The Iron Beams of Konark

Advanced technology of the yester year

Omkar Nath Mohanty

Fig.1 Arrangement of Iron Beams at Konark Temple by ASI | Photo © O.N. Mohanty

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ndia had a rich heritage in science and technology: In the post stone-age, India was one of the leading
in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, metallurgy, countries that engaged in metallurgical activities in the
ceramics, textiles, and so on. Its pre-eminence Copper & Bronze age ( 3000 BC) and is believed to be one
in technology, however, got blunted with industrial of the earliest to have ushered in the Iron Age (1000 BC).
revolution, as the time for high volume production and Indeed, the Indians were able to produce advanced iron
the unit cost of production could be drastically brought and steel products, unknown to the Western world. For
down with the advent of electricity and new processes. instance, the ‘Wootz Metal’ (the word ‘wootz’ believed
Nevertheless, the level of excellence that the Indians to be derived from the original Kannada word, ‘ukku’ for
achieved in the days of yore is astounding. steel) which was an iron-base material with high carbon,

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 that is intrinsically brittle, served as the base material for were inadequate to withstand high enough temperatures
making superior quality Damascus swords demanding for melting steel or cast-iron; the Chinese apparently were
high ductility. Further, the patterns on the surface of the ahead of Indians in terms of producing liquid iron.4
sword also baffled many. It took several hundred years In view of the above, how were the shaped structures of
to demystify these characteristics1–4. A number of these iron/steel being made in Orissa and in many other parts
swords are preserved in museums around the globe, one of India? A number of articles can be found on giving
such was used by Tipu Sultan. Similarly, the Iron pillar of details of iron-making processes in ancient
Delhi (Gupta period—AD 400), apart from its aesthetic India.7 The early Indians used to heat small fragments of
appeal, also attracted the attention of scientists to iron ore mixed with charcoal (produced from wood by
uncover the mystery behind the rust-free nature in spite burning), and blow air to raise the temperature to about
of its exposure to the ravages of elements for 1,600 years. 1,1000C when the slag containing the sandy materials of
The Delhi Iron Pillar was justifiably hailed as a ‘rust-less the ore would fuse (it has a lower melting temperature
wonder’5 and only after some very demanding research due to the simultaneous presence of iron oxide and
work, could one establish the cause of its resistance to silicon oxide apart from other oxides). This is now a pasty
rust.6 mixture of porous solid iron (the oxygen having been
The iron beams at Konark, among the largest found removed by the reaction with carbon) and viscous slag,
in the country and perhaps anywhere else from that which was known as Bloomery Steel or Bloom. When
period, inspires awe in the common man even today. the Bloom is hammered in the hot condition, the molten
However, not much of scientific work has been done slag is squeezed out leaving almost pure iron behind. This
to elaborate on the technique of forging adopted for iron, since it is formed by working (mostly, hammering),
the massive beams and for inducing in it, relatively is called, ‘wrought’ iron and can be further converted
good corrosion-resistance under the aggressive into other shapes by hot working. If the wrought iron is
saline atmosphere of the coast, even after around 800 heated to high temperatures in a closed crucible mixed
years. In order that one appreciates the scientific and with charcoal, it picks up carbon and can form steel; the
technological sophistication involved in the manufacture Wootz Metal is a form of a crucible steel (with very small
of these iron beams, one needs to understand the basic quantities of additional special alloying elements such as
processes associated in making iron/steel, in particular vanadium) from which Damascus Swords were made.2, 3
in the Indian subcontinent during the early days of the
technology. The Temple at Konark and the Use of Iron Beams
Konark, the magnificent and exquisite temple for
Iron Making in India in the Early Period worshipping the Sun God, and declared by UNESCO a
As much as 5 percent of the earth’s crust comprises World Heritage Site in 1984, is situated about 32 kms
iron which however is in a compound form (mostly North-east of Puri, on the shore of the Bay of Bengal. It is
associated with oxygen, in a range of iron oxides), and known to have been built in the mid-thirteenth century
needs a reducing agent (such as carbon) that can remove with the main temple rising to around 230 feet from
oxygen molecules leaving behind iron (meteorites that the ground. Although a number of works on Konark are
landed on earth however provided the first source of available,8–12 perhaps the most comprehensive of them all
direct elemental iron for man). Steel, as we classically was by Professor K.S. Behera.13–15
know, is an alloy of iron and carbon (0.1 to 1.0 per cent); In one of the earliest eye-witness accounts of the full
cast-iron is another class of iron—carbon material with standing temple, Abul-Fazl, the famous historian in the
much higher (greater than about 2 per cent) carbon. The court of Mughal Emperor Akbar (AD 1556–1605),in his
reduction to iron from its oxides by carbon takes place at Ain-i-Akbari, pays glowing tributes to the great edifice.16
a reasonable rate, only at temperatures upwards of 9000C. Sadly, the main temple housing the presiding deity
Further, pure iron melts at 1,5360C. However, as pure iron collapsed, presumably in the seventeenth century.17
absorbs carbon, its melting temperature gets lowered. The only portion of the temple that is still standing in
For instance, if it absorbs around 4 per cent carbon its entirety, is the Jaga Mohana, or the Audience Hall.
(that is, a type of cast-iron), the material melts at about During the British rule, some steps were taken for
1,1300C. Evidences acquired point to the fact that in India conservation of the remaining portions of the temple. The
furnaces were used mostly with dried clay linings that four entrances were permanently closed, and the interior

