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COURSE SYLLABUS
Practical application of mechanical and electrical system design,
operation and maintenance principles pertinent to commercial
buildings and emphasizing a designer·s perspective on mechanical
and electrical power equipment and distribution systems, energy
management, fire protection, communication, control and signal
systems, lighting, and security systems.

 

 
   
 

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§
OOR A§R QUAL§Y
 !"
- increasingly large percentage of people¶s time is spent indoors.
-oil embargo (1973), raised world¶s consciousness regarding finite
energy sources (energy conserving designs).
-proliferations of chemical in our environment has produced a vast
array of potential air pollutants synthetic products permanently
installed within the building, from equipment used indoors, and
from cleaning fluids used in maintenance.

With less fresh air and surrounded by more pollution sources,

increasing number of buildings have experience sick building
syndrome (SBS).
S§CK BU§L
§  SY
ROME (SBS)

Situation wherein more than 20% of

the occupants complain of symptoms
associated with SBS- such as
headaches, upper respiratory irritations,
and irritations of the eye, among others.
ACCEPABLE §
OOR A§R
QUAL§Y (ASHRAE 2004)

-Airin which there are no known

contaminants at harmful concentrations
as determined by cognizant authorities
and with which a substantial majority
(80% or more) of the people exposed
do not express dissatisfaction
§AQ
EPE
S UPO
1. Limiting pollution at the source (choosing materials and
equipment carefully).
2. §solating unavoidable sources of pollution.
3. Providing for an adequate supply and filtering of fresh
air (and recirculated air).
4. Maintaining a building and its equipment in a clean
condition.
POLLU§O SOURCES A
§MPACS

 Contaminants ± gaseous, organic, particulates

 Effects ± odors, irritants, toxic substances

O
ORS
- most immediate indicators of §AQ problem
- perceived most strongly on initial encounters
- our reactions are positive, negative, or neutral
§RR§A S
- often imperceptible at first but cause increasing distress over time.
- volatile organic compounds (VOC), chemicals containing carbon
molecules that are volatile (i.e. methane, CFC¶s, HCFC, formaldehyde)

OX§C PAR§CULAES SUBSA CES

- asbestos

B§OLO§CAL CO AM§ A S
-bacteria, fungi

RA
O A
SO§L ASES

- radioactive gas that decays rapidly releasing radiation at each stage
- can cause lung cancer
-other soil gases include methane, pesticides that volatize and enter the
buildings with soil gases
PREDICTING INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Assuming that pollutant sources have been minimized, we need to
know how much indoor air and what extent of filtering will
produce acceptable §AQ.

Ventilation rate
- the most common remedy for SBS is to increase the rate of outdoor air
ventilation. Very small amount of outdoor air will provide sufficient oxygen,
and although human odor control is usually achievable at a rate of from 6 to 9
cfm (3 to 4.5 L/s) of outdoor air per occupant, outdoor air has more to do than
provide oxygen and control odors.

#$ $#%

 Ô
„
* „
Where:
Q = ventilation rate, L/s
 = total pollution sources, 0lf
Ci = perceived indoor air quality, decipol
Co = perceived outdoor air quality, decipol

Olf is a unit of pollution (1 olf = the bioeffluents produced

by the average person)

ecipol = a unit of perceived air quality
Ci is recommended to be set at 1.4 decipol, which
represents an expectation of 80% of occupants satisfied
with §AQ.
he concept of replacance affects the design of
ventilation systems. Based on studies, the rate of
1 air change per hour (ACH) of outdoor air, an
indoor space would have only 63% ³new air´
after 1 hour; about 8 hours at this rate is required
for all the ³old´ air to be exhausted. he
difference between the ACH and replacance is the
fraction of air molecules at one specified times
that was Ô
in the indoor space at an earlier
reference time.
[O §  FOR §AQ
After pollution control had been implemented at the source, remaining unavoidable
pollutant sources should be identified. More sensitive areas of the building
should be isolated from the key contaminants.

ifferential air pressures are often maintained to discourage air flow from dirty to
clean zones ± with higher pressure in clean areas, lower pressure in dirty areas.

Lower pressures can be created by exhaust air from such spaces, as well as by
limiting the volume of supply air.

