Carbohydrate metabolism
Any biochemistry textbook may work, e.g.
Lippincotts Illustrated Reviews, Biochemistry, 3rd ed,
Chapters 7-8,10-14
Roskoski, Biochemistry, 1st ed,
Chapters 7, 10, 25
Berg, Tymoczko, Stryer, 6th ed,
Chapters 11, 16, 20, 21
CARBOHYDRATES
Learning objectives:
Classify carbohydrates according to their definitions
Discuss isomeric properties of carbohydrates
Draw structures of the most common carbohydrates
Discuss digestion of dietary carbohydrates
Sept. 2007
CARBOHYDRATES
The most abundant organic molecules in nature
Provide a significant fraction of the energy in the diet of most organisms
Important source of energy for cells
Can act as a storage form of energy
Can be structural components of many organisms
Can be cell-membrane components mediating intercellular communication
Can be cell-surface antigens
Can be part of the bodys extracellular ground substance
Can be associated with proteins and lipids
Part of RNA, DNA, and several coenzymes (NAD+, NADP+, FAD, CoA)
Sept. 2007
CARBOHYDRATES
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones,
or substances that yield these compounds on hydrolysis
Aldehyde
group O H
C CH2OH
Keto
H- C - OH C O group
CH2OH CH2OH
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Carbohydrate with an aldehyde group: Aldose
Carbohydrate with a ketone group: Ketose
CARBOHYDRATES
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones,
or substances that yield these compounds on hydrolysis
O H
C CH2OH
Both can be
H- C - OH C O written
C3H6O3 or
CH2OH CH2OH (CH2O)3
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Empirical formula of many simpler carbohydrates: (CH2O)n
(hence the name hydrate of carbon)
Monosaccharides
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones that cant easily be
further hydrolyzed
Simple sugars
Number of carbons Name Example
3 Trioses Glyceraldehyde
4 Tetroses Erythrose
5 Pentoses Ribose
6 Hexoses Glucose, Fructose
7 Heptoses Sedoheptulose
9 Nonoses Neuraminic acid
Oligosaccharides
Hydrolyzable polymers of 2-6 monosaccharides
Disaccharides composed of 2 monosaccharides
Examples: Sucrose, Lactose
Polysaccharides
Hydrolyzable polymers of > 6 monosaccharides
Homopolysaccharides:
polymer of a single type of monosaccharide
Examples: Glycogen, Cellulose
Heteropolysaccharides:
polymer of at least 2 types of monosaccharide
Example: Glucosaminoglycans
ISOMERISM
Structural isomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula but with
different structures
Functional group isomers
with different functional groups
E.g. glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
Positional isomers
with substituent groups on different C-atoms
E.g.
COO--CHOPO3--CH2OH and COO--CHOH-CH2OPO3-
2-Phosphoglycerate 3-Phosphoglycerate
ISOMERISM
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula, functional
groups, and position of functional groups but with
different conformations
cis-trans isomers
with different conformation around double bonds
H COOH H COOH
C C
C C
HOOC H H COOH
Fumaric acid (trans) Maleic acid (cis)
ISOMERISM
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula, functional
groups, and position of functional groups but with
different conformations
optical isomers
with different conformation around chiral or asymmetric
carbon atoms
The carbon C is asymmetric if A, B, D, and E
B are four different groups
A C D The four different groups A, B, D, and E can be
arranged in space around the C-atom in two
different ways to generate two different
E compounds
ISOMERISM
Stereoisomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula, functional
groups, and position of functional groups but with
different conformations
optical isomers
with different conformation around chiral or asymmetric
carbon atoms
The mirror images cant be
superimposed on each other,
B B i.e. they are different
A C D D C A The mirror image isomers
constitute an enantiomeric pair;
one member of the pair is said
E E to be the enantiomer of the
other
Mirror
ISOMERISM
B B
A C D D C A
E E
Mirror
One member of an enantiomeric pair will rotate a plane of polarized
light in a clockwise direction.