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was filled with sand vertically from the top by drilling
a hole and pouring sand through a funnel in order to
save the Jagmohana from possible collapse; this exercise
was started in 1901 and completed in 1904 under the
supervision of Bishan Swarup, the executive engineer
who put his experience together to write a book on
Konark.9 From the ruins of the collapsed structures, iron
beams have been collected and today they find place in
the eastern side of the ‘temple’, that is, the Jagamohana,
as would be seen in (Fig. 1).
Although in many Orissan temples the stones are
held together by a system of counterpoise, in other
places iron dowels were used to join pieces of stone and
provide stability.18 Massive iron beams were also used in
some temples, such as Konark; Jagannath, and Gundicha Fig.2 Iron beams supporting the structure at the doorways of
temples in Puri; Lingaraj, Mukteswar, Brahmeswar Eastern gate | Photo © O.N. Mohanty
temples in Bhubaneswar, and in many others . The beams
were designed to support a false roof and the architraves The Place of Making Iron, Forging of the Iron Beams
of the doorways.18­­­-20 It is established that one such beam and their Weather Resistance Properties
was used to support the famed Naba Graha in the eastern
doorway of the Jagamohana of Konark temple.19, 21 In the Some historians have mentioned of the iron ores and coal
(Fig. 2), iron beams in Konark are shown to support a in the Talcher area that contributed to the making of the
doorway. iron beams.20 In his book called, Dhenkal Itihas (in Oriya),

