1
An
to Wireline Logging
2
1.0
Introduction
Well logs or wireline logs are continuous recordings of well depth versus
different petrophysical characteristics of the rocks through which the well is
drilled. There are many types of well logs, depending upon the characteristics
of the rock being measured.
1.1
Logging Objectives
The main purpose of well logging is:
to provide data for evaluating petroleum reservoirs.
to aid in testing, completion and repairing of the well.
To calculate the oil reserve in an oil pool we need to know the following.
Thickness of the oil bearing formation.
Porosity of the formation.
Oil saturation.
Lateral extent of the pool.
2.0
Types of Well Logging
Well logging is classified into three broad categories:
2.1
Open Hole Logging
Cased Hole Logging
Production Logging
Open Hole Logging
Logging surveys taken before the hole is cased are called open hole logs.
The logs included in this group are:
Electrical surveys (induction, laterolog and microlog logs).
Sonic logs.
Caliper Logs.
Dipmeter Logs.
Radioactive surveys (density, neutron and gamma ray logs).
4
2.1.1
Electrical Logs
Electrical logs (Induction, laterolog, and microlog) measure the electrical
properties of the formation alongwith the formation fluids.
2.1.2
Sonic Logs
Sonic logs measure the elastic or (sound) wave properties of the formation.
2.1.3
Caliper Logs
Caliper logs measure the size or geometry of the hole.
2.1.4
Dipmeter Logs
Dipmeter logs measure dip of the formations.
2.1.5
Radioactive Logs
Gamma ray & neutron logs measure radioactive and neutron absorption
properties. Density logs measure electron density of the formation which is
related to formation density.
5
2.2
Cased Hole Logging
Logging surveys taken after the casing is lowered are usually categorized
as cased hole logs. The surveys included in this group are:
Gamma Ray
Neutron
Temperature
Chlorine
Pulsed Neutron
Cement Bond Log
Tracer Logs
Some of these surveys like the gamma ray, neutron and temperature logs
can be run in both open and cased hole wells.
6
2.3
Production Logging
Well logging surveys taken to improve production or repair the well are
termed as production logs. Surveys included in this category are:
Flowmeter
Pressure
Temperature
Noise
Capacitance
Fluid Density
TDT
RST
7
3.0
Logging Equipment: Surface and Downhole
Log measurements are made using a measuring sonde (with
electronic cartridge) lowered on a cable from a winch, which is
mounted on a logging truck or offshore unit.
3.1
Logging Truck and Offshore Unit
The truck and units are laboratories containing:
The main winch which may hold as much as 26,000 ft (8,000 m)
of multi-conductor steel-armored cable with a pulling capacity of
several tons.
The auxiliary winch containing a thinner mono- conductor cable
generally for use on production or workover operations.
The winch man control panel.
The surface logging panels which power and control the
downhole tools, process the incoming information and transmit the
information to recording equipment.
Logging Truck and Offshore Unit (Contd.)
Depth measuring system.
Electrical generator.
Dark room for development of film.
Printer for making log prints.
Recent years have seen the introduction of fully computerized
logging unit which not only handle the data acquisition but
permit
well site data processing/evaluations.
Offshore units are mounted on skids and bolted (or welded) to
the deck of drilling vessel or platform.
10
Fig. 3.1: A Logging Truck
11
Fig. 3.2: An Offshore Logging Unit
12
3.2
Computerized Logging Units
Service companies offer logging services from computer-based
logging units. The advantages of using computer-based units are
many and their use is to be encouraged. Some of the systems
available include:
Eclips 5700: Western Atlas
Maxis 500: Schlumberger
13
Computerized Logging Units (Contd.)
Computer-based units offer the following features:
All logs are recorded on 4 mm dats.
Computer control of the data allows logs to be recorded either
logging up or down with all curves on depth.
Calibration are performed under programme control and can be
performed more quickly, consistently and accurately.
Logs can be played back from the data tapes on many different
formats.
Basic wellsite, processing/analysis of data is available.
14
Fig. 3.3: CLS-3700
15
16
Fig. 3.4: ECLIPS-5700
4.0
Logging Cables
The logging cables fulfill three functions:
Running in and pulling out the tool and control of tool speed.
Electrical interface between the downhole logging tool and the
surface processing and recording equipment.
Depth measurement.
Modern logging cables are of two types:
Monoconductor cables.
Multiconductor cables.
17
4.1
Monoconductor Cables
Mono-conductor cables are mainly used for
completion services such as shooting
perforating guns, setting wireline packers
and plugs and for production logging
services such as flowmeters, temperature,
pressure and density logs in producing wells.
