Sampling Design and
Procedures
Sampling Terminology
• Population or universe
– Any complete group you wish to generalize to.
– The population that will be accessible.
– Theoretical and Accessible population.
• People; Sales territories; Stores etc.
• Population element
- A single member of a population.
• Census
– Investigation of all individual elements that make up a
population
• Sample
– Subset of a larger population
Census
List of Units
1
3 4 5 2
2 6 3
1 10 7 4
11
12 9 8 5
6
13 7
14 16 17
8
15 9
10
3 4 5 6 11
2
12
1 10 7
11 13
Census 12 9 8 14
13 15
14 16 17 16
15 17
Sampling Frame List of Units
1
2
3 4 5 3
2 6 4
1 10 7 5
11 6
12 9 8 7
13 8
14 16 17 9
15 10
11
12
Sample 13
14
15
16
17
4
Sample Survey
Measurements
Data
Sample Vs. Census
Table 11.1
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Type of Study Sample Census
1. Budget Small Large
2. Time available Short Long
3. Population size Large Small
4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large
5. Cost of sampling errors Low High
6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low
7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive
8. Attention to individual cases Yes No
11-6
The Sampling Design Process
Fig. 11.1
Define the Population
Determine the Sampling Frame
Select Sampling Technique(s)
Determine the Sample Size
Execute the Sampling Process
11-7
Define the target population
Select a sampling frame
Choose Probability or non-probability
sampling method
Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units
Determine sample size
Select actual sampling units
Conduct fieldwork
Stages in the Selection of a Sample
Define the Target Population
The target population is the collection of elements or
objects that possess the information sought by the
researcher and about which inferences are to be
made. The target population should be defined in
terms of elements, sampling units, extent, and time.
• An element is the object about which or from
which the information is desired, e.g., the
respondent.
• A sampling unit is an element, or a unit
containing the element, that is available for
selection at some stage of the sampling process.
• Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
• Time is the time period under consideration.
11-9
Define the Target Population
Important qualitative factors in
determining the sample size are:
• the importance of the decision
• the nature of the research
• the number of variables
• the nature of the analysis
• sample sizes used in similar studies
• completion rates
• resource constraints
11-10
Sample Sizes Used in Marketing
Research Studies
Table 11.2
Type of Study Minimum Size Typical Range
Problem identification research 500 1,000-2,500
(e.g. market potential)
Problem-solving research (e.g. 200 300-500
pricing)
Product tests 200 300-500
Test marketing studies 200 300-500
TV, radio, or print advertising (per 150 200-300
commercial or ad tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20 stores
Focus groups 2 groups 6-15 groups
11-11
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques
Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
11-12
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a
sample of convenient elements. Often,
respondents are selected because they happen
to be in the right place at the right time.
• Use of students, and members of social
organizations
• Mall intercept interviews without qualifying
the respondents
• “People on the street” interviews
11-13
A Graphical Illustration of Convenience
Sampling
Fig. 11.3
11.3
A B C D E
1 6 11 21
Group D happens to
16
assemble at a
convenient time and
2 7 12 17 22 place. So all the
elements in this
Group are selected.
3 8 13 18 23
The resulting sample
consists of elements
16, 17, 18, 19 and 20.
4 9 14 19 24
Note, no elements are
selected from group
5 10 15 20 25 A, B, C and E.
11-14
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of
convenience sampling in which the
population elements are selected based on
the judgment of the researcher.
• Test markets
• Purchase engineers selected in industrial
marketing research
• Expert witnesses used in court
11-15
Graphical Illustration of Judgmental
Sampling
Fig. 11.3
A B C D E
1 6 16 21
The researcher considers
11
groups B, C and E to be
typical and convenient.
2 7 12 17 22 Within each of these
groups one or two
elements are selected
3 8 13 18 23 based on typicality and
convenience. The
resulting sample
4 9 14 19 24 consists of elements 8,
10, 11, 13, and 24. Note,
no elements are selected
5 10 15 20 25 from groups A and D.
