What is Mass Concrete?
According to ACI 207, "mass concrete is any large volume of concrete with dimensions
large enough to require that measures be taken to cope with the generation of heat and
attendant volume change to minimize cracking." Cement hydration generates heat. Heat
dissipates from concrete slowly; the thicker the section, the longer it will take the interior to
cool. This can result in large temperature differentials between the concrete surface and its
interior. The concrete is then subject to high thermal stresses, which can result in cracking
and loss of structural integrity.
Temperature Problems in Concreting
Concept and data related to temperature problem
Specific heat (capacity): energy (heat) required to raise temperature of a material of unit mass
by one degree.
Normal Concrete: 1~1.5 kJ/(kg C).
Water: 1 Cal/(kg C) = 4.18 kJ/(kg C)
Latent heat: heat lost or gained when a substance changes state (e.g. from liquid to vapour)
without change of temperature.
Coefficient of thermal expansion (10 -6/C):
Concrete: gravel 12, granite 9, limestone 6
Cement paste: 11 ~ 20
Temperature problems associated with heat from two sources:
External source: weather
Internal source: heat of cement hydration
a. Problems in hot weather:
Strength reduction due to rapid cement hydration
Loss of workability due to rapid evaporation
Surface cracking du to plastic shrinkage caused by rapid evaporation
Strength reduction of air entrained concrete due to swelling of air bubbles
b. Problems associated with heat of cement hydration
Strength reduction and cracking due to high temperature
Strength reduction and cracking due to temperature differentials
c. Problems in cold weather:
Strength reduction due to freezing before concrete hardening, forming porous
structures
Damage due to freezing after concrete set
Delayed settling time
Delayed strength development
c. Problems in cold weather:
Strength reduction due to freezing before concrete hardening, forming porous structures
Damage due to freezing after concrete set
Delayed settling time
Delayed strength development
Heat of cement hydration
Cement hydration is an exothermic process.
Compound Typical Heat of hydration kJ/kg (Cal/kg)
content
C3A 10.8 867 (207)
C3S 54.1 502 (120)
C2S 16.6 260 (62)
C3AF 9.1 419 (100)
Minor Compound -
Heat generated from hydration of 1 kg cement is about
H = 0.108867 + 0.541502 + 0.166260 + 0.091419 = 446 kJ/kg
The specific heat of concrete is around, say 1.3 kJ/(kg C). Assuming the concrete cured in an
adiabatic condition, cement content per cubic meter of concrete is 100kg, and density of the
concrete 2400kg/m3, the temperature increased due to hydration heat is
The real situation, no matter how big is the concrete pour, concrete is not in adiabatic condition.
Temperature rise due to cement hydration is always lower than the derived value from the
compound hydration heat assuming adiabatic condition. It would be a rough guess that 100kg
OPC per cubic meter of concrete would raise the temperature inside large concrete pour by
around 10 C.
Cracks caused by thermal deformation (movement)
Concrete is weak in tension. Tensile strength of grade 20 - 40 concrete is 3- 5N/mm 2, about
1/10 of compressive strength.
Modulus of elasticity of hardened concrete ranges from 15 to 35 kN/mm 2.
Fig. 1
Consider a concrete prison shown in Fig. 1, which is firmly restrained at its two ends (no
movement at the ends). Assuming modulus of elasticity of the concrete is 20kN/mm 2,
coefficient of thermal expansion is 1010 -6 1/ C, then a drop of temperature of 25C would
induce a tensile stress of
(1010-6 1/C) 25C20kN/mm2 = 5N/mm2 (2)
in the concrete prison. This stress would be high enough to cause tension crack in the
concrete.
Concrete inside a structure subject to restraint from variety of sources:
reinforcement, support, adjacent members, and also from adjacent concrete if differential
temperature exist. Stress due to differential temperature is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 shows the section of a large-sized structural member. The temperature of the concrete in
the core zone is higher than peripheral concrete when the concrete initially hardens at, say
about one day. As the temperature in the member gradually leveled off, concrete in the core
zone tends to shrink more that surrounding concrete, whereas peripheral concrete tends to
resists the shrinkage of the core concrete. Compressive stress is, therefore, introduced in
peripheral concrete and tensile stress is induced in the core area. Tension crack will result in the
core zone if the tensile stress induced reaches concrete tensile strength.