Mono-conductor cables are usually 0.25
0.5 inch in diameter. The smaller diameters
are used where high well head pressure is
used.
18
4.2
Multiconductor Cables
Multiconductor cables are mainly used for openhole logging services.
These are slightly longer in diameters and contain individual
insulated conductors in the core.
Multiconductor cables have a bearing strength near 18000 lb.
A typical multiconductor cable is 15/32 or 7/16 in diameter.
19
4.3
Depth Measurement
Film and tape movement are governed by cable motion,
which is transmitted by a calibrated spooler wheel to
mechanical or electrical drive system which permit choice of
depth
scale on film.
The cable is marked magnetically every 100 ft or 25 m under
constant tension. These marks are detected at the cable
passing the spooler device and serve as the reference for
precise depth.
20
4.4
Memorization
Where several tools are in combination, it is necessary to store in
a memory the readings of each tool as it passes a given depth
and to discharge this memory only when the last sensor reaches
that depth. In this way all the data is recorded on depth.
21
Fig. 4.1: Logging Tools in Combination
22
Fig. 4.2: Memorization
23
5.0
The Logging Tool
Logging tools vary in complexity from a simple electrode
carrying mandrel to a sophisticated system of electronic circuits,
enclosed in a pressure resistant metal housing and capable of
operating at high temperatures.
The sonde is generally attached below an electronic cartridge,
which carries in a protective housing the electronic modules or hardware
for the downhole instrument.
Where several tools are being run in combination each of the
sondes and cartridges in the tool string has a pass through
facility for
the signals to or from tools lower in the string.
24
The Logging Tool (Contd.)
Each sonde-cartridge set can be connected electrically and
mechanically to the bridal or cable head by a quick connect
system consisting of pins and sockets and a thread ring.
(Ex) Centralizers or stand-off may be attached to the sonde
and cartridge.
Logging tools vary in sizes and shapes. A typical logging
string is 3 5/8 in diameter and 35 ft long.
25
The Logging Tool (Contd.)
Most tools are built to withstand 20,000 psi pressure and 350oF
to 400oF temp.
Modern tools are modularised to allow combination tool
strings by appropriate mixing and matching.
The need for pressure control equipment will limit the total
length of the tool string that can be safely assembled and run in
the hole.
26
Fig. 5.1:
Logging Tools
27
Fig. 5.2:
Electronic Cartridge
28
TOOLS
29
6.
Modern Logging Tools
6.1 Formation Fluid Content Indicators
Induction
Laterolog
Micro-focused (micro resistivity) devices
Pulsed neutron
Inelastic gamma (carbon/oxygen)
MRI
NMR
30
6.2
6.3
Porosity-Lithology Indicators
Sonic (Acoustic)
Density
Neutron
Natural Gamma Ray
Spectral Gamma Ray
Reservoir Geometry Indicators
Dipmeter
FMS/FMI
Star Imager
Circumferential Acoustic Scanning
31
6.4
6.5
Formation Sampling Tools
Formation Tester RFT, MDT
Sidewall Coring
Auxiliary Tools
Spontaneous Potential
Caliper
32
7.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOWNHOLE TOOLS
The characteristics of these devices are summarized as under:
7.1
Resistivity Tools
7.1.1
Induction Tools
Induction tools belong to the resistivity tool family and attempt to
measure true formation resistivity, Rt. They work like metal detectors by
inducting currents in the formation. Induction logs are called by a
variety of names and initials such as:
Induction logs
ISF
DIL or DIFL
They may be run simultaneously with a variety of other measurements
such as SP, Gamma Ray (GR), caliper and porosity devices.
33
Fig. 7.11: An example of Dual Induction Log
34
7.1.2
Laterolog Tool
The most important tool in the family of Laterolog Tools is
the Dual Laterolog-Microspherically Focused log (MSFL).
Older versions such as LL3 or LL7 are no longer widely
used. The DLL-MSFL can be run with SP, GR, caliper and
some porosity tools.
35
Fig. 7.1.2: An example of Laterolog
36
7.1.3
Micro-resistivity Devices
Micro-resistivity devices attempt to measure the formation
resistivity close to the borehole wall. The MSFL is usually run
with the dual laterolog and not separately, but the proximity and
microlaterolog tools are run as separate surveys usually with a
microlog (ML). The ML is a special type of log and gives good
indications of porous and permeable zones.
37
Fig. 7.1.3: An example of Microlog
38
7.1.4
Dipmeter
Dipmeter come in several versions, four-arm dipmeters and sixarm dipmeters. High resolution dipmeters record all the
necessary information for computing formation dip and azimuth.
