CARBOHYDRATE CHEMISTRY

Objectives
 Definition

 Biomedical importance

 Classification

 Monosaccharides –Isomerism, Properties &

their importance
 Disacharides – examples and importance

 Polysaccharides -examples and importance

 Mucopolysaccharides -examples and

importance

 Glycoproteins

 Therapeutic uses
 DEFINITION
 Carbohydrates are
polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones.
or
 Substances that yield such
compounds on hydrolysis.

 General formula : Cn H2n On

EXCEPTION

 Acetic acid ( CH3 COOH )

Lactic acid ( C3 H6 O3 )
 IMPORTANCE

 Main source of energy

 Storage form of energy ( Starch and glycogen)

 Excess carbohydrate are converted into fat

 Glycoproteins and glycolipids are components of

cell membranes and receptors

 Structural basis of many organisms- cellulose of

plants, exoskeleton of insects.
• Non digestible carbohydrates like cellulose ,
agar- Dietary fibres
• Constituent of nucleotide that forms RNA
and DNA- Ribose and deoxy ribose sugar.

• Involved in detoxification- Glucouronic acid.

 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Based on number of sugar units

 Monosaccharides

 Disaccharides

 Oligosaccharides

 Polysaccharides
 MONOSACCHARIDES

 Simplest sugars

 Only one sugar group

 Cannot be hydrolysed into simpler

carbohydrates
 Subdivided based on number of carbon
atoms
• trioses (C3)

• tetroses (C4)

• pentoses(C5)
• hexoses(C6)
• heptoses (C7).
 Based on the functional group present:

 Aldoses: aldehyde group at one end ie: C1

end

 Ketoses: Ketone group at one end ie: C2

Carbon atoms Aldoses Ketoses

Trioses Glycerose Dihydroxy

acetone

Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose

Pentoses Ribose Ribulose

Hexoses Glucose Fructose

Heptoses Glucoheptose Sedoheptulose

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

CHO CH2OH
H- C-OH C=O

CH2OH
CH2OH
Erythrose Erythrulose

CHO CH2OH

H- C-OH C=O

H- C-OH H- C-OH

CH2OH CH2OH
Ribose Ribulose

CHO CH2OH

H- C-OH C=O
H- C-OH
H- C-OH
H- C-OH
H- C-OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
 Glucose Fructose
CHO CH2OH

H- C-OH C=O

HO- C-H HO- C-H

H- C-OH H- C-OH
H- C-OH H- C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH
Glucoheptose Sedoheptulose

CHO CH2OH

H- C-OH C=O

H- C-OH H- C-OH

H- C-OH H- C-OH

H- C-OH H- C-OH

H- C-OH H- C-OH

CH2OH CH2OH
 STRUCTURE OF MONOSACCHARIDES

• Open chain form ( Straight chain form)

• Fischer projection

• Haworth projection
HAWORTH PROJECTION OF GLUCOSE
CHAIR FORM OF GLUCOSE
BOAT FORM OF GLUCOSE
OPEN STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE
HAWORTH PROJECTION OF FRUCTOSE
 DISACCHARIDES

 Contains two monosaccharide units.

 Linked by glycosidic bond

 They yield two molecules of

monosaccharides when it is hydrolysed
 Ex : Maltose: Glucose + Glucose

Lactose: Glucose + Galactose

Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose

 OLIGOSACCHARIDES

 Condensation products of 3 to 10 monosaccharide

units.

Ex :

 Maltotriose: Glucose + Glucose +Glucose

 Raffinose: Glucose + Fructose + Galactose

 POLYSACCHARIDES
 Condensation products of more than 10 monosaccharide
units
CLASSIFICATION:
 Homopolysaccharides -- made up of single type
of monosaccharides
Ex : Starch, glycogen, Cellulose, inulin
 Heteropolysaccharides -- made up of different
type of monosaccharides.
Ex : Hyaluronic acid, Heparin, Keratan sulphate
 ISOMERISM

 Compounds with same molecular formula

but different structural formula
 TYPES OF ISOMERISM
 Functional: Aldose – Ketose isomerism

 Stereoisomerism:

a.Enantiomers (D and L form)

b.Optical isomerism

c. Epimerism

d. Anomerism

 Pyranose – Furanose isomerism

 FUNCTIONAL ISOMERISM

 Differ in their functional group.

