Cell Physiology 2
Lecturer: Dr. R. Ahangari
of Central Florida, Orlando
Marieb 5th edition & Tortora 10th edition
Anatomy
The nucleus:
Nucleus is the control center of the cell
and contains genetic materials (DNA),
which directs the cell’s activities by
providing the instructions for protein
synthesis.
Most cells have one nucleus in the center,
some have multiple nuclei e.g.: skeletal
muscle, however, mature red blood cells
have no nucleus (anucleate) at all.
Main parts of the nucleus:
1- Nuclear envelope
2- Chromatin and chromosomes
3- Nucleoli
micro.magnet.fsu.edu
Nuclear envelope:
Surrounds the nucleus and has pores and
is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum.
Nucleolus:
Is a dark staining body within the nucleus.
It contains parts of chromosomes and is
cell’s ribosome producing machine (has
genes that code for rRNA).
Chromatin and chromosomes:
Chromatin is the granular thread-like
material in the nucleus composed of DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid)
and histone proteins.
DNA constitute the genes. mhhe.com
genetic code is copied onto mRNA in a
process called transcription.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):
*DNA molecule in chromatin is a double
helix chains of nucleotide molecules.
*Nucleotides consist of sugar, phosphate and
one of four bases: thymine (T), adenine (A),
cytosine (C) or guanine (G), which bind to
hold the DNA helix together like a ladder.
*DNA helix wraps around clusters of eight
spherical proteins called histones, which
regulate gene expression and transcription.
*Each cluster of DNA and histones is called
a nucleosome.
Chromosomes:
*Chromosome contains a single, very long
molecule of DNA. There are 46 chromosomes
in a typical human cell.
extremelongevity.net
*Chromatin is distributed in chromosomes.
During cell division, the chromatin is highly
coiled, making the chromosomes appear as
thick rods.
The Cell Life Cycle:
The cell life cycle is a series of changes
a cell experiences from the time it forms
until it reproduces itself.
The cycle has two major periods:
1- Interphase, in which the cell grows
and carries on its usual activities,
2- Cell division (mitotic phase), during
this period, the cell divides into 2 cells.
*Cell division is essential for growth and
repair of the body.
apbrwww5.apsu.edu
Interphase:
Is the non-dividing phase of the cell cycle,
cells maintain their life-sustaining activities
and prepare for the next cell division.
It consists of subphases G1, S and G2.
G1 (gap 1):
cells are active and grow vigorously and
centrioles start to replicate.
S (synthetic) phase:
DNA replicates itself for the future two
daughter cells having identical genetic
material.
G2 (gap 2):
Enzymes needed for cell division are
synthesized, centrioles finish replication
and cell gets ready to divide.
apbrwww5.apsu.edu
Cell division or Mitosis:
Has four stages:
1- prophase
2- metaphase
3- anaphase
4- telophase
Prophase: (first phase), Events which occur in this phase:
*Asters (stars) are formed; these are microtubule arrays, extending from the centrosome.
*Chromosomes are formed from coiling and condensation of the chromatin threads.
(each chromosome has 2 identical chromatin threads, now called chromatids;
the chromatids are held together by centromere and a protein complex called cohesin.)
*nucleoli disappear *centriole pairs separate *nuclear envelope fragments
*microtubules disassemble and are newly assembled to form mitotic spindles which lengthen
and push the centrioles farther apart to the poles of the cell (some of these spindles are
attached to chromosomes and are called kinetochores; others are called polar spindles).
Metaphase: (second phase)
*Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell,
to form a metaphase plate.
*Separase, an enzyme which cleaves
cohesin, start to separates the chromatids.
Anaphase: (third phase)
*the V-shaped chromatids are pulled apart
by the kinetochore spindles to become the
chromosomes of the daughter cells, and the
polar spindles still push against each other
to elongate the cell.
This stage lasts for few minutes only.
Telophase: (fourth phase)
*This phase is like prophase in reverse.