Higher pressure areas can be created by installing make-up air equipment, as well
as increasing the volume of supply air from the HVAC system.
PASS§VE A
LOW-E ERY APPROACHES
O VE §LA§O
† &'(  ) ( *

a) W§
OWS

b) SACK EFFEC

c) U
ERSLAB VE §LA§O

d) PREHEA§  VE §LA§O A§R

EQU§PME  FOR CO ROL OF §AQ
EXHAUS FA S
- remove air that is odorous and/or excessively humid before it can spread
beyond bathrooms, kitchens, or process areas, creating a negatively pressured
area that further limits the spread of undesirable air. A S§/ASHRAE requires
exhaust fan of at least 50 cfm (25 L/s) capacity for bathrooms and 100 cfm (50
L/s) for kitchen.

HEA§ /COOL§  OFMAKEUP A§R

- where climates are mild and/or energy is inexpensive, special equipment
other than heat exchangers can be used to heat and/or cool a particularly large
quantity of makeup air. hese simple devices often supplement the building¶s
main heating/cooling system, which deals primarily with heat gains/losses
through the building skin. Even in hot, humid climates, àÔà


 
à

 àÔ can help lower the temperature of makeup air.
HEA EXCHA ER
- as the tightness of construction increases and fewer air changes per hour
(ACH) occur from infiltration (unintended air leaks), forced ventilation
becomes more attractive as a means of reducing indoor air pollution. When
heat exchanger is used, it is possible to maintain an adequate supply of fresh air
without severe energy consumption consequences. Some commercially
available heat exchangers are capable of extracting 70% or more of the heat
from exhaust air. he lower the volume of air flow the higher the efficiency.

ES§CCA  COOL§ 
- another rotating wheel process, they are attractive because they use no
refrigerants, and they lower humidity without having to overcooling the air.
he desiccants (such as silica gel, activated alumina, or synthetic polymers) in
an active system must be heated to drive out the moisture they remove from the
incoming air

ASK
EHUM§
§F§CA§O A
HUM§
§F§CA§O

- for spaces that need only dehumidification rather than mechanical cooling,
 refrigerant dehumidifiers are commercially available. heir advantage over
desiccant dehumidifiers is that the air temperature remains essentially
unchanged during dehumidification (desiccant dehumidifiers raise the
temperature of the dried air). Accumulated water must periodically be removed
from these units and, if untended, could become a source of disease. ask
humidifiers are available and often used to relieve symptoms of respiratory
illnesses.
F§LERS
Particulate filters
Panel filters ± furnished with HVAC equipment and functions mainly to
protect the fans from large particles of lint or dust. hey
are crude and are not really considered to be air-cleaning
equipment.
Media filters ± are much finer, using highly efficient pleated filter paper
within a frame. he larger particles are strained out by the
closely spaced filter fibers, while some of the smaller
particles that would other wise pass through are pushed
into the fibers due to air turbulence.
Adsorption filters ± are for gaseous contaminant removal and vary
according to the pollutant in question. Activated-
charcoal filters are the most common of these type,
absorbing materials with high molecular weights but
allowing those of lower weights to pass.
Air washers ± sometimes used to control humidity and bacterial growth.
he moisture involved can pose a threat if these devices are
not well maintained.

Electronic air cleaners ± advantage of demanding less maintenance, but

can pose a different threat due to ozone production. Static
electricity is produced in the self-charging mechanical
filters by air rushing through it; larger particles thus cling to
the filter. he more humid and/or higher the air velocity,
the lower the filtering efficiency.
Locating air-cleaning equipment
- before the advent of §AQ, buildings were designed with rather crude
panel filters located only at the HVAC equipment; they were primarily
intended to intercept materials that might adversely affect combustion or
heat exchange. §n building requiring high §AQ, a combination of high-
efficiency particle filters and adsorption filters are required. Panel filters
are usually located upstream from the fan unit. High efficiency particle
and adsorption filtering systems should be located downstream from the
HVAC cooling coils and drain pans to ensure that any microbiological
contaminants from those wet surfaces are removed rather than being
distributed throughout the building.
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
- has been used to kill harmful microorganisms, but under tightly
controlled conditions. ow there are UV lamp units that work within
HVAC systems, promising to control fungi, prevent the development and
spread of bacteria, and reduce the spread of viruses. An additional
benefit, cooling coils and drain pans stay cleaner.
§ndividual space air cleaning
- energy conservation have reduced the air circulation rate in many central air
handling systems moving less air reduces the energy used by fans. One result
can be low distribution efficiency, which causes poorly mixed air within the
occupied spaces. With local (individual space) air filtering equipment, both a
high circulation rate and proper air mixing are achievable. Each unit has its
own fan that can operate either with or without the central HVAC fan.
Controls for §AQ
- a large number of air quality monitoring devices are available, some of which
can control the operation of §AQ related equipment.
MEAT FLOW
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´
in´ is treated in a broad way. It is regarded as
the non-structural covering to a framed
structure. tructure supported mainly by a
s
eleton, or frame, of wood, steel, or reinforced
concrete rather than by load-bearing walls.

