HISTOLOGY LECTURE

MINERVA DIANA A. DICHOSO, RMT

Cytology

Organology- study of organs or groups of tissues

arranged in a specific pattern characteristic for
the particular organ.
Histology- study of a group of similarly
specialized cells or tissues bound together by a
varying amount of intercellular substance for the
performance of a specific function.
Our present knowledge of structure of cells had been gained
from an expanding variety of methods which fall into two
groups:

1. Methods employed 2. Methods involving dead

cells (fixed or preserved).-
with living cells- can
the advantage of
allow direct availability for repeated
observation of true microscopic examination,
structure as well as being more or less
functional changes. prominent.
 Methods:
1. Direct observation of living tissues and cells
- Free cells are colorless and structures within them lack contrast.
- Human blood cells
- Amoeboid and phagocytic activity within blood cells
a. Exteriorization and transillumination
- Organs with long vascular pedicle can be brought outside the body
cavity, place in a suitable moist chamber under conditions permitting
their transillumination and direct microscopic examination at relatively
low power.
b. Transparent chamber methods- one of the most successful
- The tissue to be studied is transplanted between the windows of the
thin chamber were it acquires a blood supply from the neighboring
connective tissue, thus surviving for long periods.

2. Cell, Tissue and Organ culture

a. Cell culture- refers to maintenance of non-adherent, usually dividing
cells, which are transferred from vessel to vessel as their numbers
continuously increase.
- The short term cultured of the white blood cells have come into
widespread use as the simplest means of studying human
chromosomes.
b. Tissue culture- in the classic
procedure, an explanted tissue fragment
is embedded in a coagulum of blood
plasma containing embryo juice as a
growth stimulant.
- Upon incubation, the cells migrate
radially from the explant and
proliferate in the zone of outgrowth to
form a colony.
- In a few days this may be several times
the diameter of the original fragment.
- This may then be subdivided and used
to initiate new colonies.
c. Organ culture- exploration and
maintenance of mature tissues or organ
fragments.
- Useful for study of the direct effects of
drugs or hormones on various tissues of
the body.
- By altering the conditions of cultivation so
as to discourage migration and dispersion
of the cells, the original organ architecture
can be retained.
- Enable experiments to control the
composition of the environment and to
influence and to change the direction of
differentiation of embryonic tissues.
3. Mechanical Micromanipulation
and Microdissection
- It moves fine glass needless or
pipettes with such precision that
single cells can be injected,
manipulated or dissected.
- The concept of the physical nature
of the cells have been made much
clearer as micro dissection have
provided some of the first direct
evidence of a cell membrane.
- The value of the technique is being
extended to electron microscope
levels of resolution.
4. Use of Radiation probes- the selective staining of organelles
with a colored dye combined with the high intensities of light
available from lase sources, provides the opportunity for a new
form of cellular microsurgery.
- By irradiation, it is possible to achieve the selective destruction
of specific cell organelles and to assess its effect upon the cell
as a whole.
- Improved high power organ lasers now permit irradiations
with more energy than before, making it possible to produce
discrete lesions in chromosomes or other cell components
without previous sensitization with a vital dye.
5. Cinematography- another technique used with tissue culture
cells where motion pictures are taken through the objectives of
a microscope.
- This is useful to obtain permanent records of cell activity and
also as an experimental aid in the analysis of movement too
slow or too fast.
- The movement of cells and organelles which are scarcely
appreciated by direct observation, become visible.
- Slow-motion films permit fast action to be analyzed.
- Movement of cilia and contraction of cardiac muscle offer an
opportunity to study the mechanism of muscle contraction.
6. Differential centrifugation- one of the most
valuable and widely used methods in biological
chemistry.
- The cells are mechanically disrupting by
grinding in glass homogenizers.
- The heaviest particles are sedimented first
and particles of lower specific densities can
be brought down by successive
centrifugations of progressively higher speed.
- Centrifugal methods have made it possible to
isolate pure fractions of nuclei, nucleoli,
mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes pigment
granules and secretory granules.
7. Microincineration- of tissue slices
leaves ash which retains fine structural
details.
- Some minerals can then be identified
within cells in exact locations.
8. Frozen Section Method- a piece of
tissue is placed directly on the stage of a
special microtome equipped with an
outlet compressed carbon dioxide gas
which cools the stage and freezes the
tissue.
- This is widely used in clinical work for
sectioning biopsy material to determine
whether a lesion is benign or malignant.
- During the operation, the tissue is cut
with a freezing microtome and examine
microscopically for the presence of
cancer cells.
9. Freeze-drying technique- the tissue is
frozen and dehydrated at low temperature
is in a high vacuum.