Fig. 2
Typical requirement concerning concrete temperature
Limit placing temperature (32C for Hong Kong).
Limit maximum temperature (85C).
Limit temperature difference (25C).
For sections greater than 1.5m, peak temperature be calculated and measured.
Trials
Measures to achieve temperature requirement in hot weather
a. Use low heat cement
b. Use pozzolan, PFA, silica fume, etc.
c. Use water reducing agent
d. Lower mix temperature (ice, cooling aggregates))
e. Internal cooling system for mass concrete
f. Apply thermal insulation on formwork
g. Lower formwork temperature
h. Sheltering
Temperature of fresh mix
Temperature of fresh concrete is calculated by
Temperature of fresh mix using ice as part of free water is calculated by
Table 1: Classes of Aggregates
examples of
class uses
aggregates used
vermiculite
ultra- lightweight concrete which can be sawed or nailed, also for its insulating
ceramic spheres
lightweight properties
perlite
expanded clay
used primarily for making lightweight concrete for structures, also used for
lightweight shale or slate
its insulating properties.
crushed brick
crushed limestone
sand
normal
river gravel used for normal concrete projects
weight
crushed recycled
concrete
steel or iron shot used for making high density concrete for shielding against nuclear
heavyweight
steel or iron pellets radiation
Properties of Concrete
Concrete has many properties that make it a popular construction material. The correct
proportion of ingredients, placement, and curing are needed in order for these properties to be
optimal.
Good-quality concrete has many advantages that add to its popularity. First, it is economical
when ingredients are readily available. Concrete's long life and relatively low maintenance
requirements increase its economic benefits. Concrete is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay
as other building materials. Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired
shape. Building of the molds and casting can occur on the work-site which reduces costs.
Concrete is a non-combustible material which makes it fire-safe and able withstand high
temperatures. It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and insects. Hence, concrete is often used
for storm shelters.
Concrete does have some limitations despite its numerous advantages. Concrete has a
relatively low tensile strength (compared to other building materials), low ductility, low strength-
to-weight ratio, and is susceptible to cracking. Concrete remains the material of choice for many
applications regardless of these limitations.
Hydration of Portland Cement
Concrete is prepared by mixing cement, water, and aggregate together to make a workable
paste. It is molded or placed as desired, consolidated, and then left to harden. Concrete does
not need to dry out in order to harden as commonly thought.
The concrete (or specifically, the cement in it) needs moisture to hydrate and cure (harden).
When concrete dries, it actually stops getting stronger. Concrete with too little water may be
dry but is not fully reacted. The properties of such a concrete would be less than that of a wet
concrete. The reaction of water with the cement in concrete is extremely important to its
properties and reactions may continue for many years.
Portland cement consists of five major compounds and a few minor compounds. The
composition of a typical portland cement is listed by weight percentage in Table 2.
Table 2: Composition of portland cement with chemical composition and weight percent.
Cement Compound Weight Chemical Formula
Percentage
Tricalcium silicate 50 % Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2
Dicalcium silicate 25 % Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2
Tricalcium aluminate 10 % Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3
Ca4Al2Fe10 or
Tetracalcium 10 %
aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
Gypsum 5% CaSO4.2H2O
When water is added to cement, each of the compounds undergoes hydration and contributes
to the final concrete product. Only the calcium silicates contribute to strength. Tricalcium
silicate is responsible for most of the early strength (first 7 days). Dicalcium silicate, which
reacts more slowly, contributes only to the strength at later times. Tricalcium silicate will be
discussed in the greatest detail.
The equation for the hydration of tricalcium silicate is given by:
Tricalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate+Calcium hydroxide + heat
2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O ---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ
Upon the addition of water, tricalcium silicate rapidly reacts to release calcium ions, hydroxide
ions, and a large amount of heat. The pH quickly rises to over 12 because of the release of
alkaline hydroxide (OH-) ions. This initial hydrolysis slows down quickly after it starts resulting
in a decrease in heat evolved.
The reaction slowly continues producing calcium and hydroxide ions until the system becomes
saturated. Once this occurs, the calcium hydroxide starts to crystallize. Simultaneously,
calcium silicate hydrate begins to form. Ions precipitate out of solution accelerating the
reaction of tricalcium silicate to calcium and hydroxide ions. (Le Chatlier's principle). The
evolution of heat is then dramatically increased.
