Overview of Environmental Issues
Environmental problems are associated with
modern technology
Number of laws and regulations related to
environmental protection has increased.
Engineering designs must take into account the
environmental concerns
SO2
CO
Environmental Concerns
Human health effects:
Acute: Pollutants cause immediate response to
human body such as CO
Chronic: Long-term exposure to certain pollutants
such as particulates in air cause asthma
Carcinogenic: change in cells causing irregular
cell growth (cancer) has become major concerns
Other concerns are related to impacts on
biodiversity and ecosystems that can affect plants,
animals and materials
Atmospheric Emissions
Criteria Air Pollutants: 6 major pollutants
Particulate matter (PM)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) CAA 1963
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Ground-Level Ozone (O3)
+
CAA 1978
Lead (Pb)
The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the law that defines
EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving
the nation's air quality and the stratospheric
ozone layer
Particulate matter (PM)
A mixture of small solid or liquid particles
suspended in air (also called total suspended
particulates or TSP) . PM10 or PM2.5
Source: Fuel combustion (ash, soot by coal, oil,
etc.). Mostly from fugitive dust [i.e. roads (mostly
unpaved), tilling, heavy construction]
Health effects:
Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, damage
to lung tissue and potential carcinogenic effects.
PM also reduce visibility, causing soiling, dust
creation
Some PMs are more dangerous such as those
from heavy metals and pesticides
SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide)
Source:
Combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels such
as coal and oil, also metal smelting.
Health effects:
Adverse effects on the respiratory system,
cardiovascular or chronic lung disease.
Asthmatics, bronchitis, children and elderly are
most vulnerable to high SO2 levels
SO2 emitted from industry can be converted to
sulfates
in atmosphere which leads to acid rain.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Source:
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels of other Ccontaining materials. Transportation is the main
source.
Health effects:
Blood prefers CO instead of O2 and as a result,
shortness of breath, dizziness happen.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Generally referred to as Nox (NO2 and NO= nitric
oxide, a by product of combustion)
NO is converted to NO2 in atmosphere
Source:
Fuel combustion , but less NO2 is produced
compared to CO and SO2.
Health effects:
Respiratory illness such as bronchitis, specially in
children.
Ozone (O3)
The ozone at ground level or bad ozone as
opposed to protective atmospheric good ozone
Source: (Transportation, power plants, factories,
etc. that emit NOX and VOCs)
Photochemical reaction of NOX with hydrocarbon
gases (or volatile organic compounds, VOCs) in
the presence of sunlight creates smog.
Health effects:
Extremely reactive oxidant.
Attacks lung tissue
Damages paints and fabrics
Plants cannot produce and store food
Lead (Pb)
A Heavy metal poisonous to human beings at
certain exposure levels
Source:
Automobiles using leaded gasoline
Lead smelting and manufacturing
Lead erosion from water pipes and lead in paints
in old buildings are important sources of lead
release
Health effects:
Damages the nervous system
Affects liver, kidney
Can accumulate in blood, bone and tissues.
Air Toxics or Hazardous air pollutants
(HAPs)
Their emitted quantities are less than criteria air
pollutants, but can cause serious health effects
even in small quantities
Carcinogenic substances such as benzene and
asbestos
Heavy metals
Industries emitting HAPs are required to use
MACT (maximum available control technique) to
reduce them
189 HAPS listed by CAA (Table 2.3)
Acid Deposition or Acid Rain
Precipitation of any acidic particles in the form of
rain, mist, fog or snow (more acidic than natural
rainfall that has pH 5.6)
The principal source of acidity was SO2 from
power plants located in far away. SO2 converted
to SO4 and acidic species reached the earth.
Also NO3 from NOX emissions contribute to acid
rain.
Environmental effects
Acidification of lakes and rivers affects fish and
Soil acidification that can alter soil chemistry
and harm vegetation and trees. Also affecting
animal habitat.