10. Use of Stains- the purpose is to

differentiate the tissue elements as certain
cellular elements take up more stain than
others, this producing a contrast.
 Classifications of Stains:
o Acid stain- affecting the
cytoplasm more readily;
also called cytoplasmic o
Basic stain- showing
stain.
-Eosin is an acid dye with
special affinity for the
such general usage that nuclei which are also
the terms eosinophilic called nuclear stains.
and acidophilic are often
used synonymously.
Hematoxylin and
eosin stain (H and E)-
the most common
combination
Nuclear structures-
dark purple or blue
Cytoplasmic
structures- pink
Methods of Staining:
1.Stained of fresh or living unfixed tissue called Vital
staining and done either as:
Intra Vital staining- staining of cells in the living
body by intravenous injection of certain dyes as
trypan blue.
Supra Vital staining- consists of adding dyes to the
medium of the cells already removed from the
organism.
2. Staining of fixed dead tissues:
For ordinary laboratory work, this is the most
commonly used method. The tissues are killed,
embedded, sectioned, stained and mounted on
slides.
It is usually necessary to work with killed,
chemically preserved tissues that have been cut
into thin slices called histological sections.
 PREPARATION OF TISSUES FOR LIGHT
MICROSCOPE EXAMINATION
 OBTAINING THE SPECIMEN
 FIXATION
 PROCESSING
 DEHYDRATTION
 CLEARING
 EMBEDDING
 SECTIONING
 STAINING
 MOUNTING
 BASIC TISSUES IN GENERAL
Generalities of Basic or Primary Tissues
The four basic fundamental are all derived from the three primitive
germ layers: Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Entoderm

4 basic types of tissues:

1. Epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
 EPITHELIUM
Cells are closely apposed with very little intercellular
cementing substance between.
Arranged as sheets covering or lining surface or masses of
cells in glands; one of their surfaces is free while the other is
attached.
No blood vessels among the cells; nutrition being thru
osmosis and diffusion. There are plenty of nerve fibers.
Attached to a basement membrane and provided with a
tunica propria or corium of connective tissue containing
blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.
 EPITHELIUM
I. SIMPLE II. Stratified Glands, Multicellular
A. Squamous- Skin
A. Squamous- Endothelium, Exocrine
(Keratinizing); Cornea
Mesothelium, Simple- gastric, sweat
B. Columnar- Male Urethra
Mesenchymal, Bowman’s glands
C. Cuboidal- Sweat gland
capsule of Kidney
B. Cuboidal- Small ducts,
ducts Compound- salivary
D. Transitional- Urinary glands, pancreas
Collecting tubule of
tracts Endocrine
Kidney, Thyroid follicles
E. Pseudo-stratified
C. Columnar- Gallbladder Cords and Clump-
Columnar- Male Urethra
(non-ciliated), Uterine hypophysis
(non-ciliated); Trachea
tube (ciliated) Follicle- thyroid
(ciliated)
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
B. Dense B. Bone
I. General  Irregular- capsule of organs;  Cancellous
A. Loose dermis of skin (spongy)- center of
 Mesenchyme-  Regular- Tendon, corneal stroma
mainly restricted to long bone
embryo and fetus  Compact- shaft of
 Mucoid- Wharton’s long bone
jelly (umbilical cord) II. Special C. Hemapoietic
 Areolar- “Loosely A. Cartilage Myeloid- bone
packed” in most organs  Hyaline- trachea, costal
marrow
 Adipose- cartilage
subcutaneous tissue  Elastic- external ear, D. Blood
(hypodermis) epiglottis E. Lymph
 Reticular- lymph  Fibrous- intervertebral disc
node, bone marrow
 MUSCLE TISSUE
I. Smooth (involuntary, non-striated)-
Blood vessels, Intestinal tract
II.Cardiac (involuntary, striated)-
Heart
III.Skeletal (voluntary, striated)
 NERVOUS TISSUE
II. Peripheral
I. Central Nervous Nervous System
System
Nerves- peripheral III. Special
Gray matter- nerves receptors- eye,
brain, spinal cord Ganglia- sensory, ear, nose
White matter- autonomic
brain, spinal cord Nerve endings-
encapsulated
 EPITHELIUM AND GLANDS
Are formed by closely
apposed polyglonal cells with
little or no intercellular
material.
The cells are closely
aggregated in the form of
sheets (membranes) covering
body surfaces or in clumps
forming glands.
 Epithelia serve widely differing functional demands in
different locations.