The formation of the calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate crystals provide "seeds"
upon which more calcium silicate hydrate can form. The calcium silicate hydrate crystals grow
thicker making it more difficult for water molecules to reach the unhydrated tricalcium silicate.
The speed of the reaction is now controlled by the rate at which water molecules diffuse
through the calcium silicate hydrate coating. This coating thickens over time causing the
production of calcium silicate hydrate to become slower and slower.
Figure 3: Schematic illustration of the pores in
calcium silicate through different stages of hydration.
The above diagrams represent the formation of pores as calcium silicate hydrate is formed.
Note in diagram (a) that hydration has not yet occurred and the pores (empty spaces between
grains) are filled with water. Diagram (b) represents the beginning of hydration. In diagram (c),
the hydration continues. Although empty spaces still exist, they are filled with water and
calcium hydroxide. Diagram (d) shows nearly hardened cement paste. Note that the majority
of space is filled with calcium silicate hydrate. That which is not filled with the hardened
hydrate is primarily calcium hydroxide solution. The hydration will continue as long as water is
present and there are still unhydrated compounds in the cement paste.
Dicalcium silicate also affects the strength of concrete through its hydration. Dicalcium
silicate reacts with water in a similar manner compared to tricalcium silicate, but much more
slowly. The heat released is less than that by the hydration of tricalcium silicate because the
dicalcium silicate is much less reactive. The products from the hydration of dicalcium silicate
are the same as those for tricalcium silicate:
Dicalcium silicate + Water--->Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium hydroxide +heat
2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O---> 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ
The other major components of portland cement, tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium
aluminoferrite also react with water. Their hydration chemistry is more complicated as they
involve reactions with the gypsum as well. Because these reactions do not contribute
significantly to strength, they will be neglected in this discussion. Although we have treated
the hydration of each cement compound independently, this is not completely accurate. The
rate of hydration of a compound may be affected by varying the concentration of another. In
general, the rates of hydration during the first few days ranked from fastest to slowest are:
tricalcium aluminate > tricalcium silicate > tetracalcium aluminoferrite > dicalcium silicate.
Heat is evolved with cement hydration. This is due to the breaking and making of chemical
bonds during hydration. The heat generated is shown below as a function of time.
Figure 4: Rate of heat evolution during the hydration of portland cement
The stage I hydrolysis of the cement compounds occurs rapidly with a temperature
increase of several degrees. Stage II is known as the dormancy period. The evolution of
heat slows dramatically in this stage. The dormancy period can last from one to three
hours. During this period, the concrete is in a plastic state which allows the concrete to be
transported and placed without any major difficulty. This is particularly important for the
construction trade who must transport concrete to the job site. It is at the end of this stage
that initial setting begins. In stages III and IV, the concrete starts to harden and the heat
evolution increases due primarily to the hydration of tricalcium silicate. Stage V is reached
after 36 hours. The slow formation of hydrate products occurs and continues as long as
water and unhydrated silicates are present.
Strength of Concrete
The strength of concrete is very much dependent upon the hydration reaction just discussed.
Water plays a critical role, particularly the amount used. The strength of concrete increases
when less water is used to make concrete. The hydration reaction itself consumes a specific
amount of water. Concrete is actually mixed with more water than is needed for the hydration
reactions. This extra water is added to give concrete sufficient workability. Flowing concrete is
desired to achieve proper filling and composition of the forms. The water not consumed in the
hydration reaction will remain in the microstructure pore space. These pores make the concrete
weaker due to the lack of strength-forming calcium silicate hydrate bonds. Some pores will
remain no matter how well the concrete has been compacted.
Figure 5: Schematic drawings to demonstrate the relationship between the water/cement ratio
and porosity.
The empty space (porosity) is determined by the water to cement ratio. The relationship
between the water to cement ratio and strength is shown in the graph that follows.
Figure 6: A plot of concrete strength as a function of the water to cement ratio.
Low water to cement ratio leads to high strength but low workability. High water to cement
ratio leads to low strength, but good workability.
