Sampling
Dr. Rahul Pratap Singh Kaurav
Associate Professor
FORE School of Management,
New Delhi
Agenda
• Sampling
• Design
• Size Determination
• Sampling Adequacy
Sample Vs. Census
Blank Conditions Favoring the Use of Blank
Blank Sample Census
1. Budget Small Large
2. Time available Short Long
3. Population size Large Small
4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large
5. Cost of sampling errors Low High
6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low
7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive
8. Attention to individual cases Yes No
The Sampling Design Process
Define the Target Population
The target population is the collection of elements or
objects that possess the information sought by the
researcher and about which inferences are to be made.
The target population should be defined in terms of
elements, sampling units, extent, and time.
• An element is the object about which or from which the
information is desired, e.g., the respondent.
• A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the
element, that is available for selection at some stage of the
sampling process.
• Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
• Time is the time period under consideration.
Sample Sizes Used in Marketing Research
Studies
Type of Study Minimum Size Typical Range
Problem identification research (e.g., 500 1,000–2,500
market potential)
Problem-solving research (e.g., pricing) 200 300–500
Product tests 200 300–500
Test-marketing studies 200 300–500
TV/radio/print advertising (per commercial 150 200–300
or ad tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10–20 stores
Focus groups 2 groups 6–15 groups
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected because
they happen to be in the right place at the right time.
• Use of students, and members of social organizations
• Mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents
• Department stores using
charge account lists
• “People on the street”
interviews
A Graphical Illustration of Convenience
Sampling
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the
population elements are selected based on the judgment of the
researcher.
• Test markets
• Purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
• Bellwether precincts selected in voting behavior research
• Expert witnesses used in court
Graphical Illustration of Judgmental Sampling
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted
judgmental sampling.
• The first stage consists of developing control categories, or
quotas, of population elements.
• In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.
Blank Population Composition Sample Composition Blank
Control Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex Blank Blank Blank
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
Blank 100 100 1,000
A Graphical Illustration of Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at
random.
• After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who
belong to the target population of interest.
• Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals.
A Graphical Illustration of Snowball Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• Each element in the population has a known and equal probability of
selection.
• Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal
probability of being the sample actually selected.
• This implies that every element is selected independently of every
other element.
A Graphical Illustration of Simple Random
Sampling
Systematic Sampling (1 of 2)
• The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then
picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.
• The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size
N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
• When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of
interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the
sample.
Systematic Sampling (2 of 2)
• If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic
sampling may decrease the representativeness of the sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a
sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100.
A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this
number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423,
523, and so on.
A Graphical Illustration of Systematic
Sampling
Stratified Sampling (1 of 3)
• A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into
subpopulations, or strata.
• The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in
that every population element should be assigned to one and only
one stratum and no population elements should be omitted.
• Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random
procedure, usually SRS.
• A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision
without increasing cost.
Stratified Sampling (2 of 3)
• The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as
possible, but the elements in different strata should be as
heterogeneous as possible.
• The stratification variables should also be closely related to the
characteristic of interest.
• Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification
process by being easy to measure and apply.
Stratified Sampling (3 of 3)
• In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn
from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum
in the total population.
• In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample from
each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum and
to the standard deviation of the distribution of the characteristic of
interest among all the elements in that stratum.
A Graphical Illustration of Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling (1 of 2)
• The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.
• Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability
sampling technique such as SRS.
• For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
(two-stage).
Cluster Sampling (2 of 2)
• Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but
clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally,
each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.
• In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the
probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies
inversely with the size of the cluster.
A Graphical Illustration of Cluster Sampling (2-
Stage)
Cluster Sampling Vs. Stratified Sampling
Factor Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling (One-Stage)
Objective Increase precision Decrease cost
Subpopulations All strata are included A sample of clusters is chosen
Within subpopulations Each stratum should be Each cluster should be
homogeneous heterogeneous
Across subpopulations Strata should be heterogeneous Clusters should be homogeneous
Sampling frame Needed for the entire Needed only for the selected
population clusters
Selection of elements Elements selected from each All elements from each selected
stratum randomly cluster are included
Strengths and Weaknesses of Basic Sampling
Techniques (1 of 2)
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Nonprobability Sampling Blank Blank
Convenience sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
time-consuming, most representative, not recommended
convenient for descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, not Does not allow generalization,
time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics
Strengths and Weaknesses of Basic Sampling
Techniques (2 of 2)
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Probability Sampling Blank Blank
Simple random Easily understood, results Difficult to construct sampling frame,
sampling (SRS) projectable expensive, lower precision, no assurance
of representativeness
Systematic sampling Can increase Can decrease representativeness if there
representativeness, easier are cyclical patterns
to implement than SRS,
sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Includes all important Difficult to select relevant stratification
subpopulations, precision variables, not feasible to stratify on many
variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost- Imprecise, difficult to compute and
effective interpret results
Popular FREE sample size calculator
• https://www.calculator.net/sample-size-calculator.html
• https://sample-size.net/
• https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/sample-size-calculator/
• http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
• https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/calculating-sample-size/
36
Definitions and Symbols
• Precision level: When estimating a population parameter by using a
sample statistic, the precision level is the desired size of the
estimating interval. This is the maximum permissible difference
between the sample statistic and the population parameter.
• Confidence interval: The confidence interval is the range into which
the true population parameter will fall, assuming a given level of
confidence.
• Confidence level: The confidence level is the probability that a
confidence interval will include the population parameter.
Symbols for Population and Sample Variables
Variable Population Sample
Mean μ
X
Proportion π p
Variance 2 s2
Standard deviation s
Size N n
Standard error of the mean sX sX
Standard error of the proportion p sp
Standardized variate (z) X- m X- X
s s
Coefficient of variation (CV) s s
m X
95% Confidence Interval
Sampling Adequacy
• Kaiser proposed that a KMO > 0.9 was marvelous, in the 0.80s,
meritorious, in the 0.70s, middling, in the 0.60s, mediocre, in the
0.50s, miserable, and less than 0.5 would be unacceptable.
• In general, KMO values between 0.8 and 1 indicate the sampling is
adequate.
• For normally distributed data, Bentler and Chou (1987) suggest
a ratio as low as 5 cases per variable would be sufficient when
latent variables have multiple indicators. A widely accepted rule
of thumb is 10 cases/observations per indicator variable in
setting a lower bound of an adequate sample size (Nunnally,
1967).
How Beauty and Personal Care Brands Can
Bring In-Store Experiences Online
• https://www.salsify.com/blog/how-health-and-beauty-brands-can-
bring-in-store-experience-online
Thank you!
