Module 1

Fundamental Principles
in DC Circuits

Engr. Gerard Ang

School of EECE
 ELECTRICITY

Electricity – it is a property of matter that

results from the presence or movement of
electric charge. According to modern theory,
matter is electrical in nature.
 STRUCTURE OF MATTER
• Matter – it is anything that occupies space and has
mass.
• Atom – it is the smallest particle of an element that
is capable of independent existence.
• Molecule – it is the smallest particle of matter (an
element or a compound) that is capable of free
existence.
• Element – it is a substance that cannot be
decomposed any further by chemical action.
• Compound – it is a combination of two or more
elements.
• Mixture – it is a material composed of two or more
substances, each of which retains its own
characteristic properties.
 THE ATOM
Basic Data About the Atom
• Proton – it is a positively charged particle.
• Electron – it is negatively charged particle.
• Neutron – it is a particle with neutral charge (no charge).
– Atomic Number – it represents the number of protons or
electrons of an atom.
– Atomic Mass – it represents the sum of protons and electrons of
an atom.
– Ion – it is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or
negative charge resulting from unequal number of positively
charged protons and negatively charged electrons.
– Shell – it is an energy level or region about the nucleus of an
atom in which electrons move. The atom has 5 shells, namely,
the K-shell (first orbit), the L-shell (second orbit), the M-shell
(third orbit), the N-shell (fourth orbit) and the O-shell (fifth orbit)
– Valence electrons – is the electrons found in the outermost
shell (valence shell) or orbit of an atom.
 THE ATOM (cont…)

Particle Charge Mass

1.602 x 10-21 C, 1.672 x 10-27

Proton
positive kg

1.602 x 10-21 C, 9.107 x 10-31

Electron
negative kg

No charge, 1.672 x 10-27 The number of electrons in any orbit is given

Neutron
neutral kg
by:

N = 2n2
Where:
N = total number of electrons on a given orbit
n = is the orbit number
 ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF MATERIALS
• Electrical Conductors – these are materials that
allow the essentially free passage of current when
connected to a battery or other source of electrical
energy.
• Electrical Insulators – these are materials that
posses low conductivity or offer a relatively high
resistance to the flow of electric current. They are also
called as dielectrics.
• Electric Semiconductors – these are materials that
have conductivity about midway between good
conductors and good insulators.
 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGIES
• Electric Charge (Q) – it is the property of some bodies which causes them to
exert forces on each other. Two bodies with positive or negative charges repel
each other, while opposite or unlike charges attract each other. A body is said
to be charged if it has either excess or deficit of electrons from normal due
share. Its unit is the Coulomb (C) named after Charles Augustin de Coulomb
(1763 – 1806).

• Electric Current (I) – it is the motion or transfer of charges from one region of
a conductor to another. Its unit is the Ampere (A) named after André Marie
Ampère (1775 – 1836).
i = dQ/dt
Where: t = time which the current flows through a material

• Electric Voltage (V or E) – it is the work done in moving a unit charge (+1 C)

through an element from one terminal to the other. It is also called as electric
potential or electromotive force (emf). Its unit is the Volt (V) named in honor of
the Italian Physicist Alessandro Guissepe Antonio Anastacio Volta (1745 –
1827), the inventor of the voltaic battery.

• Electric Potential Difference – it is the difference in the electric potentials of

two charged bodies. Its unit is the volt.
 SOURCES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
The following are the methods by which electric
current can be produced:
• Electric current by electromagnetic action
• Electric current by chemical action
• Electric current by pressure
• Electric current by light
• Electric current by heat
 RESISTANCE
Electric Resistance (R) – it is the property of a material that limits the amount of
flow of current and converts electric energy to heat energy. Its unit is the Ohm (Ω)
named in honor of the German Physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787 – 1854).

Factors affecting resistance:

1. Nature of the material
2. Length of the material
3. Cross-sectional area of the material
4. Temperature

𝐋 𝑽 𝐋𝟐
𝐑=𝛒 𝐑=𝛒 𝟐 𝐑=𝛒 𝐕= 𝐀×𝐋
𝐀 𝑨 𝐕

Where: R = resistance of the material

A = cross-sectional area of the material
ρ = resistivity or specific resistance of the material
L = length of the material
V = volume of the material

Resistivity – it is the resistance offered to a current if passed between the opposite

faces of a unit cube of the material. It is measured in ohm-m.
 Sample Problems
1. A coil consists of 2,000 turns of copper wire having a cross-
sectional area of 0.8 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm
and the resistivity of copper is 0.02 μΩ-m. Find the resistance of
the coil.
Solution:
𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 2,000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 × 80 = 160,000 𝑐𝑚
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
1𝑚
𝐿 = 160,000 𝑐𝑚 × = 1,600 𝑚
100 𝑐𝑚
2
1𝑚
𝐴 = 0.8 𝑚𝑚2 × = 8 × 10−7 𝑚2
1,000 𝑚𝑚
𝐿 1,600 𝑚
𝑅=𝜌 𝑅 = 0.02 × 10−6 Ω − 𝑚
𝐴 8 × 10−7 𝑚2

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎 𝛀
 Sample Problems
2. A heater element is made of nichrome wire having resistivity
equal to 100 x 10-8 Ω-m. The diameter of the wire is 0.4 mm.
Calculate the length of the wire required to get a resistance of 40
Ω.
Solution:
𝜋 2 𝐿 𝐿
𝐴= 𝑑 𝑅=𝜌 𝑅=𝜌 𝜋
𝐴 2
4 4𝑑

4𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝜋𝑑 2

4 100 × 10−8 𝐿
40 =
𝜋 0.4 × 10−3 2

𝑳 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎
 Sample Problems
3. The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross-section and 20 m
long is 0.346 Ω. Determine the specific resistance of the
conductor material.

