA). The employment of a former SSA worker by Paradyne to help
lobby SSA for the contract is also clear. In this case, the factual issues do not appear particular
controversial.

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Case Study: Paradyne Computers
The conceptual issues involve whether bidding to provide an off-the-shelf product when the
actual product is only in the planning stages is lying or is an acceptable business practice. Is
placing a Paradyne label over the real manufacturer’s label deceptive? Does lobbying your
former employer on behalf of your current employer constitute a conflict of interest? Indeed
Paradyne asserted that it had done nothing wrong and was simply engaging in common
business practices. The issue of the conflict of interest is so hard to decide that laws have been
enacted making it illegal for workers who have left government employ to lobby their former
employers for specified periods of time.

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Case Study: Paradyne Computers
The moral issues then include the following: Is lying an acceptable business practice? Is it alright
to be deceptive if doing s allows your company to get a contract? The answers to these
questions are obvious: Lying and deceit are no more acceptable in your business life than in your
personal life. So, if conceptually we decide that Paradyne ‘s practices were deceptive, then our
analysis indicates that their actions were unethical.

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Line Drawing Technique
Line drawing technique is especially useful for situations in which the applicable moral principles
are clear, but there seems to be a great deal about ethical principle applies.
Line drawing is performed by drawing a line along which various examples and hypothetical
situations are placed. At one end is placed the “positive paradigm”, an example of something
that is unambiguously morally acceptable. At the other end, the negative paradigm, “ an
example of something that is unambiguously not morally acceptable, is placed. In between is
placed the problem under consideration, along with other similar examples. Those examples
that more closely conform to the positive paradigm are placed near it, and examples closer to
the negative paradigm are placed near that paradigm.
By carefully examining this continuum and placing the moral problem under consideration in the
appropriate place along the line, it is possible to determine whether the problem is more like
the positive or negative paradigm and therefore whether it is acceptable or unacceptable.

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Line Drawing Technique
Example:
A company would like to dispose of a slightly toxic waste by dumping it into a local lake from
which a nearby town gets its drinking water. The research shows that with the amount of waste
planed to put into the lake will be 5 parts per million (ppm). The EPA limit for this material has
been at 10 ppm. At the 5 ppm, no health problem is expected, and consumer would not be able
to detect the compound in their drinking water.

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Line Drawing Technique
Positive Paradigm: The water supply for the town should be clean and safe.
Negative Paradigm: Toxics levels of waste are put into the lake
Let us start by drawing a line and placing the positive and negative paradigms on it:
Negative paradigm (NP) Positive paradigm (PP)

Dump toxics level Water should be

of waste in lake clean and safe

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Line Drawing Technique
Negative paradigm (NP) Positive paradigm (PP)

Dump toxics level Water should be

of waste in lake clean and safe
Now let’s establish some other hypothetical examples for consideration:
1. The company dumps the chemical into the lake. At 5 ppm, the chemical will be harmless, but
the town’s water will have an unusual taste.
2. The chemical can be removed by the town with new equipment that will be purchased by
the company.

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Line Drawing Technique
3. The chemical can be effectively removed by the town’s existing water treatment system.
4. The chemical can be removed by the town with new equipment for which the taxpayer will
pay.
5. Occasionally, exposure to the chemical can make people feel ill, but this only lasts for an hour
and is rare.
6. At 5 ppm, some people can get fairly sick, but the sickness only lasts a week, and there is no
long-term harm.
7. Equipment can be installed at the plant to further reduce the waste level to 1 ppm.

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Line Drawing Technique
Now let’s complete the exercise by placement of the problem along the line

NP PP

6 5 4 1 P 7 2.3

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Line Drawing Technique
As drawn above, it is clear that dumping the toxic waste is probably a morally acceptable choice,
since no humans will be harmed and the waste levels will be well below those that could cause
any harm. However, since it is somewhat far from the positive paradigm, there are probably
better choices that can be made, and the company investigate these alternatives.
It should be noted that although this action seems ethically acceptable, there are many
considerations that might be factored into the final decision (political aspects). A choice that
appears morally acceptable still might not be the best choice when politics and community
relations are considered as well.
Line drawing is only effective if it is used objectively and honestly. The choice where to put the
examples and how to define the paradigm is up to us. We can reach false conclusions by using
incorrect paradigm, by dishonest placement of the examples along the line, and by dishonest
placement of the problem with the examples.

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Line Drawing Technique: Pentium
Chip
In 1994-95, it was discovered and widely reported that the latest version of the Intel Pentium
Chip had flaws. Intel sought to hide this information, but later came to a policy of offering
consumers chips in which the flaw had been corrected.
We can use line drawing to get some insight into this problem:
Negative paradigm (NP) Positive paradigm

P 5 2 3 1.4
Sell defective Products should
products be as advertised

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Line Drawing Technique: Pentium
Chip
1. There is a flaw in the chip, but it truly is undetectable and won’t affect any customer’s
application
2. There flaws in the chip, the customer is informed of them, but no help is offered.
3. A warning label says that the chip should not be used for certain applications.
4. Recall notices are sent out, and all flawed chips are replaced.
5. Replacement chips are offered only if the customer notices the problem.
Our situation: there is a flaw, customers are not informed, and the magnitude of the problem is
minimized- fit on this line. The one possible analysis is described above. According to this line-
drawing analysis, the approach taken by Intel in this case was not the best ethical choice.

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Flowcharting Technique
In engineering ethics, flow charting will be helpful for analyzing a variety of cases, especially
those in which there is a sequence of events t o be considered or a series of consequences that
flows from each decision. An advantage of using a flow chart to analyze ethical problems is that it
gives a visual picture of a situation and allows to reality see the consequences that flow from
each decision.
As with the line drawing technique, there is no unique flow chart that is applicable to a given
problem.
This technique can be illustrated by applying a simple flow chart to a disaster that happened at
Union’s Carbide Bhopal, where MIC, a toxic substance, was mixed with water, creating toxic
fumes.