 Aldoses: Aldehyde group at one end i.e C1

Ex : Glucose, Galactose, Mannose, ribose etc.

 Ketoses: Ketone group at one end i.e C2

Ex : Fructose,ribulose, etc
 Glucose Fructose

CHO CH2OH

H- C-OH C=O

HO- C-H HO- C-H

H- C-OH H- C-OH
H- C-OH H- C-OH
CH2OH CH2OH
 STERIOISOMERISM

 Compounds having same structural formula, but

differ in spatial configuration of atoms (i.e

arrangement of groups in space)

 Due to the presence of asymmetric carbon atoms.

 D

A C C

B
 ASYMMETRIC CARBONS

 A carbon atom to which four different atoms or

groups of atoms are attached.

 The number of possible isomers of any given

compound depends upon the number asymmetric
carbon atoms present in the molecule.

 2n = possible number of isomers

 Ex: 24 = 16- glucose

 ENANTIOMERS OR D AND L STEREOISOMERISM

 Based on spatial orientation of the H and OH

groups on the penultimate carbon

 Penultimate carbon is the asymmetric carbon

nearest to the terminal carbon at the other end
of the molecule.
 D-L-STEREOISOMERISM
O H O H
C C
H – C – OH HO – C – H
HO – C – H H – C – OH
H – C – OH HO – C – H
H – C – OH HO – C – H
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose L-glucose
 D AND L STEREOISOMERISM

 D series: When the OH group on penultimate

carbon is on the right.
Ex : D- glucose, D- fructose

 L- series: When the OH group on penultimate

carbon is on the left.
Ex : L- glucose, L- fructose
 D AND L STEREOISOMERISM
 D – sugars are biologically active in eukaryotes and
abundant in nature.

 D- sugars are present in human body and enzymes

responsible for their metabolism are specific for this
configuration..

 Two biologically important L- sugars are L- iduronic acid (

mucopolysaccharides) and L- fucose( glycoproteins).
 OPTICAL ACTIVITY
 Optical activity of a substance -- capacity to
rotate the plane of vibration of polarized light
either to right ( clockwise ) or left ( anticlockwise).

 This is due to presence of asymmetric carbon

atoms.

 If it is rotated to right, then it is called

dextrarotation.

 If it is rotated to left, then it is called levorotation.

Optical activity

Rotation of the plane of plane polarised light

Ordinary Plane Dextro Levo

light polarised rotation rotation
light d or + l or -
 OPTICAL ISOMERISM

 An optically active substance may show optical

isomerism i.e a dextrorotatory isomer ( + or d ) or
levorotatory isomer ( - or l ).

 Ex : Dextrorotatory --- Glucose ( dextrose ),

 Levorotatory --- Fructose

 OPTICAL ISOMERISM

 Racemic mixture: When equal amounts of

dextrorotatory and levorotatory isomers are

present, the resulting mixture has no optical

activity. Such a mixture is said to be racemic.

 EPIMERISM

 Stereoisomerism due to difference in the

configuration around a single asymmetric carbon

atom other than penultimate carbon

 Galactose and glucose- C-4 epimers

 Mannose and glucose are C-2 epimers

EPIMERS
 ANOMERISM
 Stereoisomerism due to difference in the

configuration around anomeric carbon

 Anomerism- Due to ring formation( cyclisation) of

monosaccharides in solutions.

 A new asymmetric carbon ( at C-1 of aldoses and

C-2 of ketoses ) is produced.