The physical characteristics of aggregates are shape, texture, and size. These can indirectly
affect strength because they affect the workability of the concrete. If the aggregate makes
the concrete unworkable, the contractor is likely to add more water which will weaken the
concrete by increasing the water to cement mass ratio.
Time is also an important factor in determining concrete strength. Concrete hardens as time
passes. Why? Remember the hydration reactions get slower and slower as the tricalcium
silicate hydrate forms. It takes a great deal of time (even years!) for all of the bonds to form
which determine concrete's strength. It is common to use a 28-day test to determine the
relative strength of concrete.
Concrete's strength may also be affected by the addition of admixtures. Admixtures are
substances other than the key ingredients or reinforcements which are added during the
mixing process. Some admixtures add fluidity to concrete while requiring less water to be
used. An example of an admixture which affects strength is superplasticizer. This makes
concrete more workable or fluid without adding excess water. A list of some other admixtures
and their functions is given below. Note that not all admixtures increase concrete strength.
The selection and use of an admixture are based on the need of the concrete user.
Durability is a very important concern in using concrete for a given application. Concrete
provides good performance through the service life of the structure when concrete is mixed
properly and care is taken in curing it. Good concrete can have an infinite life span under the
right conditions. Water, although important for concrete hydration and hardening, can also
play a role in decreased durability once the structure is built. This is because water can
transport harmful chemicals to the interior of the concrete leading to various forms of
deterioration. Such deterioration ultimately adds costs due to maintenance and repair of the
concrete structure. The contractor should be able to account for environmental factors and
produce a durable concrete structure if these factors are considered when building concrete
structures.
SOME ADMIXTURES AND FUNCTIONS
TYPE FUNCTION
improves durability, workability, reduces bleeding, reduces
AIR ENTRAINING
freezing/thawing problems (e.g. special detergents)
increase strength by decreasing water needed for workable
SUPERPLASTICIZERS
concrete (e.g. special polymers)
delays setting time, more long term strength, offsets adverse high
RETARDING
temp. weather (e.g. sugar )
speeds setting time, more early strength, offsets adverse low
ACCELERATING
temp. weather (e.g. calcium chloride)
MINERAL
improves workability, plasticity, strength (e.g. fly ash)
ADMIXTURES
PIGMENT adds color (e.g. metal oxides)
Table 3: A table of admixtures and their functions.
Reducing Thermal Stress
There are three generally accepted strategies for reducing thermal stress in concrete:
1. Reduce the total cementitious content
2. Reduce the portland cement content
3. Slow down the hydration process through the use of various admixtures or cooling
the concrete.
How does slag cement help?
When slag cement is incorporated in the concrete mixture, less heat is generated
and thermal stress is reduced:
1. Due to increased strength with slag cement, the total cementitious content can be
reduced
2. Portland cement content is reduced by the percentage of slag cement used
Hydration characteristics of slag cement are such that the early rate of heat generation and
peak temperature of the concrete are reduced.
Slag Replacement Levels
Generally 65 to 80 percent is considered the optimum replacement range for mass
concrete applications. These levels provide significant heat reduction while achieving
required strengths. Levels from 50 to 65 percent have been used successfully in smaller
mass concrete placements. Mixtures should be tested with job materials to ensure
required thermal and strength characteristics.
Figure 2 shows the specific heat of hydration of an ordinary portland cement and
combinations from 25 to 75 percent slag cement substitution. Note that each increasing
level of slag cement reduces peak heat of hydration of the binder. More importantly, the
area under the curves represents total heat generated. This area reduces dramatically
when the substitution rate increases from 50 to 75 percent, indicating that significantly
less total heat is generated for 75 percent slag cement, even though the peak heat of
hydration is not much reduced from 50 percent substitution.
Figure 3 shows the effect of slag cement on temperature rise in mass concrete. Note that
peak temperature dropped by 19 degrees F with 65 percent slag cement substitution, and
by 42 degrees F for 80% substitution.
Figure 1: The 16-foot thick footings on the Pocohontas Parkway in
Virginia used 75 percent slag cement with Type II portland cement to
reduce concrete peak and differential temperatures.
Typical Footing and Column Rebars Prior to Mass Pour
Components of the Cooling System for Mass Concreting Operation
Chiller and generator use to power along The supply and return manifold.
side of the water tank.