Fig.3 The edge of beams showing composite pieces | Photo © O.N. Mohanty

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 compiled by Ramachandra Nanda, it is mentioned that charcoal. One notices, however, a significantly lower
there were iron-works in a place called Rangasthali in phosphorus content (0.015–0.018 per cent in the samples
Dhenkanal District which was providing the iron beams of Konark compared to those from the Delhi Iron Pillar6, 23
to Konark temple.22 On the other hand, Pt. Krupasindhu (with around 0.2 per cent phosphorus). This information
Mishra mentions that iron was being made at the site would be crucial while analysing the weather resistance
of the temple in huge quantities so as to fulfil the needs of the Konark beams vis-à-vis those of the Delhi pillar.
for beam making.20 This appears plausible in view of There are about twenty-nine pieces of beams that have
the fact that only iron ore was being needed, there was been collected from the ruins of Konark and adverted to
no necessity for coal/coke nor limestone; the charcoal by previous researchers on Konark iron beams.2 Out of
required as the source of the reductant carbon and as these, the largest two are given as 35 ft. 8 in. and 25 ft. 6 in.
a heat-source could have come by burning trunks of in length and about 11 in. sq. in. cross-section. The weight
trees from nearby forests. The requirement of iron beam of the larger piece thus comes to above 7.0 tonnes. To give
in the temple being very specific (in terms of size and a comparison, the total height of Delhi Iron Pillar is 23 ft.
other parameters), a close coordination between the iron 8 in. (above ground level, 22 ft.) upper diameter is 12.5 in.,
smelter and the architect (Sutradhara) must have become lower diameter is 16.5 ins, and the total weight around 6.0
inevitable. tonnes. It would be interesting to compare the process of
The chemical analyses using three samples collected construction of the iron beams of Konark with that of the
from Konark beams have been given by Mr M.K. Ghosh Delhi pillar.
of Tata Steel.23 The carbon contents of the three samples Most researchers agree with the fact the Delhi Iron
were 0.21, 0.45, and 0.27, per cent respectively; in other Pillar was forged by putting together pancakes of
words, there were variations in the carbo-content. The bloomery iron, one after the other and thereafter working
silicon in the samples showed 0.050, 0.110, 0.096 per on the same with hammer strokes, although there is
cent, respectively and the manganese was absent in all some speculation about whether this forging was done in
samples. The phosphorus content varied between 0.015– a vertical manner or initially completed horizontally and
0.018 per cent and the amount of sulphur was 0.008, then fixed upright.2
0.006, and 0.015 per cent respectively. Ghosh23 refers to a A few recent photographs taken by the author (Figs
previous analysis by Newton Friend (Journal of Iron & Steel 1, 3–5) are presented here to reveal some features of the
Inst., London 1924) which had assayed the iron at Konark iron beams in Konark. In the (Fig. 1), one could see all
and reported carbon as 0.11, silicon 0.10, phosphorus the beams arranged on a platform in the eastern side. It
0.015, sulphur 0.024 (all in per cent), and manganese was appears that a few of the beams have broken into smaller
absent. As is well known, there used to be some variation pieces in the mean time.
in composition of the steel directly produced from the On the process of fabricating the long beams in the
iron ore due to the difference in the composition of Konark temple, Pt. Krupasindhu (in Konark) makes
the ore used and the amount of carbon absorbed from an interesting observation,20 quoting from Mr Arnott
(District Gazetteer, Puri), as follows:
The iron beams of Konark are not like those obtained
today. At first, they were making 1 to 1.5 ft. long and
2–3 inch wide flat pieces as templates; these were
then arranged, in length and thickness, as per the final
required dimensions of the beam. Liquid steel was now
poured on this assembly in a confined chamber; this
way all the gaps were getting filled with the liquid and
the templates were getting connected to each other
intimately.

Pt. Mishra further reinforces his views by observing

that the beams present a ‘smooth surface’. Mr Bishan
Swarup also throws some light on the making of the
iron beams.9 While agreeing in general with the laying
of the templates, he is of the view that these plates were
Fig.4 Surface of the beams showing prominent hammer forging heated to high temperatures and then hammered for the
marks | Photo © O.N. Mohanty