 In the α – anomerism where the OH group is
on the right side of the projection formula or
below the plane of ring in Hawarth formula

 In the  – anomer where the OH group is on

the left side of the projection formula or
above the plane of the ring in the Hawarth
formula
 PYRANOSE – FURANOSE ISOMERISM

 Pyranose is six membered ring ( 5 carbon

and 1 oxygen )

 Furanose is five membered ring ( 4 carbon

and 1 oxygen)
-D Glucopyranose

CH2OH

H C O H
C OH H H C
OH

OH C C

H OH
α-D Fructofuranose

CH2OH O CH2OH
H OH
H OH

OH H
 MUTAROTATION

 It is the change in optical activity of a fresh

aqueous solution of a reducing sugar until
optical rotation attains a stable
equilibrium.

 This is mainly due to spontaneous

interconversion of the  and β anomers.
Example: Mutarotation of glucose

 Aqueous solution of glucose kept at 4• - The initial specific rotation

is + 112• (α –D- glucose)

 D- glucose when kept in boiling water - +19⁰ ( ẞ - D glucose)

 When both the forms kept in solution at room temperature ,

optical rotation changes to 52.7⁰

 + 112• 52.5⁰ +19⁰

( α –D- glucose ) ( D- glucose ) ( ẞ - D glucose)

 PROPERTIES/ REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES

 Action of acids on monosaccharides

 Reducing property

 Osazone formation

 Oxidation property

 Reduction property

 Glycoside formation
 ACTION OF ACIDS ON MONOSACCHARIDES

 When monosaccharides are treated with

concentrated acids, they undergo dehydration and
forms furfurals.
(hexoses –hydroxy methyl furfurals, )
( pentose – furfurals)

 These furfural condense with phenolic compounds to

form coloured products.
 IMPORTANCE
This is the basis for

 Molisch test: identification of carbohydrates

 Bials test: identification of Pentose

 Seliwinoffs test: identification of ketose

MOLISCH TEST
BIALS TEST SELWINOFFS TEST
 REDUCING PROPERTY
 In alkaline medium, reducing sugars undergo
tautomerization to form enediols.

 Enediols are highly reactive and good reducing agents,

reduce cupric ions to cuprous ions.

 Cuprous ions combine with OH groups to form CuOH

which upon heating gets converted to cuprous oxide.

 Tautomerization – process of shifting a hydrogen from

one carbon to another to produce enediols
 IMPORTANCE

 This is the basis for Benedicts test and

Barfoeds test.

 Qualitative analysis of sugars.

BENEDICTS TEST
BARFOEDS TEST FOR BARFOEDS TEST FOR
MONOSACCHARIDES DISACCHARIDES
 OSAZONE FORMATION

 Presence of free anomeric carbon is essential for this

reaction.

 Monosaccharide or a reducing sugar is first heated with

phenylhydrazine in acetic acid to form sugar –
phenylhydrazone, which reacts with more reagent to
give a sugar osazone of characteristic crystals.
OSAZONE REACTION
 Glucose, fructose & mannose: long needle shaped

crystals.

(differences in these are in the 1st and 2nd carbon atom,

when

osazone is formed these differences masked)

 Maltose: sunflower petal shaped crystals

 Lactose : hegde hog shaped crystals

 GLUCOSE,
LACTOSE MALTOSE FRUCTOSE
 IMPORTANCE

 Monosaccharides : confirmation test

 Disaccharides: differentiate between

lactose and maltose
 OXIDATION OF SUGARS

 Depending on the oxidising agent the aldehyde or keto,

the terminal alcohol or both groups may be oxidised.

 Under mild conditions, the aldehyde group is oxidised to

carboxyl group to produce aldonic acid.

