Heavy Metal Thunder: Early History of Metal Use in Human Culture

Heavy Metal Thunder:
Early history of metal use in human culture

Major revolutions in human culture closely follow
developments in the use of geological materials (including
metals). This is reflected in the terms commonly used for
technological “ages” (e.g. Stone Age, Copper Age, Bronze
Age, Iron age).
Although many metals have found wonderful uses in

technology, many of them were originally used for
ornamental purposes (as artistic media).
This is true for both precious metals and base metals.

The Stone Age
Prior to the use of metals, humans relied on materials such as
obsidian, chert/flint and quartzite for the fashioning of tools.
Increased sophistication of tool making is apparent in tool

types found at archeological sites of different ages.
Tools with
Simple tools with more refined and Bifacial tools with
Sophisticated
a single (unifacial) stereotyped maximized
spear and
cutting edge shape and two cutting surface
harpoon points
cutting (bifacial)
edges
Late Stone Age:
Early Uses of Native Metals
At some point, Stone Age (Neolithic) humans
discovered that native gold was
sufficiently soft and malleable to be fashioned
into artistic objects of beauty.
It is likely that nuggets of placer gold were used

for this purpose.
Obviously, the rarity of native gold and silver

(also used) would have made such objects
extremely valuable.
The resistance of gold to corrosion and

oxidation would have made gold even more
valuable.
Right: Placer gold nuggets (top) and (below) 6000

year old gold “trinkets” from Bulgaria.
The Copper (Chalcolithic) Age (Began at about 4,500 BC)
At roughly the same time, native copper was
also discovered and used by humans
(earliest use dates back to about 6,000 BC,
but widespread use dates to about 4,500
BC).
There was considerable overlap during the

Neolithic in the use of lithics and relatively
novel copper tools. Consequently a
transitional interval between the Stone Age
and later ages of predominant metal use has Cold-worked copper needle
been identified, known as the Chalcolithic or
Copper Age.
Native copper, which occasionally occurs in Greek: “Chalkos” = Copper

large masses was “cold-worked” to make “Lithos” = Stone
delicate objects such as hooks and needles,
which were otherwise difficult to make from
stone and bone.
Rough-hewn early Copper tools
As cutting implements or weapons,
early Copper tools left much to be
desired and were definitely not an
improvement over lithics (the latter
were much sharper and easier to
use).
Consequently, many of these were
used merely for demonstration or
status purposes.
Only members of the nobility of the

time could afford these luxury items
made from metal. Cold-worked copper daggers
Actual use of cold-worked copper was

limited by the brittleness and softness
of the metal, which could not hold a
sharp edge for very long.
Other Metals Used by Copper Age Humans
Other metals that could have been

used more or less as-is included silver
AND
Iron/nickel alloy, occuring naturally in Native silver

iron-nickel meteorites (core material).
Earliest documented use of the latter

dates back to about 4,000 BC
Both sources, of course, were rare.
Iron-nickel meteorite
Heat treating and Annealing Copper
A major improvement in copper technology came when it was
discovered that copper could be annealed when heated. Annealing
involves reordering of the microstructure of the material through heating to
relatively high temperatures, followed by slow cooling. In this process,
metal atoms actually move within the solid material. Redistribution of
material reduces the areas of weakness within the metal and makes it
more pliable under cold-working conditions (more malleable).
This permitted stronger tools to be made, although such tools were still
“status items” of the rich (still not really useful for cutting as such).
Copper dagger, central Bulgaria, 4000-3500 BC

The Copper Age: Discovery of Smelting Methods
The availability of copper was a major
limiting factor in the use of this metal
(deposits of native copper are quite
rare).
This was also true for other metals.
This situation changed with the

Malachite
discovery that copper could be smelted
(separated) from mineral compounds
by heating.
The first copper mineral to be smelted

was probably malachite.
The Beginnings of Smelting
The oxygen-starved conditions

within a kiln would prevent the
combination of pure metal with
oxygen, so metal could be
separated in pure form.
In addition, the presence of

fluxes (e.g. limestone, quartz
sand), used to lower the melting
point of minerals within the
pottery could have lowered the
melting point of the metals that
were inadvertently smelted.
Metal sulphides and the earliest alloys
As supplies of easily smelted copper

minerals such as malachite (copper
carbonate) became scarce, it became
necessary for copper to be obtained
from sulphide minerals.
Copper sulphides (especially Chalcopyrite

chalcopyrite) generally occur with (CuFeS2)
sulphides of other metals such as
arsenic (actually a metalloid; e.g.
arsenopyrite).
Smelted copper with impurities of

arsenic formed the first produced
metal alloy used by humans. This is
known as arsenic-copper, or “arsenic- Arsenopyrite
bronze”. (FeAsS)
The Bronze Age (Began at about 3,200 BC)
It was later noted that the deliberate

addition of impurities (especially
arsenic) could change the properties
of smelted copper.
The arsenic was later replaced by tin