A secondary application is the use of the dipmeter
measurements of hole deviation and direction to determine hole
geometry, location and true vertical depth of points in deviated
wells.
39
Fig. 7.1.4: An example of Dipmeter Log
40
7.2
Acoustic Tools
7.2.1
Sonic Tool
The modern sonic tool is known as full wave sonic which improves on
the older borehole compensated sonic. It may be run with GR, SP and
caliper or combined with an induction tool. In addition to recording the
travel time of a compressional wave through the formation (t), special
waveform recording techniques and use of multiple receivers allow the
measurement of shearware travel time amplitude logs of different
waveform components are used for fracture detection.
41
Fig. 7.2.1: An example of Sonic Log
42
7.2.2
Cement Bond Log tool
Cement Bond Log (CBL) measures the attenuation of the sound
waves between the transmitter and the receiver.
The CBL indicates the amplitude of the first arrival E1.
This amplitude is a maximum for un-cemented and free casing and it
is minimum when the casing is well cemented.
43
44
Fig. 7.2.2: Principle of Operation of VDL
Fig. 7.2.3: Uncemented Pipe
45
Fig. 7.2.4: Good Bond Casing Cement
46
Fig. 7.2.5: CBL-VDL Interpretation
47
7.3
Radioactive Tools
7.3.1
Gamma Ray Tool
Gamma ray tools measure the natural radioactivity of the
formation. Gamma rays are bursts of high energy
electromagnetic waves which are spontaneously emitted by
some of the radioactive elements as they decay to a more
stable state. Three most common elements in rocks which emit
gamma rays are uranium, thorium and potassium.
48
Fig. 7.1: An example of Gamma Ray Log
49
7.3.2
Spectral Gamma Ray Tool
This tool measures the number and energy of naturally occurring
gamma rays in the formation and distinguishes between elements
and daughter products of three main radioactive families; uranium,
thorium and potassium.
50
Fig. 7.3.2: An example of Spectral Gamma Ray Log
51
7.3.3
Density Tool
Compensated density tools are the primary porosity measuring
devices. A GR, caliper and neutron log are normally run with the
density. A modern version of the density tool is known as litho
density tool. In addition to measuring bulk density, it measures
the photoelectric factor (Pe) which is an indicator of formation
lithology.
52
Fig. 7.3.3: An example of Density Log
53
7.3.4
Neutron Tool
There are several types of neutron tools. Todays standard is
the dual spaced neutron which records N, the neutron
porosity index. It is normally recorded for an assumed
lithology. Reading the porosity curve requires close attention
to the porosity scale and assumed matrix.
54
Fig. 7.3.4: An example of Dual-Spaced Neutron Log
55
7.3.5
Pulsed Neutron Capture Tool
The pulsed neutron capture tool makes a measurement that
helps distinguish oil from salt water in the formation in cased
holes. It may also be used in open holes as a last resort when
drill pipe becomes stuck.
56
Fig. 7.3.5: An example of TDT Log
57
7.3.6
Carbon / Oxygen Logging Tool
Carbon/oxygen logging is a relatively new service which uses in
elastic fast neutron scattering in an attempt to directly measure the
relative abundance of carbon, oxygen and other elements in a
formation. Its application is in cased holes and it is a natural
candidate for these parts of world where fresh formation waters
preclude the use of pulsed neutron capture logs.
58
Fig. 7.3.6: An example of Carbon / Oxygen Log
59
7.4
Wireline Formation Testers
Several types of wireline formation testers are available. These
devices allow limited samples of formation fluid to be drawn from
the formation and brought to the surface for analysis. These
wireline formation testers also allow multiple formation pressure
tests one try into the hole and are valuable addition to the
formation evaluation arsenal.
60
Fig. 7.4: An example of Pretest
61
7.5
Spontaneous Potential (SP)
The SP device measures naturally occurring (spontaneous) potential in
the wellbore. This tool utilizes a single moving electrode in the
borehole and a reference electrode at the surface, usually located in
the mud pit. The SP curve therefore is a record of the potential
difference which exists between the surface electrode and the moving
electrode in the borehole.
62
Fig. 7.5: An example of SP Log
63
7.5.1
The Fish
This is a remote electrode made out of lead, connected to the
logging panel by a long insulated wire, via a truck installation. It is
usually buried in a damp earth, the mud-pit or lowered into the sea,
sufficiently far from electrical sources to be at zero potential. It is
needed as the reference electrode at infinity for the Sp.