 Ex : Glucose : gluconic acid

Mannose : mannonic acid
 OXIDATION OF SUGARS
 Under special condition, when aldehyde group is
protected, only primary alcoholic group can be oxidized
to give uronic acid

Glucose : Glucuronic acid

Mannose : Mannuronic acid

Galactose : Galacturonic acid

IMPORTANCE OF GLUCURONIC ACID :

 Constituent of heteropolysaccharide or
mucopolysaccharides.

 Conjugation of bilirubin, drugs and hormones

 OXIDATION OF SUGARS-

 Under strong oxidation condition (HNO3 +

heat), the first( aldehyde) and last carbon

atom (primary alcoholic) are simultaneously

oxidised to dicarboxylic acid known as

saccharic acids.
 Glucose : Glucosaccharic acid

Mannose : Mannaric acid

Galactose : Mucic acid

Importance: Mucic acid forms insoluble crystals and is

the basis for a test for identification of galactose.
 REDUCTION OF SUGARS

 When monosaccharide is treated with

reducing agent, the aldehyde or keto
group is reduced to corresponding alcohol.
 D-Glucose : D-Sorbitol
 D-Mannose : D-mannitol
 D-ribose : D-ribitol
 D-galactose : Dulcitol
 IMPORTANCE

 D- mannitol, D – sorbitol and dulcitol used as energy source for bacteria. So they
are used for identification of bacterial colonies.

 Sorbitol and galactitol because of its osmotic effect cause osmotic damage to
tissues.
Ex :Accumulation in lens causes cataract
( Diabetes mellitus & galactosemia)

 Mannitol : To reduce intracranial tension

 GLYCOSIDES

 Glycosides are compounds formed by condensation of hydroxyl

group of anomeric carbon of a monosaccharide with an hydroxyl
group ( 0- glycosides) or amino groups ( N- glycosides) of another
molecule ( carbohydrate or non carbohydrate)

 If both the molecules are sugars – Carbohydrate glycosides

 If one molecule is sugar other is non sugar ( aglycone )-Non

carbohydrate glycoside

 The bond formed is called glycosidic bond

PHYSIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT GLYCOSIDES

 Cardiac glycosides: digitalis- cardiac

stimulant

 Ouabain: Na+ / K+ ATPase inhibitor

 Streptomycin: Antibiotic

 Glycovanillin: imparts vanilla flavor

DERIVATIVES OF SUGARS( MODIFIED SUGARS)

 Uronic acids

 Aminosugars

 Sugar phosphates

 Deoxy sugars

 Sialic acids
 URONIC ACIDS
 Ex: glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid

IMPORTANCE

 Constituent of mucopolysaccharides
 Conjugation of bilirubin, drugs & hormones(
detoxification)
 AMINO SUGARS
 Amino group may be substituted for hydroxyl group of
sugar.

 Usually the amino group is added to 2nd carbon of

hexoses.
 Ex: Glucose : glucosamine
Galactose : galctosamine
 Amino group may acetylated to produce N-
acetylated Sugar

ex: N-acetyl glucosamine (GluNac)

N-acetyl galactosamine (GalNac)
 IMPORTANCE

 Constituent of heteropolysaccharides,
glycoproteins and membrane antigens.

 Related to antibiotic activity of some drugs

ex – Erythromycin , Carbomycin.
 SUGAR PHOSPHATES

 Hydroxyl group of sugars can be esterified by acids such

as phosphoric acid to form sugar phosphates.

 Sugar phosphates of great biological importance.

 Glucose – 1 – Po4 , Glucose – 6 – Po4

Fructose – 6- Po4 and fructose 1,6 bisPo4 are
intermediates of glucose metabolism.
 DEOXY SUGAR
 Oxygen of the hydroxyl group may be removed to
form deoxy sugars.

Importance
 Deoxyribose: present in DNA
 L- Fucose: blood group antigen and glycoprotein.
 SIALIC ACIDS(N- ACETYL NEURAMINIC ACID)

 Neuraminic acid - 9 carbon sugar derived from

mannosamine and pyruvate.