Solution:
2
2
1𝑚
𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝑚 × = 1 × 10−6 𝑚2
1,000 𝑚𝑚
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
20
0.346 = 𝜌 𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 − 𝒎
1 × 10−6
 Sample Problems
4. A wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 2 Ω. Obtain the
resistance if specific resistance is doubled, diameter is doubled
and the length is made three times of the first.
Solution:
𝑅1 = 2 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝜌2 = 2𝜌1 𝑑2 = 2𝑑1 𝐿2 = 3𝐿1 = 3 1 = 3 𝑚
𝐿1 = 1 𝑚

4𝜌𝐿 4𝜌1 𝐿1 4𝜌2 𝐿2

𝑅= 𝑅1 = ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (1) 𝑅2 = ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (2)
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑12 𝜋𝑑22
Dividing eq. (2) by (1)
4𝜌2 𝐿2 2 2
𝑅2 𝜌2 𝐿2 𝑑1 𝑅2 2𝜌1 3 𝑑1
𝑅2 𝜋𝑑22 = =
= 𝑅1 𝜌1 𝐿1 𝑑2 2 𝜌1 1 2𝑑1
𝑅1 4𝜌1 𝐿1
𝜋𝑑12
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑 𝛀
 Sample Problems
5. Determine the resistivity of the material of conductor of volume
0.05 m3, length 300 meters and resistance 0.0306 Ω.

Solution:
𝐿2
𝑅=𝜌
𝑉

300 2
0.0306 = 𝜌
0.05

𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 − 𝒎
 Sample Problems
6. One km of wire having a diameter of 11.7 mm and of resistance
0.031 Ω is drawn so that its diameter is 5 mm. What does its
resistance become?
Solution:
𝑑1 = 11.7 𝑚𝑚
𝑅1 = 0.031 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 (𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
𝐿1 = 1 𝑘𝑚 𝑑2 = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 (𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)

𝑉 𝜋 2 𝑉 16𝜌𝑉
𝑅=𝜌 2 𝐴= 𝑑 𝑅=𝜌 2 𝑅=
𝐴 4 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝑑4
4𝑑
16𝜌1 𝑉1 16𝜌2 𝑉2
𝑅1 = 2 4 ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (1) 𝑅2 = 2 4 ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (2)
𝜋 𝑑1 𝜋 𝑑2
Dividing eq. (2) by (1)
16𝜌2 𝑉2 4
𝑅2 𝑑1 4
𝑅2 𝜋 2 𝑑24 𝑅2 11.7
= = =
𝑅1 16𝜌1 𝑉1 𝑅1 𝑑2 0.031 5
𝜋 2 𝑑14
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑 𝛀
 Sample Problems
7. Find the resistance of a cubic centimeter of copper (a) when it is
drawn into a wire of diameter 0.032 mm and (b) when it is
hammered into a flat sheet of 1.2 mm thickness, the current
flowing through the sheet from one face to another, specific
resistance of copper is 1.6 x 10-8 Ω-m.
Solution:
3
1𝑚
𝑉 = 1 𝑐𝑚3 × = 1 × 10−6 𝑚3 𝜌 = 1.6 × 10−8 Ω − 𝑚
100 𝑐𝑚

(a) When it is drawn into a wire of diameter 0.032 mm

16𝜌𝑉 16 1.6 × 10−8 1 × 10−6
𝑅= 2 4 𝑅= 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝟕𝟑𝟔. 𝟔𝟐 𝛀
𝜋 𝑑 𝜋 2 0.032 × 10−3 4

(b) When it is hammered into a flat sheet of 1.2 mm thickness

𝐿2 (1.2 × 10−3 )2
𝑅=𝜌 𝑅 = 1.6 × 10−8 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀
𝑉 1 × 10−6
 CIRCULAR MILS AND SQUARE MILS
Circular mil (CM) – it is the area of a
circle whose diameter is one mil.