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purpose of welding them together; in other words, he has
not favoured the view of the pouring of liquid iron. (Fig.
3), taken from the end, would clearly show the laminates
that have gone into the manufacturing of a ‘composite
beam’.
In this context, Percy Brown writes that the beams
were forged and the larger ones were evidently produced
by welding together a number of blooms of wrought
iron by means of hammer.26 Regarding the nature of the
surfaces, (Fig. 4) clearly reveals hammer markings.
At this point, it would be in order to once again point
out that the furnace for melting steel was not in use, Fig.6 Iron beam surfaces showing rusts | Photo © O.N. Mohanty
hence the alternative prevalent technology would have
been to pour hot bloomery mix comprising both iron and of 20 tonnes per sq.in. (~ 300 mega pascal), tested at the
slag on to the smaller pieces of wrought iron and then Bengal Engineering College, which compares reasonably
hammer them, forcing the semi-solid mass to bind the well with the strength of mild steels in the air-cooled
smaller, laid-down lamineted pieces together. M.K. Ghosh conditions in general. These beams were therefore quite
also observed such laminations.23 This method of putting capable of carrying the loads and more importantly, the
together laminations for making large forgings has not laminated structure would have provided the resistance
been reported from any other place. It is natural however, to crack propagation. Further, in many beams, the middle
that when the size is large and, if the temperature falls portion along the length was made one to two inches
below a lower limit, the welding could be imperfect. Thus, larger in height and width, in comparison to the ends,
the distinctive forging technique employed in making the whenever the design required a greater weight to be
Konark beams also left some welding defects, as shown in carried around that portion.
(Fig. 5). The corrosion resistance of the beams is another
The metallurgical microstructure of Konark beam important item. Today, one finds a widely varying
samples done in the work of M.K. Ghosh23 showed degree of surface corrosion of the beams; some appear
varying micro-structures at different places, indicative well-preserved in spite of the aggressive corrosion
of compositional variation and also varying degree of environment of the seashore and the ravages of nature
exposure to temperatures during manufacture. Further, over the centuries. The beams showing corroded surfaces
the presence of slag particles, as would be expected are shown in (Fig. 6) below:
in the bloomery iron was also revealed. Regarding the The rusts formed on the iron beams of Konark have
tensile strength properties, there is no direct data on the been investigated by J.K. Mukherjee et.al.27 The nature of
Konark iron beams; however a small piece taken from oxides reported by them has been both for Konark beams
Bhubaneswar by Manmohan Ganguly26 showed a value and for the Delhi Iron Pillar. They have identified the
presence of iron oxides such as magnetite, maghemite,
goethite, and others. that are quite common. The
rustless Delhi Iron Pillar (built~ 400 AD) is a tribute
to early India’s knowledge in corrosion science. The
recent comprehensive work of late Balasubramaniam
conclusively shows that the rust from Delhi pillar is
composed of the protective iron hydrogen phosphate
hydrate in the crystalline form, in addition to several
forms of amorphous iron hydroxides.28 Further, it is also
shown that the alternating wetting and drying conditions
in Delhi contributes to the formation of this protective
layer. This compact crystalline iron hydrogen phosphate
hydrate layer does not form in ordinary steels under
Fig.5 The second beam from the back showing unwelded similar conditions, as it dose in the bloomer steel that
portions along mid-section | Photo © O.N. Mohanty contains higher phosphorus and slag.