Protection- epidermis of the skin

Absorption- epithelium of the small intestine
Excretion- epithelium of the kidney tubules
Secretion- glandular epithelium
Sensory reception- neuro-epithelium
Lubrication- goblet cells and sebaceous glands
Reproduction- lining epithelium of the seminiferous tubules and
germinal epithelium of the ovary
Origin
All epithelia are derived from any of the three embryonal germ layers.
During early human development, three primary cellular germinal layers
can be distinguished:
Ectoderm- composed of a single layer of related cells destined to
become skin and its appendages and parts of the nervous system.
Mesoderm- composed of diffuse stellate shaped cells with a gelatinous
ground substance filling the interstices around the cells. This layer gives
rise to supporting tissues, blood vessels of the circulatory system and
the serosal lining.
Entoderm- or endoderm similar to the single layer of cells to the
ectoderm.
 General Characteristics:
a. The most cellular tissue, since the cells are arranged in a very closely
compacted manner with scanty intercellular substance.
b. It is avascular. There are no blood vessels found among the cells of
the epithelium.
c. Epithelial tissues are wet or moist except the epidermis of the skin.
d. Some epithelial cells may be arranged in the form of masses like the
adrenal glands and cells of the parathyroid. They possess only an
epithelial character since the cells do not line a free surface and are
provided with blood vessels.
 Composition:
a.Epithelial
cells
b.Intercellular
substance
 Shape of Epithelial cells:
The form and dimensions of epithelial cells are varied, ranging
from:
High columnar
Cylindrical
Cuboidal to low squamous cells
Intermediate forms
The cell nuclei have a distinctive appearance varying from:
Spherical to elongated in shape
 Intercellular substance:
Very scanty because of the
closely compacted
arrangement of the cells.
 Structures Associated with Epithelium:
a. Presence of a Basal Lamina (Basement Membrane)
- A continuous sheetlike extra-cellular structure
- This structure is only visible only with the electron
microscope and appears as a thin, granular layer in
which very fine fibrils comprise a delicate network.
- It is known to contain the protein collagen and some
amorphous protein- polysaccharide complexes.
- The thickness of the basal
lamina is variable 50-80nm
and does not present a barrier
to the diffusion of most
substances.
- Since epithelial tissues are
avascular, basal lamina
permeability to substances is
a prerequisite for proper
nutrition and function.
b. Tunica propria or Lamina
propria
- All epithelia possess a tunica
propria
- May be areolar or fibro-reticular
connective tissue located
immediately below the basement
membrane.
- It serves as support to the
epithelium and as vascularized
connective tissue be containing
the blood vessels, lymph vessels
and nerves.
 CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF
EPITHELIA:
Based on:
1.Number of layers of cells
2.Shape of the cells on the free surface
1.According to the number of layers of cells,
they are classified into:

I. Simple Epithelia or Non-Stratified Epithelia-

those membranes consisting of only one
layer of cells
II.Complex Stratified- those composed of more
than one layer of cells
2. According to the shape of the cells on
the free surface, they are classified as:

1.Squamous epithelia- those containing

fat or squamous cells on the free surface
2.Columnar epithelia- those containing
columnar cells on the free surface.
CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF
EPITHELIAL TISSUES:
I. Simple or Non-Stratified- containing a single layer of cells.
1. Simple squamous
a. Endothelium- lining walls of blood vessels, lymph vessel; cavities of the
heart
b. Mesothelium- lining serous cavities like pleura, pericardium,
peritoneum, tunica vaginalis testis
c. Mesenchymal- lines the interior chamber of the eye, perilymph spacs
of the internal ear, subdural and subarachnoidal spaces
d. Flattened cells- lining the pulmonary alveoli; Bowman’s capsule
(kidney)
2. Simple columnar
a.Simple plain columnar
A1. Simple plain tall columnar- mucosa of the
stomach, small and large intestines, gall bladder,
bigger ducts of glands
A2. Simple plain low columnar- smaller ducts of
glands; some excretory tubules of the kidney
A3. Cuboidal- thyroid follicles, choroid plexus,
pigmented epithelium of retina
b. Simple modified columnar
B1. Simple ciliated columnar with:
Motile cilia- Uterus and oviducts or fallopian tubes;
ductuli efferentes in patches
Nonmotile cilia or sterocilia- epididymis
B2. Pyramidal or glandular epithelium
Serous glandular- parotid gland; pancreas
Mucous glandular- sublingual glands; small salivary
glands in the oral and tongue
B3. Goblet cell- found among the cells of simple
columnar epithelium of the small and large intestines and
pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium of the respiratory
system
B4. Neuro-epithelium
* Taste buds- tongue
• Organ of Corti- internal ear
• Retina- eyeball
• Olfactory epithelium- nasal cavity
B5. Pigment Epithelium- pigment epithelium of
the retina; Pars ciliaris and Pars iridica retinae
 SIMPLE EPITHELIA
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
- Composed of very thin, flat cells of irregular
outline fitted closely together to form a
continuous sheet.
- On surface view, they show a characteristic
mosaic pattern especially after staining cell
limits with silver stains or having the
appearance of a tiled floor with serrated,
irregular wavy outlines.
- In section, the cells show attenuated
cytoplasm with a central bulging nucleus.
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
- This is so termed because of
its appearance in sections at
right angles to the surface of
the membrane, each cell
appearing box-like or cube-
like
- From the surface, the cells
appear as polygons
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
- Composed of cylindrical cells
possessing an appreciable height
aside from length and width.
- In sections perpendicular to the
surface, the rectangular cellular
outlines may be taller than that of
cuboidal epithelium.
- The nuclei are approximately at
the same level and situated
nearer to the basal surface than
to the luminal surface.
Simple Ciliated Columnar
- Cells of the tall columnar type
possess fine hair like projection
termed “cilia” on their distal
ends.
- Direction of cilia is always
towards the outside attached to
a row of basal or centrosomal
granules which are fragments of
the centrosome or kinetic center
of cell.
Pyramidal or Glandular
Epithelium
- Derives its name from
its secretory or
glandular function
(found lining secretory
portions of the acini or
glands) and pyramidal
shape of cells.
 Differences between Serous and Mucous secreting cells:

Serous Glandular Cells Mucous Glandular Cells

1. Slightly basophilic staining appearing
1. Acidophilic in staining
pale
2. Granular cytoplasm at the apical end;
2. Reticulated, non-granular cytoplasm
striated at the basal end
3. Flattened nucleus push toward the
3. Rounded nucleus basement membrane
4. Presence of intercellular and 4. Not provided with canaliculi, the
intracellular secretory canaliculi secretion merely passes from the
through which the secretion is carried distal ends of the cell into the lumen
to the lumen of the acinus 5. Wider lumen surrounded by secreting
5. Narrow lumen of the acinus cells
surrounded by secreting cells
Goblet cells
- Maybe considered as a unicellular
mucous secreting gland. The term
“goblet” refers to an expanded cup-
shaped rim of cytoplasm called the
theca filled with secretory droplets
and a thin base like the stem of a
goblet.
- The fully developed cell has an
expanded apical end filled with pale
mucigin droplets and a slender basal
end containing a compressed nucleus
of deeply staining basophilic
cytoplasm.
Neuro-epithelium
- Differs in appearance
- A chief sensory cells, a true nerve
cell or a modified epithelial cell
for reception of the stimulus
- Supporting or sustentacular cells,
which may be a columnar cell or
tall columnar cell lying side by
side with chief cells and a basal
cell, or a low columnar cell with
irregular processed found
beneath the chief and columnar
cells immediately above the basal
membrane.
 COMPLEX (STRATIFIED) EPITHELIA:
1. Stratified Squamous epithelium
- Composed of varying number of layers of cells ranging from 5-
30 or more.
- Thickness is due to increase in number of layers on the surface
of flattened cells.
- Three types of cells are recognized: Columnar, polyhedral and
flattened cells
- Innermost layer of cells next to the basement membrane
consists of a single row of tall columnar cells with dark staining
oval nuclei located in the proximal portion of cells arranged
• Innermost layer of cells next
to the basement membrane
consists of a single row of
tall columnar cells with dark
staining oval nuclei located
in the proximal portion of
cells arranged parallel to the
long axis or perpendicular to
the basement membrane.
• Above this columnar cell layer
are several layers of polyhedral
cells with spherical dark
staining nuclei becoming
vesicular as they reach the
periphery.
• The cells gradually become
flattened the nearer they occur
to the free surface.
• These cells exhibit projections
giving them a spiny
appearance- Prickle cell layer
• The superficial layers are composed of
thin squamous or flattened cells without
nuclei appearing like scales where the
epithelium occurs on the exposed outer
body surface.
• Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium- Keratin prevents dehydration
and lower cells from taking in too much
water.
• Non-Keratinizing stratified squamous
epithelium- on the inner moist surfaces
of the body
2. Pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
- An epithelium that only appears to be
composed of several layers of cell when in
reality, there is only one cell layer since all cells
making up the epithelium rest upon the
basement membrane
- Pseudo meaning false- not all the cells reach the
surface
• Tall columnar extending throughout the
epithelial thickness appearing widest near
the free surface with a long slender process
extending downward between the smaller
basally situated cells which are fusiform or
spheroidal shaped.
• Cells nuclei lie at different levels in a
perpendicular section.
• Lower portion of the epithelium appears
darker due to the close arrangement of the
nuclei while the distal portion of the
epithelium shows a clear cytoplasmic zone
without nuclei.
3. Transitional epithelium
-it consists of many cell layers
Deepest layer- cells are polyhedral or
columnar in shape with spherical nuclei.
There may be one or two rows of these
cells.
- Above these are 1-3 rows of pyriform or
pear shaped cells which are irregularly
polyhedral cells with a bulging apical end
extending the spherical nucleus and a
tapering proximal end inserted among the
polyhedral cells.
• Umbrella-shaped appearance
• In the stretched condition, only about
two layers can be distinguished:
A superficial layer of large flattened
or squamous cells over a layer of
more or less cuboidal cells.
It possesses a certain degree of
elasticity because the cells on the
surface are not so flat; appears very
thin when the organ is distended and
thicker when the organ is collapsed.
4. Stratified Columnar
Epithelium
- Superficial cells are
prismatic and cuboidal
or columnar in shape.
- Deeper layer consists of
small irregularly
polyhedral cells that do
not reach the surface.
 Specialization of the cell surface in epithelia:
1. Striated or Brush Border
- Delicate vertical striations in a
refractile border of columnar
epithelium when examined at high
magnification.
Microvilli
- The electron microscopic study of
epithelia with absorptive shows that
the surface membrane presents a
multitude of small, slender, finger like
projections.
• An extracellular
glycoprotein layer, the cell
coat, frequently covers the
apical extremities of the
microvilli of absorptive
epithelial cells.