Deterioration of some building materials and
structures
Provisions by CAA to put a cap on SO2
emissions specially from coal-burning power
plant
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Ozone layer:
10-40 km above the earths surface
Protects us from harmful ultraviolet-B (VU-B)
Potential effects due to depletion of zone layer:
Risk of skin cancer, cataract, blindness
Harm marine ecosystem and food chain
Depletion of ozone layer caused by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used mostly in
refrigeration systems.
CFCs can release chlorine upon UV radiation
which can destroy large amounts of O3.
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases not yet branded as pollutants
but have indirect environmental impacts.
They trap heat in the same way as a greenhouse.
Sun
Solar radiation
Atmosphere
CO2
CH4
N2O
CFC
PFCs SF6
Infrared radiation
Earth Surface
Solar energy from the sun (UV radiation) is partially absorbed
by the earths surface
The earths surface radiates back to the atmosphere (IR radiation)
H2O and CO2 absorb the outgoing energy and warm the earths surface
The great concern of global warming:
Rising sea levels, increased
precipitation
flooding, increased droughts
Adverse effects on ecosystem
GHGs have long life in the atmosphere.
The great concern of global warming:
Rising sea levels, increased precipitation
flooding, increased droughts
Adverse effects on ecosystem
GHGs have long life in the atmosphere.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in 1966 stated the human influence on
climate change
Table 2.4 shows the major GHGs.
Some gases even in small amount, are much
more effective GHG than CO2.
Global warming potential (GWP) is used to
evaluate the GHG effect of different gases
based on their heat absorbing capacity
relative to CO2 (GWP of CO2 = 1).
Water Pollution
Surface water (lakes, streams and rivers, oceans)
subject to evaporation and precipitation
Groundwater (Underground water: aquifers
containing water percolating through earth
surface). It is released naturally through springs
or can be pumped to the surface
Surface water is used in agriculture and industry
Municipal water supplies water for domestic use
Point sources: From specific discharge points such
as sewage treatment plants
Non-point sources: Runoffs from agriculture, erosion
from mining and construction activities, rainfall
Pathogens
Disease-causing agents such as bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and helminthes
Found in the intestines of infected people or
animals
Can enter sewage and treatment systems and if
not adequately treated, can cause serious
illnesses such as typhoid, cholera, diarrhea and
dysentery or respiratory and skin diseases
Organic waste
Main source of O2 depletion in surface waters
Too low O2 can threaten aquatic life: effect on
fish reproduction and fish death
Biodegradable organic waste: human and animal
excrement, food waste and organic waste from
industry such as pulp and paper and food
processing
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the demand
of bacteria for O2 and a common measure of
water quality
Some O2 is used up in chemical reactions by
some substances. Chemical Oxygen demand
(COD) is a greater measure of O2 consumption
High BOD and COD levels indicate undesirable
water quality
Nutrients
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) , two essential
nutrients elements widely used in fertilizers and
detergents
They bind to clay particles in soil and enter the
surface waters through runoffs and erosion
They can enter surface waters through household
sewage and wastewater treatment effluents
Increased level of N and P in surface waters cause
eutrophication: excessive growth of algae making
water unable to support fish or other aquatic
species and unusable by human
High level of nutrients, deplete O2 level through
decomposition of algae by bacteria
Anaerobic conditions may prevail causing odors,
smell, taste
Aesthetically unpleasant water bodies
High nitrate level in drinking water can cause
blue baby syndrome : blood stream restriction
in infants
Toxic Organics
These synthetic chemicals contain additional
substances such as chlorine that are toxic to living
organisms. Carcinogens and mutagens are other
compounds.
Pesticides
Chlorine-containing pesticides such as DDT, DDE,
They can enter human body through food and
cause cancer
Other alternative pesticides such as diazinon and
parathion are toxic if inhaled or absorbed through
skin.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Also contain chlorine such as vinyl chloride
Are used in industry or household solvents
Many VOCs contain carcinogens
Can enter surface waters by runoffs or through
municipal stormwater and sewage systems. Can
also enter groundwater through surface waters.