11-16
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted
judgmental sampling.
• The first stage consists of developing control categories,
or quotas, of population elements.
• In the second stage, sample elements are selected based
on convenience or judgment.
Control Population Sample
Variable composition composition
Sex Percentage Percentage Number
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
11-17
A Graphical Illustration of Quota Sampling
Fig. 11.3
A B C D E
A quota of one
1 11 16 21
element from each
6
group, A to E, is
imposed. Within each
2 7 12 17
group, one element is
22
selected based on
judgment or
3 8 13 18 23 convenience. The
resulting sample
consists of elements
4 9 14 19 24 3, 6, 13, 20 and 22.
Note, one element is
selected from each
5 10 15 20 25 column or group.
11-18
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of
respondents is selected, usually at random.
• After being interviewed, these respondents
are asked to identify others who belong to
the target population of interest.
• Subsequent respondents are selected based
on the referrals.
11-19
A Graphical Illustration of Snowball Sampling
Random Fig. 11.3
Selection Referrals
A B C D E
Elements 2 and 9 are
selected randomly from
1 6 11 16 21
groups A and B.
Element 2 refers
2 7 12 17 22 elements 12 and 13.
Element 9 refers
3 8 23
element 18. The
13 18
resulting sample
consists of elements 2,
4 9 14 19 24
9, 12, 13, and 18. Note,
there are no elements
5 10 15 20 25
from group E.
11-20
Simple Random Sampling
• Each element in the population has a
known and equal probability of selection.
• Each possible sample of a given size (n)
has a known and equal probability of being
the sample actually selected.
• This implies that every element is selected
independently of every other element.
11-21
A Graphical Illustration of
Simple Random Sampling
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E
1 6 11 16 21 Select five
random numbers
from 1 to 25. The
2 7 12 17 22
resulting sample
consists of
3 8 13 18 23 population
elements 3, 7, 9,
16, and 24. Note,
4 9 14 19 24
there is no
element from
5 10 15 20 25 Group C.
11-22
Systematic Sampling
• The sample is chosen by selecting a random
starting point and then picking every ith element
in succession from the sampling frame.
• The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing
the population size N by the sample size n and
rounding to the nearest integer.
• When the ordering of the elements is related to
the characteristic of interest, systematic sampling
increases the representativeness of the sample.
11-23
Systematic Sampling
• If the ordering of the elements produces a
cyclical pattern, systematic sampling may
decrease the representativeness of the sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the
population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In
this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A
random number between 1 and 100 is selected.
If, for example, this number is 23, the sample
consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423,
523, and so on.
11-24
A Graphical Illustration of
Systematic Sampling
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E
Select a random
1 6 11 16 21 number between 1
and 5, say 2.
The resulting sample
2 7 12 17 22
consists of
population 2,
3 8 13 18 23 (2+5=) 7, (2+5x2=) 12,
(2+5x3=)17, and
(2+5x4=) 22. Note, all
4 9 14 19 24
the elements are
selected from a
5 10 15 20 25 single row.
11-25
Stratified Sampling
• A two-step process in which the population is
partitioned into subpopulations, or strata.
• The strata should be mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive in that every population
element should be assigned to one and only one
stratum and no population elements should be
omitted.
• Next, elements are selected from each stratum
by a random procedure, usually SRS.
• A major objective of stratified sampling is to
increase precision without increasing cost.
11-26
Stratified Sampling
• The elements within a stratum should be as
homogeneous as possible, but the elements
in different strata should be as
heterogeneous as possible.
• The stratification variables should also be
closely related to the characteristic of
interest.
• Finally, the variables should decrease the
cost of the stratification process by being
easy to measure and apply.
11-27
A Graphical Illustration of
Stratified Sampling
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E
Randomly select a
1 6 11 16 21
number from 1 to 5
for each stratum, A to
2 7 12 17 22 E. The resulting
sample consists of
3 8 18 23
population elements
13
4, 7, 13, 19 and 21.