64
8.0
Calibrations
The calibrations of logging tools fall into three categories.
8.1
Types of calibration
Shop or Master Calibration.
Before Survey Calibration.
After Survey Calibration.
8.1.2
Shop Calibration
The response of some tools is affected by
their physical status (pad wear, aging of
components).
These tools need to be normalised against
known standards. The equipment used for
the calibration is bulky and not transportable
to the field.
65
8.1.2
Before / after Survey Calibration
Done on the wellsite. It ensures that downhole
and uphole equipment is working.
In some cases it is the Master Calibration.
66
8.2
Purpose
To determine the response of tools against know standards.
To normalize the tool response back to the standard.
A check of the tool operation before and after the job.
67
8.3
Principle of Linearity
Y = GxX+O
This is the equation of a linear response where:
Y
ideal tool response
actual tool response
gain
offset
An ideal tool would have Y = X as response.
68
Principle of Linearity (Contd.)
Two points are needed to determine the linear function.
Two measurements are made against two reference values.
ZM
zero measurement
PM
plus measurement
ZREF
zero reference
PREF
plus reference
Gain and offset are computed from these two measurements.
69
Fig. 8.1
70
Principles of Linearity (Contd.)
Example -
Caliper Calibration
ZREF
8 inch ring
PREF
12 inch ring
ZM
8.5 inches
PM
11.0 inches
Tool Reads:
Gain = 0.889
Offset = 2.22
Y = 0.889 X + 2.22
After calibration, a tool reading of 6.5 inches is normalised to:
Y = (0.889 x 6.5) + 2.22 = 8 inches
71
Environment
72
9.0
Logging Environment
9.1
Rigging Up To Run a Log
Fig. 9.1 shows a setup for a typical land logging job. A logging
truck is anchored about 100 to 200 ft from the well.
Two sheave wheels are mounted in the derrick, one hung from
the crown block and the other chained down near the rotary
table.
The logging cable from the truck winch is passed through the
sheave wheels, attached to the logging tool string and lowered in to the
hole. A more detail diagram of this rig up is shown in Fig. 9.2.
Between the top sheave wheel and the elevators there is a
tension device called the load cell to measure the logging
cable
tension and displays it in the logging truck.
73
Fig. 9.1: A setup for a logging job
74
Fig. 9.2: Details of wireline logging rig up
75
Fig. 9.2.1: Top sheave and elevator arrangement during logging job
76
Fig. 9.2.2: Lower sheave tie-down arrangement
77
9.2
Logging Speed
Logging speed is indicated by curve, gaps, ticks on the edge of log.
Acceptable speed depends on the type of log, the intended use of data and
type of formation being logged. Normal logging speeds are given in table.
9.2.1
Recommended Logging Speed
Tool
F/min.
F/hr.
Remarks
Resistivity log
100
6000
Resistivity & GR log
60
3600
Neutron log
30
1800
Density log
30
1800
Sonic log
30
1800
Dipmeter
60
1800
Micro-resistivity
40
2400
Faster is possible but unsafe.
78
9.3
Log Presentation
The API standard presentation used by all logging companies
consists of a left hand track (Track-1) 6.4 cm wide, a depth track
1.9 cm wide and two right hand tracks, each 6.4 cms wide (track
2 & 3).
Track 1 is always scaled linearly into 10 large divisions (A
small division is 1/10 of a large division i.e., 1/100 track
width).
Track 2 and 3 may be both linear (Fig. 9.3.1) both logrithmic
(Fig. 9.3.2) or a mixture of logrithmic and linear (Fig. 9.3.3) with
track 2 serving for resistivity and track 3 for sonic.
79
Fig. 9.3.1
Fig. 9.3.2
Fig. 9.3.3
80
Log Presentation (Contd.)
The depth scaling is chosen according to the purpose
of the log, 1:200 and 1:500 are the conventional
scales
for recording.
The log headings (Fig. 9.4) displays all the relevant
information about the well and the logging operations: well
name, company, field, well coordinates bit size,
data, data logged type of equipment used,
mud
calibrations and
any special remarks concerning the job.
81
Fig. 9.4: Log Heading
82
9.3.1
Repeatability and Calibrations
At the end of a log, a repeat section and calibration tail are
usually attached. The repeat section verifies that the tool is
functioning consistently.
A calibration record is made on the film/print and tape before
and after the survey to show that the equipment was correctly
adjusted and no drift in adjustment has occurred during the
log.
9.4
Data Transmission
Taped data can be transmitted by telephone to a log
computing centre or company office for decision making.
83