Called by their familiar name, the basic

components of a building envelope (s
in)
includes windows, doors, floors, walls and
roofs.
[he flow of heat through a building envelope
varies both by season and by the path of the
heat (through the materials of a building·s s
in
or by way of outdoor air entering the interior
through intentional and unintentional
pathways.)
Heat flows are to two forms:
ensible heat ² results in change in
temperature
Latent heat ² results in change in moisture
content
- [otal heat flow is the summation of sensible
heat and latent heat.
- Materials react differently to sensible and latent
heat flows.

Heat flow processess

- buildings li
e bodies, experience sensible heat
loss to, and gain from, the environment in three
principal ways:
Convection ² heat is exchanged between a fluid
(typically air) and a solid, with motion of the fluid due
to heating or cooling playing a critical role in the extent
of heat transfer.
Conduction ² heat is transferred directly from molecule
to molecule, within or between materials, with
proximity of molecules (material density) playing a
critical role in the extent of heat transfer.
Emittance ² radiation heat transfer is highly influenced
by surface characteristics. hiny materials are much
less able to radiate than common rough building
materials.
[hermal classification of materials
- Materials generally interact with heat either as
insulators that retard heat or conductors that
encourages heat flow. It is common that a
combination of insulators and conductors can
be found in construction.
- IN LA[ION
. Inorganic fibrous or cellular products (such as
glass, roc
wool, slag wool, perlite, or vemiculite.)
2. Organic fibrous or cellular products (such as
cotton, synthetic fibers, cor
, foamed rubber, or
polystyrene)
 . Metallic or metalized organic reflective
membranes (which must face an air space to
be effective)
Insulating materials are available in:
Loose fill
Insulating cement
Formed-in-place
Flexible, semirigid insulation
Rigid insulation
Reflective material ²available in sheets and rolls
either single or multiple layers.
CONDC[OR
- Materials used as conductors are typically
dense, durable, and diffuse heat readily.
AIR FILM and AIR PACE
- Actually void of materials, they have potentially
useful thermal properties and contribute
substantially to the insulating capabilities of
some construction materials.
Composite thermal performance:

Ô
Xr

 = overall coefficient of thermal resistance

(B[h-ft2; Wm2-K)
R = resistance
HVAC FOR MALLER BILDING
Heating, Ventilating, and Air conditioning (HVAC):[ypical design
processes
PRELIMINAR DE IGN
Most general combination of comfort needs and climate
characteristics are considered:
- Activity comfort needs are listed
- An activity schedule is developed
- ite energy resources are analyzed
- Climate design strategies are listed
- Building form alternatives are considered
- combinations of passive and active systems are
considered
- One or several alternatives are sized by general design
guidelines
DE IGN DEVELOPMEN[ PHA E
. Establishes design conditions,
A. By activity, lists the range of acceptable air and surface
temperatures, air motions, relative humidities, lighting
levels, and bac
ground noise levels.
B. Establishes the schedule of operation.
II. Determines the HVAC zones, considering:
A. Activities.
B. chedule.
C. Orientation.
D. Internal heat gains
III. Estimates the thermal loads on each zone:
A. For worst winter conditions.
B. For worst summer conditions.
C. For the average condition or conditions that represent the great majority
of the building·s operating hours.
D. Frequently, an estimate of annual energy consumption is made.
IV. elects the HVAC systems. Often, several systems will be
used within one large building because of orientation, activity,
or scheduling differences may dictate different mechanical
solutions. Especially common is one system for the all-interior
zones of large buildings and another system for the perimeter
zones.
V. Identifies the HVAC components and their locations.
A. Mechanical rooms.
B. Distribution trees ² vertical chases, horizontal runs.
C. [ypical in-space components, such as under-window fan-
coil units, air grilles, and so on.
VI. izes the components.
VII. Lays out the system. At this stage, conflicts with other
systems (structure, plumbing, fire safety, circulations, etc.) are
most li
ely to become evident.
Design Finalizing Phase
- At this stage, the HVAC system designer verifies the match
between the loads on each component and the component·s
capacity to meet the load. Final layout drawings then are
completed.