Higher concentrations in groundwater
Toxic metals
Chromium, Cobalt, Iron, Manganese, molybdenum
Vanadium strontium and Zinc: required in trace
levels but toxic at higher concentrations. Same for
heavy metals such as mercury, lead and arsenic.
Sources
Industrial processes such as metal smelting
Runoffs from mining and construction
From pipes in old buildings to municipal sewage
(such as lead)
Atmospheric deposition (such as mercury)
Some toxic metals such as mercury accumulate in
fish tissue and can enter human body.
Sediments and suspended solids
Sediments: Soil particles entering a water body.
Siltation: suspension of small sediment particles
in water
High level of total suspended solids (TSS)
generates turbidity that can block sunlight
required for aquatic vegetation
Can carry nutrients that cause eutrophication
Can harm organisms by blocking gills,
suffocating eggs and therefore, destroying
aquatic habitat.
Disturb recreational use and esthetic of water
bodies
Source
Major source: Land erosion from construction,
Acidity
Acidity is due to high concentration of hydrogen
ion (pH<7)
Low pH can impair biological processes and
viability of fish
Source
Acidic wastewaters from industry such as from
mining (such as coal mining releasing sulfurcontaining minerals keading to formation of
sulfuric acid)
Acid rain that can also release toxic metals from
soil
Salts
Compound of elements including calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium, producing
positively charged ions (cations)
Cations combine with anions (negative charge)
such as chloride to form salts (such as NaCl)
Salts dissolve in water and measured by total
dissolved solids (TDS)
Source
Natural dissolution of salts into runoffs
Manmade sources into industrial and municipal
discharges and urban runoffs (i.e. deicing of
roads)
Low TDS level is required in drinking water and
water used in agriculture
Heat
Creates thermal pollution
Source
Heat wasted from electric power plant (about half
the fuel energy used) into adjacent water bodies
Can be detrimental to fish and plant by
temperature fluctuations
Warm water has less dissolved O2 and increases
the need for O2 due to increase in biological
activity
Drinking water quality
MCL = Maximum contaminant level for a series or
organic and inorganic contaminants was
established by Safe Water Drinking Act (SWDA) by
US EPA.
Primary standards (enforceable): to protect public
health (Table 2.5)
Secondary standards (Nonenforceable): public
welfare criteria such as taste, color, odor and
aesthetics (Table 2.6).
MCL has different units such as mg/L or ppm (part
per million) or pCi/L (picocury/L) for radionuclides.
MCLG = Maximum contaminant level goal which
is determined by EPA based on possible no health
Surface water quality
CWA of 1977 focused on Best Available Control
Technology or BACT, to control wastewater
effluents for any 126 priority toxic pollutants
(Table 2.7).
Less stringent rules applied for BOD and TSS.
Standards and guideline determine the allowable
discharge limits for pollution sources
nutrients and
bacteria are major
pollutants of
surface waters
Agriculture
industry and urban
runoff the major
sources of
pollutants
Groundwater quality
More focus is on the groundwaters supplying
drinking water
Highest priority pollutants
petroleum compounds from leaking underground
tanks
nitrate from agricultural fertilizers
Also landfills leak toxic metals and organic
compounds to the groundwater
Groundwaters can contaminate surface waters
Soils and ecosystems may remove or assimilate
groundwater contamination
Solid and Hazardous Wastes
Solid waste in soil may migrate into and
contaminate surface water or groundwater and
enter the food chain
Hazardous Wastes
Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
classified solid waste: Hazardous and nonhazardous
EPA definition of hazardous waste: A waste with any
of the four characteristics:
1) Ignitability: ability to burn easily or cause or
enhance fire
2) Corrosively: Strong acids and bases
3) Reactivity: React violently or cause explosions
4) Toxicity: threaten water supplied and health
Most of these wastes are in liquid form such as solvents,
organic chemicals, petroleum products, paints, strong
acids and wastewaters carrying hazardous materials.