• The microvilli considerably
increase the efficiency of
absorption and the surface
area of the cell.
2. Stereocilia
- Long pyriform tuft of slender
processes projecting into the
lumen from each cell.
- Composed of thin cilium-like
structures cohering so as to form
a tuft resembling the hairs of a
water color brush.
- In electron micrographs, they
appear to be very long slender
often branching microvilli.
3. Cilia
- Numerous motile processes larger than microvilli and arranged in
parallel rows projecting the free surfaces of some epithelial cells. At
the base of each is a dense elongated called the basal body.
- With the LM, no internal structure is discernible in cilia to account for
their movement.
- Under the EM, cilia are found to have a core structure called the
axoneme, consisting of longitudinal microtubules with a constant
number and precise arrangement.
- In transverse sections, two single microtubules are located centrally
with nine doublet tubules uniformly spaces around them.
Function:
- The cilia moving in waves
and sweeping on over the
epithelial surface serve to
propel fluid or coating of
mucus towards the exterior.
- Also occur in the maculae
and cristae of the inner ear
and in modified form as
retinal rods of the eye.
4. Flagella
- Internal structure of flagella appears to be
the same as cilia.
- It differs from cilia only by their greater
length, the character of their movements
and the number per cell.
- They occur in some of the epithelia of
nephrons, in the rete testis and in the ducts
of glands but their function is not apparent.
- The longest flagella are those of the
mammalian spermatozoon.
 GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
Gland- an aggregation of these cells into a definite structure for
the purpose of carrying on secretion or excretion.
Two categories of glands on the basis of the manner of release of
their products:
 Exocrine glands- those that deliver their products into a system
of ducts opening on an external or internal surface.
 Endocrine glands- those that release their product into the
blood or lymph for transport to another part of the body.
 Morphology of Exocrine glands:
1. A secretory portion of glandular cells grouped as
tubules acini or alveoli.
2. An excretory portion composed of an excretory
duct, which may be unbranched or branched.
 Exocrine Glandular Secretion:
1. Exocrine cells secreting pure protein products- so called “serous” cells (acinar
cells of the pancreas and the parotid gland). The product they secrete are
enzymatic proteins (trypsin, amylase, pepsin and others).
2. Exocrine cells secreting mucus- so called “mucous” cells (goblet cells, mucous
neck cells of the gastric glands and the glands of the respiratory tree).
3. Exocrine cells- certain glands produce a particular secretory product
a. Sebaceous gland cells- secrete sebum, a fatty product on the skin.
b. Mammary gland cells- secrete milk composed of two components; protein by
exocytosis and lipid globules enveloped by plasmalemma.
c. Gastric gland parietal cells- secrete HCL as Cl- and H+ ions, which traverse the
plasmalemma.
 General structure of Endocrine glands:
• The multicellular endocrine glands consist of
glandular epithelial epithelial cells which are
arranged in cords, bundles or islets.
• The connective tissue stroma supporting the
cell groups contains numerous fenestrated
blood capillaries.
 Endocrine Glandular Secretion:
• Whatever the structure of the organs, always secrete hormones directly into
the neighboring blood capillaries.
1. Endocrine cells secreting polypeptide or pure protein hormones:
a. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes associated with the granular
endoplasmic reticulum from amino acids in the blood.
b. During synthesis, proteins enter the cisternae of the glandular E/R
c. They move to the Golgi complex
d. The secretory granules, which pinch off the Golgi complex, migrate through
the cytoplasm toward the plasmalemma.
e. Finally, their contents are released to the exterior of the cell, by the process
of exocytosis and then enter the blood capillaries.
2. Endocrine cells secreting glycoprotein hormones.
- There is the inclusion of glycogen synthesized in the Golgi
complex.
- All endocrine cells involved in the secretion of polypeptides
(pure proteins and glycoproteins) because of their similar
mechanisms possess similar morphological characteristics;
a distinct nucleolus
Abundant granular endoplasmic reticulum
A well-developed Golgi complex
Membrane-bound secretory granules
3. Endocrine cells secreting steroid hormones
- The enzymes involved in synthesis of these hormones from
cholesterol are localized principally in the mitochondria
and in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
The characteristic ultrastructural features of steroid secreting
endocrine cells:
Numerous mitochondria with tubular cristae
Abundant smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Absence of secretory granules
Liposomes (lipid vacuoles) and lipofuscin pigment are
frequently present
 CLASSIFICATION OF GLANDS:
I. According to the Number of
Component cells:
1. Unicellular Gland
- A one-celled gland like the goblet cell
found scattered among the columnar
cells of the epithelium on many mucous