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 When one compares the above situation with that 7. Pande, G. and J. af Geijerstam (eds) 2002, Tradition and
of the rusting of Konark beams, one finds that there Innovation in the History of Iron Making, Talla Danda,
are primarily two differences: (i) the atmosphere in Nainital: PAHAR Parikrama.
Konark is more damaging than that of Delhi and (ii) the 8. Mitra, R.L. 2007 [1880], The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II,
phosphorus content that is critical is low in some beams Jagatsinghpur: Prafulla Pathagar Publications, p. 331.
9. Swarup, B. 1910, Konark, The Black Pagoda, Cuttack. <AQ:
at least. It may be a sobering thought to know that the
Publisher?>
beams in Konark were primarily designed to carry loads
10. Misra, K., Konarka (in Oriya) 2010, First Publ. in 1919,
in the interior of the temple; the high phosphorus content through the Raja of Bamra, Dibyashankar Sudhaldev;
would be fraught with the risk of lower ductility in this approved as Text Book for BA Examination 1921 of
case. the Patna University. Re-pub: as a part of ‘Krupasindhu
The present study has attempted to throw some light Rachanabali’, ed. Swain, P.K. 2010, Cuttack: Vidyapuri,
on the iron-making practice for use in temples and p. 113.
the process of forging large beams in Konark. While 11. Boner, A. Sharma, S.R. and Das, R.P., 1972, New Light on the
it is shown that it was a unique welding-cum-forging Sun Temple of Konark, Varanasi: Chowkhambha Sanskrit
process of laminated pieces, it is also observed that the Series.
quality control in making the large beams has not always 12. Donaldson, T.E. 2003, Konark , Monumental Legacy, New
been easy, resulting in defects in the welding of the Delhi: Oxford University Press.
composite beams. Further work is required to provide 13. Behera, K.S. 1993, Temples of Orissa, Bhubaneswar: Orissa
Sahitya Akademi.
incontrovertible information on the making of iron in situ,
14. Behera, K.S. 1996, The Heritage of Mankind, 2 Vols. New
vis-à-vis transportation; the exact manner of forging the
Delhi: Aryan Books International.
beams; causes for the varying degree of rusting and so 15. Behera, K.S. 2005, Konark The Black Pagoda, New Delhi:
on, to name a few. At the end, it may be added that in the Publication Division of Ministry of Information &
context of the Konark temple, the knowledge about the Broadcasting, Government of India.
details of making the iron and forging of the beams would 16. Ibid., p. 94.
also enhance our appreciation of the temple building 17. Ibid., p. 100.
ability of our great ancestors. 18. Ibid., p. 31.
19. Mitra, pp. 348 and 353.
cd 20. Misra, p. 299.
21. Behara, p. 70.
22. Nanda, R. 1929, Dhenkanal Itihas (in Oriya), Dhenkanal:
Raja of Dhenkanal Pratap Mahendra Bahadur, Sura Pratap
Notes Machine Press, p. 8.
1. Faraday, M. 1819, ‘An Analysis of Wootz or Indian Steel,’ 23. Ghosh, M.K. 1963, ‘The Delhi Iron Pillar and Its Iron’,
Quartely Journal of Science, Literature & the Arts, Vol. 7, N.M.L. Technical Journal, Vol. 5, Jamshedpur. p. 31.
p. 319. 24. Ref. 4, Srinivasan, p. 26.
2. Sherby, O.D. and J. Wadsworth, 1985 : ‘Damascus Steels’, 25. Brown, Percy 1959, Indian Architecture (Hindu and
Scientific American; Vol. 252, p. 94. Buddhist), 4th. edn, Mumbai: Taraporewala and Sons,
3. Verhoeven, J.D. 2001, ‘The Mystery of Damascus Blades’, p. 127.
Scientific American; Vol. 284, p. 74. 26. Ganguly, M.M. 1912, Orissa and Her Remains, Ancient and
4. Srinivasan, S. and S. Ranganathan, 2005, Wootz Steel–An Medieval, Calcutta. <AQ: Please provide publisher>
Advanced Steel in Ancient India, Jamshedpur: Tata Steel. 27. Mukherjee, J.K. Lahiri, A.K and Banerjee, T., 1968,
5. Anatharaman, T.R. 1997, The Rustless Wonder: A Study of the ‘Studies on the Structural Properties from Ancient Iron’,
Iron Pillar at Delhi, New Delhi: Vigyan Prasar. N.M.L. Technical Journal, Vol. 10, Jamshedpur, p. 25.
6. Balasubramaniam, R. 2002, Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insight, 28. Balasubramaniam, R, 2000, ‘On the Corrosion Resistance
New Delhi: Aryan Books International and Shimla: Indian of the Delhi Iron Pillar’, Corrosion Science, Vol. 42, p.
Institute of Advanced Studies. 2103.

1. Ref. 26 Ganguly, M.M. 1912, Orissa and Her Remains, Ancient and Medieval, Calcutta.<AQ: Please provide publisher>