TCLP (Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure) is a test
developed by EPA to determine if a material is toxic: if the
toxic substance in leachate is above threshold, it is toxic
Under RCRA, any hazardous waste is subject to cradle-tograve (from generation of the waste to its disposal)
management
Storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous waste
must be under EPA permit.
Wastewater treatment (Physical, chemical and
biological) is the most dominant disposal method of
hazardous waste.
Sludge generated from wastewater treatment can
be high in toxic materials and form a secondary
hazardous waste.
Land disposal of hazardous waste is now only a
small fraction (1%) of the total disposal (as opposed
to the past)
Landfills must have impermeable barriers to
leachate to prevent groundwater and soil pollution
The Love Canal catastrophe in 1978: leakage of toxic
chemicals from abandoned chemical factory into
residential area causing the relocation of people.
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) or
Superfund: clean up of dangerous waste and force
the responsible parties to pay for it.
Superfund: thrust fund to deal with emergency
situations until responsible parties will be forced to
pay.
About 1200 superfund sites listed by EPA as of 1996.
Legal proceedings and studies under CERCLA is said
to have spent more money than actual site cleanup:
determine who is responsible and how clean is clean.
Problems with implementation of CERCLA has led to a
more flexible approach: EPAs Brownfield initiative
which promotes the development of abandoned
industrial areas.
Nonhazardous Wastes
Wastes that are
not hazardous
according to
RCRA based on
Solid Waste
Recover Act and
Resource
Recovery Act
The most
common is
municipal solid
waste (MSW)
Hazardous and Nonhazardous Wastes quantities
MSW is collected from households, commercial and
institutional buildings except those from industries such as
manufacturing processes, construction activities,
agriculture which are called industrial wastes.
Management of MSW
In the US, each person produce more than 100 kg/d
of combined solid waste.
Although classified as nonhazardous, they can
contain hazardous waste such as batteries and
paints and be harmful to humans
Land disposal of MSW is still dominant method
(about 2/3 of total disposal). Landfills although
safer than before, potential threat of groundwater
contamination exist.
Degradation of landfill waste emit air toxics as well
as GHGs such as CO2 and CH4.
Landfill gas can be used as energy source
When land is not available, other options such a
incineration may be practical.
Incinerators can reduce the waste volume. But they
can emit toxics such as dioxin and furans from
incomplete combustion of chlorinated compound
Solid residues containing heavy metals can remain
from incinerators operation
For industrial wastes, due to much larger volumes,
landfilling is the preferred method of disposal
Using less raw materials and recycling and reuse are
the major ways to reduce waste generation
Recycling of glass, papers, metal containers, etc. in
communities are of such practices
Additional costs for above practices and the
demand and price for recycled materials are other
factors affecting the viability of such practices
Radioactive Waste
These wastes are by-products of nuclear fuel
generation.
Two distinguishing aspects of this waste:
- Its harmful effect is by radiation rather than
chemical action
- They remain dangerous for hundreds of
thousands of years
High-Level Waste
The most dangerous waste: spent fuel from nuclear
reactors and highly radioactive liquids and solids
from reprocessing of spent fuel
Require permanent isolation from humans
because of possible fission and emission of
alpha, beta and gamma particles that can destroy
living tissue and cause cancer.
Exposure can be due inhalation, ingestion of
contaminated food or liquid
Indications of this waste: Intensity and half-life
(time required for a radioactive element to decay
to its initial mass).
High-level waste may include elements with short
half-life
A repository needed for disposal of this waste, but it
is under study since it is to be a deep geological
formation not to be disturbed for thousands of
years.
The high-level waste is temporarily stored in nuclear
facilities such as dry storage of fuel rods in special
metal casks or concrete module.
Most of the waste from government facilities
(mainly from nuclear weapon process) are stored in
huge underground tanks.