Note, one element
4 9 14 19 24
is selected from each
column.
5 10 15 20 25
11-28
Examples
Some of the most common strata used in
stratified random sampling include age,
gender, religion, race, educational
attainment, socioeconomic status, and
nationality.
11-29
Cluster Sampling
• The target population is first divided into
mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
subpopulations, or clusters.
• Then a random sample of clusters is selected,
based on a probability sampling technique
such as SRS.
• For each selected cluster, either all the
elements are included in the sample (one-
stage) or a sample of elements is drawn
probabilistically (two-stage).
11-30
Cluster Sampling
• Elements within a cluster should be as
heterogeneous as possible, but clusters
themselves should be as homogeneous as
possible. Ideally, each cluster should be a
small-scale representation of the population.
• In probability proportionate to size
sampling, the clusters are sampled with
probability proportional to size. In the
second stage, the probability of selecting a
sampling unit in a selected cluster varies
inversely with the size of the cluster.
11-31
A Graphical Illustration of
Cluster Sampling (2-Stage)
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E
Randomly select 3
1 6 11 16 21 clusters, B, D and E.
Within each cluster,
randomly select one
2 7 12 17 22
or two elements. The
resulting sample
3 8 13 18 23 consists of
population elements
7, 18, 20, 21, and 23.
4 9 14 19 24
Note, no elements
are selected from
5 10 15 20 25 clusters A and C.
11-32
The most common cluster used in research is a
geographical cluster. For example, a researcher
wants to survey academic performance of high school
students in India. He can divide the entire population
(population of India) into different clusters (cities).
11-33
Simple Random Sampling
• A sampling procedure that
• ensures that each element in the population
will have an equal chance of being included in
the sample.
11-34
Systematic Sampling
11-35
Stratified Sampling
11-36
Cluster Sampling
Map of the counties in New York State.
Cluster sampling of five
counties (marked in red in
the figure)
11-37
Difference B/w Cluster and Stratified Sampling
Population of L strata, stratum l contains nl units Population of C clusters
Take simple random sample in sample every unit in chosen clusters
11-38
every stratum
Appropriate Sample Design
• Degree of accuracy
• Resources
• Time
• Advanced knowledge of the population
• National versus local
• Need for statistical analysis
11-39
Internet Sampling is Unique
• Internet surveys allow researchers to rapidly
reach a large sample.
• Speed is both an advantage and a disadvantage.
• Sample size requirements can be met overnight
or almost instantaneously.
• Survey should be kept open long enough so all
sample units can participate.
11-40
Internet Sampling
• Major disadvantage
• lack of computer ownership and Internet access among
certain segments of the population
• Yet Internet samples may be representative of a
target populations.
• target population - visitors to a particular Web site.
• Hard to reach subjects may participate
11-41
Web Site Visitors
• Unrestricted samples are clearly convenience
samples
• Randomly selecting visitors
• Questionnaire request randomly "pops up"
• Over- representing the more frequent visitors
11-42
Statistical Terms in Sampling
• Response
• Statistics
• Parameter
• The Sampling Distribution
• Sampling Error
• Confidence intervals
11-43
11-44
11-45
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Basic Sampling Techniques
Table 11.4
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Nonprobability Sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
Convenience sampling time-consuming, most representative, not recommended for
convenient descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization,
not time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics
Probability sampling Easily understood, Difficult to construct sampling
Simple random sampling results projectable frame, expensive, lower precision,
(SRS) no assurance of representativeness
Systematic sampling Can increase Can decrease representativeness
representativeness,
easier to implement than
SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Include all important Difficult to select relevant
subpopulations, stratification variables, not feasible to
precision stratify on many variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to compute and
effective interpret results
11-46
A Classification of Internet Sampling
Fig. 11.6
Internet Sampling
Online Intercept Recruited Online Other Techniques
Sampling Sampling
Nonrandom Random Panel Nonpanel
Recruited Opt-in Opt-in List
Panels Panels Rentals
11-47
Procedures for Drawing
Probability Samples
Simple Random
Exhibit 11.1 Sampling
Simple Random
Sampling
1. Select a suitable sampling frame.
2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N
(pop. size).