It is said to be dextrorotatory which is labelled (+)
The other member of the pair will then rotate the light in a
counterclockwise direction.
It is said to be levorotatory which is labelled (-)
ISOMERISM
B B
A C D A C D
E E
Fischer Perspective
projection formula
formula
Reference compound for optical isomers is the simplest monosaccharide with
an asymmetric carbon: glyceraldehyde
O H
C C-atom 1
C-atom 2 (an asymmetric carbon)
H- C - OH C-atom 3
CH2OH
O H O H
C C CH2OH
H- C - OH HO- C - H C O
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
D-Glyceraldehyde is assigned to be the isomer that has the hydroxyl group
on the right when the aldehyde group is at the top in a Fischer projection formula.
It is also dextrorotatory, so it is also D(+)-Glyceraldehyde
If a compound has n asymmetric carbon atoms then there are
2n different optical isomers
Number of Number of Number of
carbon atoms Aldose/Ketose asymmetric carbon atoms optical isomers
3 Aldose 1 2
4 Aldose 2 4
5 Aldose 3 8
6 Aldose 4 16
3 Ketose 0 -
4 Ketose 1 2
5 Ketose 2 4
6 Ketose 3 8
D & L designate absolute configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom farthest
from the aldehyde or ketone group
CHO CHO CHO CHO
H C OH OH C H OH C H H C OH
H C - OH OH C - H H C - OH OH C - H
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Erythrose L-Erythrose D-Threose L-Threose
Optical isomers that are not enantiomers are diastereomers
Diastereomers that differ by their configuration on a single
asymmetric carbon are epimers
CHO CHO CHO CH2OH
H C OH HO C H H C OH C=O CHO
HO C H HO C H HO C H HO C H HO C OH
H C OH H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Glucose D-Mannose D-Galactose D-Fructose D-Ribose
C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C5H10O5
Reactions involving aldehyde and keto groups in carbohydrates
Aldehyde + Alcohol Hemiacetal
Ketone + Alcohol Hemiketal
With ring formation involving the aldehyde- or ketone-carbon atom, this
carbon atom also becomes asymmetric, giving two possible isomers called
anomers
The carbon atom is the anomeric carbon
The hydroxyl group bound to the anomeric carbon is the anomeric hydroxyl group.
In Haworth formulas of D-pentoses and D-hexoses,
the -anomer has the anomeric hydroxyl written below the ring plane
the -anomer has the anomeric hydroxyl written above the ring plane
6-membered ring: Pyranose
5-membered ring: Furanose
Mutarotation: Spontaneous conversion of one anomer to the other
CH2OH CH2OH
H O H O
H OH
H H
OH H OH H
OH OH OH H
CHO
H OH H OH
H C OH
-anomer
-anomer
HO C H
H C OH
H C OH
CH2OH
D-Glucose
Equilibrium: 36% -anomer, 63% -anomer, <1% open-chain form
Learn (know) these structures
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O OH O OH O OH
H OH
H H H
OH H OH OH OH H
OH H OH H H H
H OH H H H OH
D-Glucopyranose D-Mannopyranose D-Galactopyranose
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH OH
O O
H OH H H
H OH H H
OH H OH OH
D-Fructopyranose D-Ribofuranose
Reducing sugars
Carbohydrate with a free or potentially free aldehyde or ketone group
COOH
CHO
H C OH
CH2OH H C OH
Cu2+ Cu+ Cu2O
O HO C H
H OH HO C H
H
H C OH
OH
OH H
H
H C OH
H2O, OH-
H C OH
H C OH
H OH
CH2OH Benedicts solution CH2OH
CH2OH HOCH CHO
C=O H C OH H C OH
OH - OH -
HO C H HO C H HO C H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C OH H C OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
D-Fructose Enediol D-Glucose
Glycosidic bonds
Bond formed between the anomeric carbon of a
carbohydrate and the hydroxyl oxygen atom of an
alcohol (O-glycosidic bond) or the nitrogen of an
amine (N-glycosidic bond)
Glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides yields
oligo- and polysaccharides
After glycosidic bond formation, the ring formation