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Flowcharting Technique
One possible flow chart, illustrated in the next slide, deals with the decision-making process that
might have gone on at Union Carbide. This chart emphasizes safety issues for the surrounding
community. As indicated on the chart, there were several paths that might been have taken and
multiple decisions that had to be made. The flow chart helps to visualize the consequences of
each decision and indicates both the ethical and unethical choices.

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 Union Carbide
would like to build
plant in Bhopal

Are safety
laws in India Design plant
as strict as in as in US
USA

Are local
laws
Design according to local
adequate for
safe standards
operations

Decide on minimal standards Build plant anywhere and

that will ensure local safety assume risk

Is this cost
effective Build plant

Invest elsewhere

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Conflict Problems
An area of ethical problem solving presents us with a choice between two conflicting moral
values, each of which seems to be correct. How do we make the correct choice in this situation?
Conflict problems can be solved in three ways.
Often, there are conflicting moral choices, but one is obviously more significant than the other.
For example protecting the health and safety of the public is more important than your duty to
your employer.
A second solution is sometimes called the ”creative middle way”. This solution is a kind of
compromise that will work for everyone. It is to create a middle ground that is acceptable to
every one and it needs a great deal of diplomacy to sell it to everyone.
Finally, when there is no easy choice and attempts to find a middle ground are not successful, all
that is le t is to make the hard choice . Frequently, you must rely on “gut feelings” for which path
is the correct one.
Bribery/Acceptance of Gifts
One of the many gray areas of engineering ethics is the acceptance of gifts from vendors or the
offering of gifts to customers to secure business. The difficulty here comes because of the
potential for gifts to become bribes or to be perceived of as bribes.
In this section we will look at what bribery is and see how some of problem-solving techniques
developed can be used to decide when a gift is really a bribe.
Bribery is illegal everywhere in the world. There are some places where bribery may be
overlooked, or even expected, but always takes place “under the table” and is never a legitimate
business practice. In many cases, there is a fine line between bribery and a simple gift.
Sometimes, the distinction has to do with the value of the gift.
Bribery/Acceptance of Gifts
By definition, a bribe is something, such as money or a favor, offered or given to someone in a
position of trust in order to induce him to act dishonestly. It is something offered or serving to
influence or persuade.
What are the ethical reasons for not tolerating bribery?
First bribery corrupts our free-market economic system and is anti-competitive.
Second bribery is a sellout to the rich. Bribery corrupts justice and
public policy by allowing rich people to make all the rules.
Bribery/Acceptance of Gifts
In business it guarantees that only large, powerful corporations will survive, since they are more
powerful to provide bribes. Finally, bribery treats people as commodities that can be bought and
sold.
When a Gift is a Bribe
Examples of Gifts vs Bribes
When a gift is a bribe
Frequently, the boundary between a legitimate gift and a bribe is very subtle. Gifts of nominal
value, such as coffee mugs or calendars with a vendor’s logo and phone number on it, are really
just an advertising tool. Generally there is no problem with accepting these types of items. Dining
with a customer or a supplier is also an acceptable practice, especially if everyone pays his or her
own way.
When a Gift is a Bribe
Examples of Gifts vs Bribes
The solution of this question will be left to You:
During a sales visit, a sales representative offers you a coffee mug with his company’s name and
logo on it. The value of the mug is 5 dollars. Can you accept this item?
Does the answer to this question change if this item is a US$350.- crystal bowl with the name of
the company engraved on it? How about is there is no engraving on it?
Your meeting with a sales representative is running into the lunch hour. She invites you to go for
lunch. You go to a fast-food restaurant and you pay for your own lunch. Is this practice
acceptable? Does the answer to this question change if you go to an expensive restaurant? If she
pays for lunch?
Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes
A sales representative from whom you often purchase asks if you would like to play tennis with
him this weekend at one of the local municipal courts. Should you go? Is the answer to this
question is different if the match is at an exclusive local club to which he belongs? What if he
pays the club’s guest fee for you?
Do the answers to any of these questions change if the gift is offered before you purchase
anything from the company, as opposed to after you are already a steady customer?
Keep in mind that gifts accepted even after the purchase of something from a company might be
a bribe directed at securing future sales from you or might be aimed at engineers at other
companies. These types of gifts tend to shut out smaller companies that can’t afford gifts and
might increase in everyone’s cost, since if everyone now expects to receive gifts, the product cost
must go up.
Problem Solving
Bribery can easily be easily analyzed by looking at the factual, conceptual, and moral issues.
Frequently, the facts will be obvious: who offered a gift, what its value was, and what its purpose
was. Conceptual issues will be somewhat more difficult, since it must be determined whether
the gift is of sufficient value to influence a decision or whether that influence is the intent of the
gift. Once the conceptual issue has been worked out and it is clear whether or not the gift is a
bribe, the moral issue is often very clear.
Line drawing can be very effectively applied to the examples given previously. Likewise
flowcharting can be used to examine the consequences that will result from the acceptance or
offer of a gift.
Avoiding Bribery Problems
How does one ensure that accepting a gift doesn’t cross the line into bribery?
The first and most important method for determining this is to look at company policy. All large
corporations and many smaller companies have very clear rules about what is acceptable . Some
companies have very strict policies. For example , some companies say that employees are not
allowed to accept anything from a vendor and that any social interaction with vendors or
customers must be paid for by your company. Any deviation fron this rule must be approved from
appropriate supervisors.
In the absence of strict corporate guidelines, a preapproval from one’s management is the best
guide to what is acceptable.