 Amino group of mannosamine is acetylated.

 Sialic acids are constituents of both glycoproteins and

gangliosides (glycolipids).
 DISACCHARIDES

 Two monosaccharides are combined

together by glycosidic bond.

 EX: Maltose, lactose sucrose, isomaltose

trehalose and cellobiose

 Reducing disaccharides: One functional group is

free

Eg: Maltose, lactose, and Isomaltose

 Non -reducing disaccharides: Both the functional

group are involved in linkage

Eg: sucrose & trehalose

 MALTOSE

 Two glucose molecules

 α 1,4 glycosidic bond

 Reducing sugar

 Sun flower petal shaped crystals

 CH2OH
CH2OH
H O H H
H O H
1C
H
4 C
OH H
O OH H
OH OH
OH OH OH
H OH
H
-D Glucopyranose -D Glucopyranose
O-
-1,4 glycosidc linkage
 CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

 Various food preparations such as baby

food are prepared by hydrolysis of grains
and contain large amount of maltose

 They are easily digestible.

 LACTOSE

 One glucose and one galactose molecule

  1.4 glycosidic bond

 Reducing sugar

 Source: milk

 Hydrolysed by intestinal lactase or acids

 Hedgehog shaped crystals.

 CH2OH CH2OH
OH H H
OH O O
H H
1C O 1C
OH H OH H
H H OH
OH OH OH
H H
β-D Galactopyranose -D Glucopyranose

β-1,4 glycosidc linkage

 CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

 Breast milk is a good source of energy for

the newborn baby.

 Lactose intolerance - Deficiency of lactase

 SUCROSE

 One glucose and one fructose molecule.

 α  1,2 glycosidic bond

 Non reducing sugar

 Known as cane sugar

 CH2OH -D Glucopyranose

H C O H

C OH H H C

OH C C
 1-β2 glycosidc linkage
H OH OH
O
CH2OH O OH
β-D fructofuranose
H OH
H CH2OH

OH H
 Also known as invert sugar, present in honey
(change of dextrarotation to levorotation )

 Inversion: Change in the optical rotation of

sucrose on hydrolysis.
 Optical rotation of sucrose solution is dextrarotatory
ie +66.5°

 On hydrolysis,the products are levorotatary because

fructose has greater levorotation compared to
dextrarotation of glucose. i.e -27.5 °
 BIOMEDICAL IMPORTANCE

 Sucrose when administered parenterally cannot

be digested, but it can change the osmotic
condition of the blood and causes the flow of
water from tissues into the blood.
 ISOMALTOSE

 Two glucose molecules

 α 1,6 glycosidic linkages

 Reducing sugar
 TREHALOSE

 Two glucose molecules

 α 1,1 glycosidic linkage

 Non reducing sugar

 Present in insect hemolymph

 CELLOBIOSE

 Two glucose molecules

  1,4 glycosidic linkage

 Partial hydrolysis of cellulose

 LACTULOSE
• Consists of Galactose and Fructose ( ẞ 1,4 linkage)

• A semi-synthetic disaccharide (not naturally

occurring)

• not absorbed in the GI tract

• used either as a laxative or in the management of

hepatic encephalopathy
 POLYSACCHARIDES

STARCH

 Is a polymer of glucose

 Called as glucosan or glucan

 Reserve carbohydrate of plant

 Source : cereals, potatoes, topoica etc

Structure: two components

 amylose ( 10-20%)

 amlyopectin (80- 85% ).

AMYLOSE
 Soluble

 10- 20%

 Unbranched

 Made up of glucose units linked by alpha

1,4 glycosidic linkages.

 Molecular weight: 4,00,000 D

STRUCTURE OF AMYLOSE
 AMYLOPECTIN
 Insoluble

 80-85%

 Branched

 Made up of glucose units linked by

alpha 1,4 & 1,6 glycosidic linkages .