(a true metal), possibly as a result of
high incidence of death among early
arsenic-bronze workers. Bronze
statue
As an added bonus, tin lowers the
melting point of copper (combined
before melting), which made it easier
for this metal to be smelted.
Bronze is quite attractive and is

relatively easy to work, making it
suitable for ornamental objects.
Perhaps more importantly,
bronze is harder than pure
copper, and is therefore
much more useful for tools.
Bronze containing 90 %
copper and 10 % tin is
twice as hard as pure
copper !
Cutting tools can, thus, will

be more effective and will Bronze
not require sharpening as axe
often as pure copper tools
would.
The Iron Age
(began at about 1,200 BC)
Iron bloom
The Iron Age
Humans are believed to have developed the earliest
methods of smelting and forging iron by about 1,500 BC
(in the region now known as Turkey), but these methods
did not become widespread until about 1,200 BC.
Iron mask Iron spear tips

from Africa
Working With Iron
Pure iron still has some undesirable qualities:
1. It is softer than bronze

2. It is too soft to hold a sharp edge
3. Iron tends to oxidize readily (rust)
The quality of iron implements increased via two main

advances in technology:
1. Steeling
2. Tempering
Steeling
It was found that the addition of carbon to iron increased

the hardness of iron metal – this iron-carbon alloy
(containing less than 1.7 % carbon) is what we call steel.
The carbon could have been first introduced to the iron

from carbon monoxide generated in the furnace or from
carbon (charcoal or coal) in the furnace fuel.
4th century AD
Steel hole punch
(Netherlands)
Tempering
An effective method of altering the
properties of iron is tempering.
Tempering involves: the quenching

(sudden cooling) of hot metal in
water (to increase hardness) and
reheating (to reduce brittleness)
The development of tempering must

have involved lots of trial and error
to produce a strong (but slightly
elastic) metal!
The Japanese are famous for their

tempered steel swords.
Casting
Meanwhile, in China, artisans developed extremely
effective furnaces that were capable of melting iron.
The iron could then be poured into moulds.
The cast iron was then reheated to drive off the

excess carbon, making the product more elastic and
malleable for final use.
Of course, in the years to
follow, steelmaking continued
to develop, introducing many
varieties of steel (each with
different properties).
Steel, in combination with the

increased use of coal as fuel,
was the backbone of the
Industrial Revolution, and
remains one of the most
important metals in today’s
society.
END OF LECTURE

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Heavy Metal Thunder:

Early history of metal use in human culture

Although many metals have found wonderful uses in

This is true for both precious metals and base metals.

Increased sophistication of tool making is apparent in tool

It is likely that nuggets of placer gold were used

Obviously, the rarity of native gold and silver

The resistance of gold to corrosion and

Right: Placer gold nuggets (top) and (below) 6000

There was considerable overlap during the

Native copper, which occasionally occurs in Greek: “Chalkos” = Copper

Only members of the nobility of the

Actual use of cold-worked copper was

Other metals that could have been

Iron/nickel alloy, occuring naturally in Native silver

Earliest documented use of the latter

Both sources, of course, were rare.

Copper dagger, central Bulgaria, 4000-3500 BC

This was also true for other metals.

This situation changed with the

The first copper mineral to be smelted

The oxygen-starved conditions

In addition, the presence of

As supplies of easily smelted copper

Copper sulphides (especially Chalcopyrite

Smelted copper with impurities of

It was later noted that the deliberate

The arsenic was later replaced by tin

Bronze is quite attractive and is

Cutting tools can, thus, will

Iron mask Iron spear tips

Pure iron still has some undesirable qualities:

1. It is softer than bronze

The quality of iron implements increased via two main

It was found that the addition of carbon to iron increased

The carbon could have been first introduced to the iron

Tempering involves: the quenching

The development of tempering must

The Japanese are famous for their

The iron could then be poured into moulds.

The cast iron was then reheated to drive off the

Steel, in combination with the

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