membranes.
- It secretes mucin
- A fully developed cell has an expanded
apical end and a slender basal end
containing a compressed nucleus with a
small amount of deeply staining
basophilic cytoplasm.
2. Multicellular Glands
- Many cells enter into the
formation of these
glands
- Belonging to this
category are the surface
epithelium of the gastric
mucosa and of uterine
lining described as a
II. According to Morphology or Shape:
1. Tubular
a. Simple Tubular- composed of one straight tube-like
structure. There is no excretory duct and the terminal
portion opens directly onto the epithelial surface. Ex:
Intestinal glands
b.Convoluted or Coiled Tubular Gland- the terminal
portion is a long coiled tubule connected to the surface
by a long, unbranched excretory duct. Ex: Sweat glands
c. Branched Tubular Gland- the main
invagination of the gland gives off several
branches which are also tube-like in
appearance. Ex: Gastric glands
d. Compound Tubular Gland- composed of
several simple or branched tubular glands
closely bound together. Ex: Kidney, testis, liver
2. Saccular Gland- bear sac-like destinations at their terminal ends.
a. Simple saccular gland- made up of short tube-like invagination
dilated at its terminal portion. Ex: small sebaceous glands
b. Branched saccular gland- the tube-like invagination gives off
branches whose terminal portions are dilated. Ex: Bigger sebaceous
glands
c. Compound saccular gland- made up of several branched saccular
glands. Ex: Mammary glands
d. Compound tubulo-alveolar or compound tubulo-acinar or racemose
gland- composed of several units whose pattern is a combination of
the tubular and saccular types. Ex: Salivary glands, Pancreas
III. Histological Classification
1. Serous Glands- secreting cells possess an acidophilic
cytoplasm with a round nucleus. Ex: Parotid gland and
pancreas
2. Mucous Glands- secreting cells possess a basophilic
non-granular, reticulated cytoplasm and a flattened
nucleus at the basement membrane. Ex: Sublingual
gland
3. Mixed (muco-serous) Glands- composed of both serous
and mucous types. Ex: Sub-maxillary glands
IV. Physiological Classification
1. Serous Glands- secretion is watery or albuminous in content
as in the pancreas and parotid.
2. Mucous Glands- the secretion is rich in mucin and appears
thick and viscid in consistency like the goblet cells and some
of the smaller salivary glands.
3. Mixed Glands- the secretion is a mixture of serous and
mucosa glands, like the submaxillary or submandibular types.
4. Glands that are neither serous nor mucous- Ex: ceruminous
glands
5. Cytogenic or Cellular glands- produce cells like testis and the
V. According to the Integrity of the Secretory Cells
1. Holocrine Glands- whose secretory cells suffer a more or less
complete destruction in the process of secretion, being
transformed into the secretion itself. Ex: Sebaceous glands
2. Apocrine Glands- whose secretory cells suffer a partial
destruction of their distal borders in the process of secretion.
Ex: Mammary glands and some sweat glands of the axilla.
3. Merocrine Glands- maintain the integrity of their constituent
cells throughout the process of secretion. Ex: sweat and
salivary glands
VI. According to the Absence or Absence of Excretory
ducts
1. Endocrine or Ductless Glands- without any excretory
duct system. They are composed of all secretory
portions whose cells are arranged in groups with no
characteristic lumen.
2. Exocrine- provided with an excretory duct system.
3. Acrine Glands- whose secretion is not discharged from
the cells producing it. Ex: Granular leukocytes and
phagocytes
Provides structural and metabolic
support for other tissues and organs
found widely distributed in the human
body.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
Connective tissues Composition:
function: Connective tissue cell
Support and Abundant gel-like ground
packing substance or matrix rich
Storage in tissue fluid
Extracellular
Transport
proteinaceous connective
Defense tissue fibers
Repair
 Types of Connective Tissues:
1.Connective tissue proper
2.Blood and lymph
3.Cartilage
4.Bone
Connective tissue proper is divided into:
1. Loose connective tissue- where the fibers are loosely
arranged (Loose areolar or fibro-elastic)
2. Dense connective tissue- where fibers are compactly or
closely packed (Dense areolar)
o Dense regular connective tissue- where the fibers are
arranged in flat sheets or parallel bundles as in tendons,
fasciae, etc. (Tendons, Ligaments, Cornea)
o Dense irregular connective tissue- where the fibers are closely
interwoven in a random way. (Dermis of skin, Capsules of
organs, Tendon sheaths)
 Function of loose connective tissues:
Loosely binds structures together and holds them in
position.
Acts as a padding and serves as pathway for nerves
and blood vessels.
Limits the spread of localized infection.
Plays an important role in the healing process.
Many aging changes are closely related to changes in
collagen and ground substance.
 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Found in: Function:
 Dermis of the skin  Due to the compact arrangement
 Capsules of many organs of its elements, especially the
 Tendon sheaths and nerves bundles of collagenous fibers,