 Molecular wt is more than 1 million D

 10 -100 branched chains, each made of 25 – 30 α
–D glucopyranose. These branched chains linked
to each other by α 1,6 glycosidic linkages.

 Branching occurs once in every 25 residue

STRUCTURE OF AMYLOPECTIN

Amylopectin
 PROPERTIES
 Nonreducing sugar – because most of the
aldehyde groups are involved in glycosidic
formation and free groups are negligible in
number.

 Iodine test – blue colored complex

(Helical structure of amylose)
 PROPERTIES

 On heating blue colour disappears

(Disruption of helical structure)
 HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH

 It is hydrolysed by amylase or dilute acids.

 By amylase the end product is maltose

 By acids the end product is glucose.

 ACTION OF AMYLASES ON STARCH

 Two types of amylases ie α and .

 Salivary and pancreatic amylase are α-

amylase : which spilt starch into

maltose.
 ACTION OF AMYLASES ON STARCH

  - amylases are of plant origin .

 They act on amylose to spilt maltose units

consecutively.

 When  - amylases acts on amylopectin

maltose units are liberated , until its action is
blocked at α 1,6 linkage- molecule is called
Limit dextrin
 ACTION OF ACIDS ON STARCH

Hydrolytic products are

 Amylodextrins
 Erythrodextrins
 Achrodextrins
 Maltose
 Glucose
Hydrolytic Iodine test Benedicts test
product
Amylodextrins violet Negative(non
reducing)
Erythrodextrins red Green( mild
reducing)
Achrodextrins No colour Yellow(
reducing)
Maltose No colour Red(reducing)

Glucose No colour Red(reducing)

 IMPORTANCE OF STARCH

 Major polysaccharide present in our food.

 It serve as reserve food material in plants.

 GLYCOGEN

 Storage polysaccharide in animals

 Deposited in liver and muscle, which are

readily available as immediate source of
energy.
 STRUCTURE OF GLYCOGEN

 Highly branched

 Polymer of glucose with α -1,4 and α -1,6

linkage.

 High molecular weight

Structure of glycogen
 PROPERTIES OF GLYCOGEN
 Reaction with iodine gives deep red color.

 Branch point occurs for every 8 to 10

glucose units.

 Excess carbohydrate in the body deposited

as glycogen
 CELLULOSE
 Chief carbohydrate in plants.

 Made up of glucose units linked by  1,4

glycosidic linkages.

 Non reducing

 Hydrolysed by cellobiase enzyme

 Used as dietary fibre

 DEXTRANS

 Highly branched homopolysacharides

 Made up of glucose units linked by α, 1,4 ,

α, 1,3 & α, 1,6 linkages.

 Produced by micro -organisms

 IMPORTANCE
 Used as plasma expander for treatment of
hypovolemic shock.

 Advantage : high viscosity, low osmotic pressure,

slow disintegration and slow elimination.

 Disadvantage : it can interfere with grouping and

cross matching.
 Dental plaque i.e due to dextran synthesized by
oral bacteria
 INULIN
 Is a polymer of α D fructose linked by  1,2
linkages
 Reserve carbohydrate in various bulb and tubers
such as onion, garlic etc
 Low molecular weight
 Levorotatory
 Easily soluble in warm water.
 IMPORTANCE

 Used in determination of renal clearance

value
 CHITIN

• N- acetyl glucosamine linked by beta 1,4

glycosidic linkage

• Found in exoskeleton of insects

 DEXTRIN

• Low molecular wt. polymers of glucose

• Linked by alpha 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic linkages

• Obtained by partial hydrolysis of starch

• Use: As paste and in baby foods

Heteropolysaccharides
or
Mucopolysaccharides
or
Glycosaminoglycans
 DEFINITION
 Heteropolysaccharides: made up of different
type of monosaccharides

 Glycosaminoglycans : made up of aminosugars

and uronic acids .
 Mucopolysacharides: they are found in mucous
secretions.
 GENERAL FEATURES
 Unbranched polysaccharides

 made up of repeating disaccharides,

 one component is always amino sugar

(glucosamine or galactosamine)

 another is uronic acid ( glucuronic acid or its

epimer iduronic acid).
 They contain sulfate groups.