involving the anomeric carbon is stabilized with no
potentially free aldehyde or keto groups
O-glycosidic bonds
O OH O O
C + HO R C + H 2O
R H (R) R H (R)
Hemiacetal Alcohol Acetal Water
(Hemiketal) (Ketal)
Glycosidic bonds
Lactose: -D-galactopyranosyl-(14)- D-glucopyranose
Maltose: -D-glucopyranosyl-(14)- D-glucopyranose
Isomaltose: -D-glucopyranosyl-(16)- D-glucopyranose
Sucrose: -D-glucopyranosyl-(12)- D-fructofuranose
Glycosidic bonds
Lactose, glucose and isomaltose are reducing sugars with a non-reducing and
reducing end
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar
Model of cellulose molecules in a microfibril
Glucosaminoglycans
Large complexes of negatively charged heteropolysaccharide
chains
Typically associated with a small (<5%) amount of protein
forming proteoglycans
Properties
Can bind large amounts of water
Gel-like matrix
Viscous
Lubricating
Shock absorbing
Glucosaminoglycans
Repeating disaccharide units [acidic sugar amino sugar]n
Amino sugar is D-glucosamine or D-galactosamine with the amino group usually
acetylated
Acidic sugar is D-gluconic acid or L-iduronic acid
Hydroxyl or amino groups may be sulfated
Carboxyl groups and sulfate groups make glycosaminoglycans negatively charged
at physiological pH
Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Glycoproteins contain less carbohydrate than proteoglycans.
Carbohydrates can be attached to the amide nitrogen in
the side chain of asparagine (N-linkage) or to the hydroxyl
oxygen of serine or threonine (O-linkage)
Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Cell-surface molecules
antigen determinants
mediator of cell-cell interaction
attachment sites for vira
Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Most proteins in serum are glycosylated
Example: Erythropoietin
Glycosylation enhances stability of erytropoietin in blood
Carbohydrates of glycoproteins
Several monosaccharide building blocks
(e.g. glucose, galactose, mannose, N-acetyl glucosamine,
N-acetyl galactosamine, N-acetyl mannoseamine, fucose,
N-acetylneuraminic acid)
Great
Branching structural
Several possible glycosidic bonds
complexity!
Several potential glycosylation sites in glycoproteins
Dietary carbohydrates
Starch
Sucrose Digestible
Glucose and fructose
Lactose
Cellulose
Other plant polysaccharides Non-digestible
by humans
Only monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream
from the gut.
Digestion of carbohydrates involves their hydrolysis into
monosaccharides
Digestive Enzymes
Enzymes for carbohydrate digestion
Enzyme Source Substrate Products
-Amylase Salivary gland Starch, glycogen Oligosaccharides
Pancreas
Dextrinase Small intestine Oligosaccharides Glucose
Isomaltase Small intestine -1,6-glucosides Glucose
Maltase Small intestine Maltose Glucose
Lactase Small intestine Lactose Galactose, glucose
Sucrase Small intestine Sucrose Fructose, glucose
Lactase deficiency produces lactose intolerance
Absorption of monosaccharides
by intestinal mucosal cells
Major monosaccharides
Glucose, galactose, fructose
Entry into mucosal cells from intestinal lumen
Active transport of glucose and galactose with a concurrent
uptake of Na+ ions
Facilitated transport of fructose via transporter protein
GLUT-5
Entry into the portal circulation from mucosal cells
Facilitated transport via transporter protein GLUT-2
Blood glucose concentrations
Measured in mmol/L = mM or in mg/dL
Conversion factor: 1 mM = 18 mg/dL
Normal plasma glucose concentrations roughly
3.9 8.3 mM
Hypoglycemia: < 2.2 mM
Diabetes: > 7.0 mM (fasting)
> 11.1 mM 2 h after ingestion of 75 g glucose
All cells can use glucose as an energy source
Brain cells and erythrocytes require glucose as an energy source