Equipment location and service distribution

- smaller buildings are typically s
in-load dominated: that is, for
them, the climate dictates whether heating or cooling is the
major concern. In some climates, only heating systems are
needed; the building can ´
eep itself coolµ during hot weather
without mechanical assistance. In other climates, only cooling
is needed. In still others, both heating and cooling is required.
a) Central or Local
- a s
in dominated building may have such differing but
simultaneous needs that a room-by-room solution (´localµ) for
heating, ventilating, and conditioning is desirable. [he
advantage of local systems is their ability to respond quic
ly
to individual rooms· needs.
- the central system also has advantages: the equipment
is contained within its own space rather than ta
ing up space
within each room, and maintenance can be carried out
without disrupting activities within those rooms.
b) Central heating or Cooling equipment
- in the early stages of design, determining an approximate size for the
largest equipment is sometimes useful. Once the heating or cooling
capacities are
nown, manufacturers· catalogs can be consulted for the
dimensions of the heating and cooling equipment.
Design temperature ² critical decision in sizing the heating
equipment. What is the lowest reasonable outdoor
temperature for which a heating device can be sized if the
desired interior temperature is to be maintained?
Design rt = inside temperature ² outside temperature

Required capacity of a building·s heating equipment:

Btuh heating capacity = ((BtuDD)ft224 h)(rt)(ft2 floor area)

Cooling size (mechanical refrigeration)

ensible Btuh cooling capacity = [approx. heat gain(Btuh
ft2)][floor area(ft2)]
Required capacity in tons:
[ons of cooling = heat gain, Btuh2,000
 ton = 2,000 Btuh (  W)
c) Distribution trees
- Central heating and cooling systems produce
heating and cooling in one place, then distribute
them to other building spaces according to their
respective needs. [he distribution tree is the means
for delivering heating and cooling: the ´rootsµ are the
machines that provide heat and cold, the ´trun
µ is
the main duct or pipe from the mechanical
equipment to the zone to be served, and the
´branchesµ are the many smaller ducts or pipes that
lead to the individual spaces. [he ´leavesµ are the
point of interchange between the piped or ducted
heating or cooling and the spaces served.
Controls for maller Building ystems
- Older buildings had mechanical equipment for heating or
cooling only, thermostats were simple on-off devices; when the
temperature rise or fall below a set point, the heat or cooling
load was turned on.
- Building management system (BM ) are now capable of
regulating far more than temperature. [hey are capable of
remote control, allowing systems to be activated in advance of
the occupants· arrival.
- Future developments include Ô
Ô 
where
automation systems are capable of learning while being used.
[hey thus predict usage pattern, adjusting in advance without
needing specific commands from occupants.
REFRIGERA[ION CYCLE

Compressive refrigeration:
- A scheme for transferring heat from one circulated
water system (chilled water) to another (condenser
water). [his is done by the liquefaction and
evaporation of a refrigerant, during which processes it
gives off and ta
es on heat, respectively. [he heat it
gives off must be disposed of (except in the heat
pump), but the heat it acquires is drawn out of the
circulated water
nown as the chilled water, which is
the medium for subsequent cooling processes.
Absorption Refrigeration cycle
- No CFC·s or HCFCs are used here; the process uses distilled
water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide (salt solution). In
order to remove heat from chilled water, this cycle uses still
more heat in regenerating the salt solution. [ypically, it is less
efficient than the simple compressive cycle and needs about
twice the capacity for rejecting heat. Because the high-grade
energy (electricity) needed to run a compressor is replaced by
the lower-grade heat needed to run the generator, the
absorption cycle can enjoy an energy advantage over the
compressive cycle, even though it is less efficient.
COOLING-ONLY Y [EM
a) Fans
b) nit air conditioners
c) Evaporative cooling: Misting
d) Evaporative cooling: roof spray
e) Evaporative coolers
- affectionately termed
  

 

and are familiar devices in hot, arid climates. [hey are used in
other climates for special high-heat applications such as
restaurant
itchens. [hey require a small amount of electricity
to run a fan and some water to increase the RH of the air they
supply to the building,
In a typical indirect evaporative air cooler, the essential element is a heat exchanger in
which dry air contacts heat-exchange surfaces whose other sides are cooled
evaporatively.
HEA[INGCOOLING Y [EM