 When these chains are covalently attached to a protein

molecule, the compound is known as proteoglycans.

 Ex – HA, CS, DS ,KS I ,KSII, HS and heparin

 Exceptions

 Keratan sulphate does not contain uronic acid.

 HA does not contain sulfate group

 No clear evidence that HA is attached covalently

to protein.
 HYALURONIC ACID
 Composition : glucuronic acid and N-acetyl
glucosamine.

 Location – synovial fluid, vitreous humor,

loose connective tissue, skin, umbilical cord
and ovum.
 FUNCTIONS OF HA
 Acts as lubricant and shock absorbant.
 Facilitate cell migration during
morphogenesis and wound repair.
 Role in compressibility of cartilage in weight
bearing.
 Act as a barrier in tissues
 Release of hormones
 CHONDROITIN SULFATE
 Composition : Glucuronic acid and N-acetyl
galactosamine( sulfate).
 Location – cartilage, bone, tendons.

Function
 Have a role in compressibility of cartilage in
weight bearing.
 KERATAN SULFATE I & II

 Composition : N-acetyl glucosamine

(sulfate) and galactose( sulfate).

 Two types – KS I & II

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPE I AND TYPE II KS

 Attachments to protein.
Type I: N-glycosidic linkage
Type II: O-glycosidic linkage

 Location
Type I : cornea
Type II : loose connective tissue
 FUNCTION

 Has a role in corneal transparency

 HEPARIN

 Composition: Sulfated Glucosamine and uronic

acid(Iduronic acid and glucuronic acid)

 Location: Mast cells

Function:
 Anticoagulant
 Release of lipoprotein lipase which clears lipemic
plasma
 HEPARAN SULFATE
 Composition :Glucosamine ( few sulfates) and Glucuronic acid

 Location: skin, fibroblasts, aortic wall

 Functions

 Are components of plasma membranes, where they act

as receptors and participate in cell adhesion and cell -
cell interactions.
 Determine charge selectiveness of renal glomeruli.
 DERMATAN SULFATE

 Composition: Glucuronic acid, Nacetyl glucosamine,

iduronic acid and Nacetyl galactosamine

 Location: Skin ,blood vessels, heart valves ,cornea

and sclera

 Function
• Role in corneal transparency

• Have a structural role in sclera – maintaining of overall

shape of the eye
 AGAR

 Prepared from sea weeds.

 Consists of galactose, glucose and other sugars.
 Dissolved in 100⁰ C, which upon cooling sets into gel.
 It cannot be digested by bacteria.
 Used as supporting agent to culture bacterial colonies
 Supporting medium of immunodiffusion and immuno
-electrophoresis.
 AGAROSE

 Made up of galactose and 3,6

anhydrogalactose

 Used as matrix for electrophoresis.

 GLYCOPROTEINS
 When oligosaccharide chains are
attached to a polypeptide chain -
glycoprotein is formed.

 The carbohydrate content is less than

proteoglycans
 Common sugar found are: mannose, N
acetyl glucosamine,N acetyl galactosamine,
arabinose, L- fucose , xylose and sialic acids

 Glucose is found only in collagen

 Unlike proteoglycans uronic acids are

absent.
 GLYCOPROTEIN
 Location : present in almost all cells &
membranes.

 Example: collagen, elastin, mucins, TSH,LH

FSH
 FUNCTIONS OF GLYCOPROTEINS

 Structural molecules: collagen, elastins

 Transport molecules: for vitamins ,
minerals
 Hormones : FSH, LH
 Defence: Immunoglobulin
 Enzymes:Hydrolases, proteases