These liquid and solid wastes are planned to be
chemically stabilized
Transuranic Waste (TRU)
Waste elements heavier than uranium (atomic
weight >92) that are not radioactive as high-level
waste.
Most TRUs are the result of weapon production
Many TRUs, like high-level waste have long life,
but this waste has a wide range of waste
materials, many with half-lives of tens to
Most TRUs were disposed off in shallow burial
trenches along with low-level waste. Recently,
they are stored in a more isolated location (Waste
Isolation Pilot Plant, WIPP).
Low-Level Waste (LLW)
A radioactive waste not classified as high-level
waste, TRU waste or by-product waste from
uranium mining. Mostly come from civilian sector
such as:
Protective gloves or clothing worn by workers
at the facilities such as nuclear power plants,
Contaminated pipes or equipment in these
plants
Test tubes use in medical research
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has
Unlike the high-level and TRU waste, disposal of
this waste is the responsibility of state
government.
Only special landfill disposal is approved for LLW
According to Nuclear Waste Disposal Act, LLW has
to be disposed of near the borders of each state
or in a designated regional facility.
Uranium Mill Tailing
Sand-like residue from the process of refining
uranium ore.
It is generated at large scale and contains much
of the ores radioactivity although at low levels
It can emit radon gas and contaminate
groundwater through ponds
Stabilization methods can remediate milling
Depletion of Natural Resources
Other environmental impacts arise from use of
natural resources (energy and raw materials)
Technologies are to be more efficient to reduce
utilization of raw materials and energy, but as
population increase, demands increase
Demands are:
- Source of food
- Sources of energy
- Sources of raw materials for devices, structure,
etc.
Natural resources
- Renewable such as water, wind, solar energy
- Nonrenewable: metals and minerals used in
products and structures, coal, oil, natural gas,
uranium to produce energy
Natural resources are needed by future generations
Increased consumption of nonrenewable resources
not sustainable in long term
Increase of pollution (air, water) and waste
production as a result of increase in consumption of
natural resources
Increase of energy consumption increases the use of
natural resources
Also use of renewable resources has impacts such as:
Loss of forests due to lumber production
Loss of land due to construction of dams
Consumption rate of materials is influenced by:
Growing demand and rising living standards
Reducing demands upon substitution by other
materials
Technology development and consumption of natural
resources have impacts on ecosystem, land and
natural habitat.
Land Use and Ecological Impacts
Ecological impacts include effects of human
activities on the environment
Ecosystem: biological community that functions as
a cohesive unit within its physical environment,
such as aquatic ecosystem
Components in an ecosystems are related to each
other and affected accordingly.
Biodiversity
Variations in different living organisms such as
animals and plants in an ecosystem required for a
healthy ecosystem.
Loss of species affects function and balance of
ecosystem as well as human population (most
medicines are from plants)
500 species in the US are extinct: birds, fish, plants,
etc.
Endangered Species Act (1973) in the US to save
threatened species
UN and other organizations have programs to
protect biodiversity
Loss of Habitat
Loss of biodiversity is directly linked to the
Population growth and economic development
threaten the loss of natural habitat.
Establishment of protected areas is a measure to
prevent loss of habitat and biodiversity.
Marine ecosystem
Like terrestrial ecosystem, marine environments
health is at risk
Overexploitation and contamination are major
factors contributing to loss of aquatic species.
Oceans (over 70% of the earths surface) are
polluted with toxic and radioactive materials. Oil
spills also have great impact on the marine
environment
Transferred species from one region to another
through international shipping, act as invaders
that can destroy local marine ecosystems.
Transferred species from one region to another
through international shipping, act as invaders
that can destroy local marine ecosystems.
Overexploitation of marine fisheries has depleted
number of species and disturbed the balance of
marine ecosystems.
Land Use Practices
Deploying any technology, even being very green,
alter land use and therefore create environmental
problems.
Laws and regulations control land use practices
such as environmental impact statement (EIS)
required by National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA) for major construction projects.
A big challenge is to establish new land use
practices that are environmentally sustainable.