this is stronger and offers more
 Beneath the epithelium
resistance
 In parts of the urinary tract
Structure:
 Same as the loose fibro-elastic connective
tissue variety except that the collagenous
bundles are thicker
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue
• In tendons, the fibers form a flexible tissue but offering great
resistance to force. It has a fibrous structure and a
characteristic shining white appearance.
• In ligaments, similar to the tendons except that the elements
are somewhat less regularly arranged.
• In fasciae and aponeuroses, the collagenous bundles and
fibroblasts are regularly arranged in multiple sheets or
lamellae.
• The cornea, made up of successive layer of collagen with the
fibrils of one layer oriented at approximately 90 degrees in the
 Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue
Occurs in:
 Tendons
 Fasciae
 Aponeuroses
 White ligaments
 Capsule of organs like Kidney, Liver, Lymph nodes and testis.
 Wherever great firmness and resistance are needed in the
body
 Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue
Cells: few and of the fibroblast lamellar
variety, arranged in long, parallel rows in
the spaces between the collagenous
bundles.
Fibers: collagenous type which are arranged
approximately in parallel rows and in a
closely packed manner. Between the
bundles is a small amount of loose areolar
connective tissue containing a few small
blood vessels and connective tissue cells.
 Dense Elastic Connective Tissue
• Tissue appears yellowish in color with the naked
eye due to predominance of elastic fibers.
Fibers: composed of densely elastic fibers
arranged in the form of parallel strands. These
elastic fibers are coarser.
Cells: few flattened fibroblasts are located in a
scanty, loose areolar tissue and arranged in
parallel rows between the parallel strands of
elastic fibers.
Ground substance: fluid juice which is scanty in
amount.
Blood vessels: few, very small located in the scanty
areolar tissue between the fibers.
 Connective Tissue with Special Properties:
1. Mucous connective tissue- it is a form of
loose connective found in many parts of the
embryo, especially under the skin. Ex:
Wharton’s jelly of the umbilical cord
Cells: Large, stellate fibroblasts with processes
that often appear to fuse with neighboring cells;
a few macrophages and lymphoid wandering
cells are present.
Fibers: contains a delicate meshwork of fine
collagenous fibers.
Ground substance: very abundant, soft, jelly-like
appearing homogenous in the fresh condition.
Blood supply- devoid of blood vessels
2. Elastic connective tissue
3. Reticular connective tissue- forms the framework or connective tissue
stroma of lymphoid organs, bone marrow and endocrine glands.
Cells: presence of primitive reticular cells, stellate-shaped with long
cytoplasmic extensions which appear to join with those of other cells.
They resemble mesenchymal cell containing large, pale nuclei and an
abundant basophil cytoplasm.
Fibers: reticular or argyrophyl type which are very fine arranged in
slender bundles which anastomose forming a delicate close-meshed
network (lattice fibers).
Ground substance- very abundant fluid tissue juice similar to lymph.
Blood vessels- plenty of lymphatic and blood vessels are found within
the tissue.
4. Adipose or Fat Connective Tissue- Functions:
stored fat; provided insulation against loss  Storage in the form of fat or
of heat and functioned as mechanical reserve food material
support in certain regions of the body.  Shock absorbers
- It plays an important role in maintaining  As insulators
a stable supply of fuel by accumulating  For protecting organs in the
lipid in periods of excess food intake and form of soft, elastic pad
releasing fatty acids in periods of fasting.  For aesthetic purposes
- It is also a good shock absorber and
insulator to prevent excessive heat loss
or gain through the skin.
- Belly and buttocks (panniculus
adiposus)
 Histological characteristics of Adipose
Tissue:

a.Yellow or white adipose variety which

differ in color, distribution, metabolic
activity and vascularity.
b.Brown adipose variety- less abundant
Cells: containing a high percentage of fat cells,
typically spherical although may assume
polyhedral shape with a single lipid droplet
occupying most of the cell.
Fibers: Both the collagenous and the elastic
types are present and these have been pushed
aside by the expanding fat cells during
development to form the fibrous septa or
partitions separating the group of fat cells.
Ground substance- fluid and relatively scanty
due to the abundant fat cells.
Blood vessels- plenty of blood and lymph
vessels
5. Lymphoid or Adenoid Connective Tissue- found in all lymphoid
organs in the mucosa of the respiratory and alimentary tracts including
the appendix. It is a reticular type of connective tissue where the
meshes of the reticulum are closely infiltrated by lymphoid cells to
varying degrees.
a. Diffuse or Loose Lymphoid Tissue- lymphoid cells are irregularly
scattered in a loose manner as found in the lamina propria of the villi
of the small intestine and in some lymphoid organs.
b. Compact or Dense Lymphoid Tissue- lymphoid cells are abundant
and closely packed together; lymph nodules or lymphatic cords.