*chromosomes at the opposite sides of the cell
uncoil and resume extension of the chromatin.
*nuclear envelope forms by rER.
*nucleoli appear.
**For a short period, the cell has 2 nuclei until
it is completely separated by the process of
CYTOKINESIS.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a specialized process of cell division that occurs only in the production of
gametes. It consists of two divisions that result in the formation of four gametes, each
containing half the number of chromosomes (23 single chromosomes) and half the
amount of DNA (1N) found in normal somatic cells (46 single chromosomes, 2N).
Important events during meiosis
1. Meiosis I
*Synapsis: pairing of 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes.
*Crossing over: large segments of DNA are exchanged.
Alignment: 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Disjunction: 46 homologous duplicated chromosomes separate from each other;
centromeres do not split.
Cell division: two secondary gametocytes (23 duplicated chromosomes, 2N) are
formed.
Meiosis II
Synapsis: absent
Crossing over: absent
Alignment: 23 duplicated chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Disjunction: 23 duplicated chromosomes separate to form 23 single chromosomes;
centromeres split.
Cell division: four gametes (23 single chromosomes, 1N) are found.
Clinical Considerations
Aneuploidy, abnormal number of chromosomes, can be trisomy and monosomy.
Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)
Turner syndrome (XO) is monosomy
Gametes
-contain 23 single chromosomes (22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome) and
1N amount of DNA.
The term “haploid” is classically used to refer to a cell containing 23 single
chromosomes.
*Female gametes contain only the X sex chromosome.
*Male gametes contain either the X or Y sex chromosome; therefore, the male
gamete determines the genetic sex of the individual.
Cellular diversity: there are about 200 different cell types in the human body
with a variety of shapes and functions.
leavingbio.net
Aging: Aging is complex and may involve cell damage due to free radicals as a
result of normal cell metabolism or cell injury due to radiation and chemical
pollutants.
Mitochondrial theory of aging involves a decrease of energy production by
radical-damaged mitochondria which weakens and ages the cell. Vitamins C and E
act as antioxidants and prevent excessive production of free radicals. The same is
true with caloric intake restriction due to lowering the metabolic rate which slows
aging.
Genetic theories of aging proposes that aging is programmed into our genes
(senescence).
Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)
Apoptosis is the method whereby cells are removed from tissues in an orderly fashion
as a part of normal maintenance or during development.
1. Cells that undergo programmed cell death have several morphological features.
-They include chromatin condensation, breaking up of the nucleus, and the plasma
membrane.
- The cell shrinks and is fragmented into membrane-enclosed fragments called
apoptotic bodies.
2. The signals that induce apoptosis may occur through several mechanisms.
- Certain cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), may also activate
caspases that degrade regulatory and structural proteins in the nucleus and
cytoplasm, leading to the morphological changes characteristic of apoptosis.
3. Defects in the process of programmed cell death contribute to many major diseases.
- Too much apoptosis causes extensive nerve cell loss in Alzheimer disease and
stroke.
- Insufficiency of apoptosis has been linked to cancer and other autoimmune
disease.
Cancer:
A cell mass which divides and multiplies abnormally; it is also called a neoplasm.
Neoplasms are classified as Benign or Malignant.
Benign neoplasm or tumor is a local mass, remains compacted, often encapsulated, grows
slowly and seldom kills the host.
Malignant neoplasm or cancer is a mass which is not-capsulated and grows rapidly.
Cells here are immature and they invade their surrounding.
These give metastasis (invading other tissues) by means of lymphatics and/or blood.
Oncogenes
Oncogenes are the result of mutations of certain regulatory genes, called protooncogenes,
which normally stimulate or inhibit cell proliferation and development.
1. Genetic accidents or viruses may lead to the formation of oncogenes.
2. Oncogenes dominate the normal alleles (proto-oncogenes), causing deregulation of cell
division, which leads to a cancerous state.
3. Bladder cancer and acute myelogenous leukemia are caused by occogenes.