1,000 mil = 1 inch

𝐂𝐌 = 𝐝𝟐
1 MCM = 1,000 CM

Where:
d = diameter of the conductor in mils

Square mil – it is the area of a square

whose side is one mil.
𝛑
𝟏 𝐂𝐌 = 𝐬𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐬
𝟒
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN
RESISTANCE
The effect of variations of temperature
on the resistance of all materials is 𝐑𝟏 𝐓 + 𝐭𝟏
generally are as follows: 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝛂𝟏 𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 ] =
• Resistance of most of the metallic
𝐑𝟐 𝐓 + 𝐭𝟐
conductors usually increases with rise
in temperature.
• Resistance of non-conductors or 𝟏 𝟏
insulator usually decreases with rise in 𝛂𝟏 = 𝐓 =
𝐓 + 𝐭𝟏 𝛂𝟎
temperature

Where:
R2 = resistance at temperature t2, Ω
R1 = resistance at temperature t1, Ω
t1 = initial temperature, °C
t2 = final temperature, °C
T = inferred zero resistance, °C
= temperature when resistance of a certain
material is zero
α = temperature coefficient of resistance, /°C
= increase in resistance per ohm per °C rise
in temperature
α0 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C
 Sample Problems
1. A coil of relay is made of copper wire. At a temperature of 20°C,
the resistance of the coil is 400 Ω. Calculate the resistance of
the coil at temperature of 80°C. The temperature coefficient of
copper is 0.0038/°C at 0°C.
Solution:
𝑅20 = 400 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑡20 = 20℃ 𝛼0 = 0.0038/℃

𝑅80 = ____ 𝑡80 = 80℃

𝑅80 = 𝑅20 [1 + 𝛼20 𝑡80 − 𝑡20 ]

1 1
𝛼20 = 𝛼20 = = 3.53 × 10−3 /℃
1 1
𝛼0 + 𝑡20 0.0038 + 20
𝑅80 = 400[1 + 3.53 × 10−3 80 − 20 ]

𝑹𝟖𝟎 = 𝟒𝟖𝟒. 𝟕𝟐 𝛀
 Sample Problems

2. A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.146 Ω at 40°C and 3.767

Ω at 100°C. Find the resistance at 0°C and the temperature
coefficient of resistance at 40°C.
Solution:
𝑅40 = 3.146 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑡40 = 40℃ 𝑅0 =? ? ?
𝑡100 = 100℃ 𝛼40 =? ? ?
𝑅100 = 3.767 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝑅100 = 𝑅40 [1 + 𝛼40 𝑡100 − 𝑡40 ] 3.767 = 3.146 [1 + 𝛼40 100 − 40 ]

𝜶𝟒𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /℃

𝑅0 = 𝑅40 [1 + 𝛼40 𝑡0 − 𝑡40 ] 𝑅0 = 3.146 [1 + 3.29 × 10−3 0 − 40 ]

𝑹𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟑 𝜴
 CONDUCTANCE
• Conductance (G) – it is the measure of the
ease with which electric current will flow through
a material. It is the reciprocal of resistance. Its
unit is Siemens (S) named after two German
engineers, Werner and William Siemens (19th
century).
𝟏 𝛔𝐀
𝐆= 𝐆=
𝐑 𝐋

Where: σ = conductivity of the material

 RESISTORS
Schematic Symbols
• Resistor – it is any device, which exhibits solely the property of
resistance. A resistor can either be linear or non-linear. for Various Resistors

• Classification of Resistors:
1. Fixed resistance type
2. Variable resistance type

• Types of resistors:
1. Carbon composition resistors
2. Wire-wound resistors
3. Metal film resistors
4. Carbon film resistors
5. Cermet film resistor

• Power Rating or Wattage Rating – it is the maximum power

the resistor can dissipate without being damaged without
overheating. Typical power rating of resistors are 1/8, ¼, ½, 1,
2 and 5 watts.
1. The larger the physical size of a resistor, higher is the
power rating.
2. Higher wattage resistors can operate at higher
temperatures
3. Wire-wound resistors are physical larger with wattage rating
than carbon resistors.
 RESISTOR COLOR CODING
Resistor color-coding is used due to the
Color 1st Digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance
small physical size of the resistor to determine
the resistance and tolerance value of a Black - 0 100 -
carbon resistor. Usually, these resistors are Brown 1 1 101 ±1%
provided with four-color bands, which are Red 2 2 102 ±2%
printed at the insulated body of the resistor.
Orange 3 3 103 -
Yellow 4 4 104 -
Green 5 5 105 -
Blue 6 6 106 -
Violet 7 7 107 -
Gray 8 8 108 -
White 9 9 109 -
Gold - - 10-1 ±5%

Tolerance Value – it is the amount, in Silver - - 10-2 ±10%

percent, by which the actual (measured) No color - - ±20%
resistance value can deviate from the color-
coded resistance value.
 Resistor Colour Codes
Worksheet
BLACK 0 Work out the values of the resistors shown.
BROWN 1
For example:
RED 2
ORANGE 3
YELLOW 4
GREEN 5
BLUE 6
VIOLET 7 1 2 5 3
GREY 8
WHITE 9 12,000 = 12K %
First Second Multiplier Resistor value
Digit Digit (Number
of zeros)

4 7 1 470R
 Resistor Colour Codes
Worksheet
BLACK 0 Colour in the bands so the resistors represent the
BROWN 1 values indicated.
RED 2 For example:
ORANGE 3
12K
YELLOW 4
GREEN 5
BLUE 6
VIOLET 7
GREY
WHITE
8
9
1 2 3 5
%
43R 470K

120K 220R

22K 100R

750K 33K

2R 360R

7K5 82R

10K 39K