3. Generate n (sample size) different random numbers
between 1 and N.
4. The numbers generated denote the elements that
should be included in the sample.
11-48
Procedures for Drawing
Probability Samples
Systematic
Sampling
Exhibit 11.1, cont.
1. Select a suitable sampling frame.
2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (pop. size).
3. Determine the sampling interval i:i=N/n. If i is a fraction,
round to the nearest integer.
4. Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in
simple random sampling.
5. The elements with the following numbers will comprise the
systematic random sample: r, r+i,r+2i,r+3i,r+4i,...,r+(n-1)i.
11-49
Procedures for Drawing
Probability Samples
Stratified
Exhibit 11.1, cont. Sampling
1. Select a suitable frame.
2. Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata, H.
3. Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the
classification variable, each element of the population is assigned
to one of the H strata.
4. In each stratum, number the elements from 1 to Nh (the pop.
size of stratum h).
5. Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on
proportionate or disproportionate stratified sampling, where
H
nh = n
h=1
6. In each stratum, select a simple random sample of size nh
11-50
Procedures for Drawing
Probability Samples Cluster
Sampling
Exhibit 11.1, cont.
1. Assign a number from 1 to N to each element in the population.
2. Divide the population into C clusters of which c will be included in
the sample.
3. Calculate the sampling interval i, i=N/c (round to nearest integer).
4. Select a random number r between 1 and i, as explained in simple
random sampling.
5. Identify elements with the following numbers:
r,r+i,r+2i,... r+(c-1)i.
6. Select the clusters that contain the identified elements.
7. Select sampling units within each selected cluster based on SRS
or systematic sampling.
8. Remove clusters exceeding sampling interval i. Calculate new
population size N*, number of clusters to be selected c*= c-1,
and new sampling interval i*.
11-51
Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples
Exhibit 11.1, cont. Cluster
Sampling
Repeat the process until each of the remaining
clusters has a population less than the sampling
interval. If b clusters have been selected with
certainty, select the remaining c-b clusters
according to steps 1 through 7. The fraction of units
to be sampled with certainty is the overall sampling
fraction = n/N. Thus, for clusters selected with
certainty, we would select ns=(n/N)(N1+N2+...+Nb)
units. The units selected from clusters selected
under two-stage sampling will therefore be n*=n-ns.
11-52
Choosing Nonprobability Vs. Probability Sampling
Table 11.4
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Factors Nonprobability Probability
sampling sampling
Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive
Relative magnitude of sampling Nonsampling Sampling
and nonsampling errors errors are errors are
larger larger
Variability in the population Homogeneous Heterogeneous
(low) (high)
Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable
Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable
11-53
Tennis' Systematic Sampling
Returns a Smash
Tennis magazine conducted a mail survey of its subscribers to
gain a better understanding of its market. Systematic
sampling was employed to select a sample of 1,472
subscribers from the publication's domestic circulation list. If
we assume that the subscriber list had 1,472,000 names, the
sampling interval would be 1,000 (1,472,000/1,472). A
number from 1 to 1,000 was drawn at random. Beginning
with that number, every 1,000th subscriber was selected.
A brand-new dollar bill was included with the questionnaire as
an incentive to respondents. An alert postcard was mailed
one week before the survey. A second, follow-up,
questionnaire was sent to the whole sample ten days after the
initial questionnaire. There were 76 post office returns, so the
net effective mailing was 1,396. Six weeks after the first
mailing, 778 completed questionnaires were returned, yielding
a response rate of 56%.
11-54
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