ENGR 202

Sustainable Development and

Environmental Stewardship

Chapter 2
Overview of Environmental Issue
2.2 Environmental concerns
• Pollution  can be defined as the introduction of a
substance to the environment at levels leading to a loss
of a beneficial use of water, air, or land resource or
degradation of the health of humans, wildlife, or
ecosystems.

• Human health effects can be classified as: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Health_effects_of_pollution.png

• Acute – immediate response

• Chronic – long-term exposure
• Carcinogenic – cell mutations (cancer)
• Welfare – Everything else, relating to what surrounds us (plants, animals,
materials)
2.3. Atmospheric Emissions

 1963 – Clean Air Act

 1970 – Updated Clean Air Act with set of national air quality standards
to protect human health Standards developed and promulgated by U.S.

2.3.1 Criteria Air Pollutants

 The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Air Pollution Process

Standards (NAAQS) for six common air pollutants  also known as

"criteria air pollutants“
 These pollutants can harm health and the environment, and cause property damage.

Major Air Pollutants [Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)]:

1. Particulate matter (PM; dust, smoke, haze); 2. Sulfur dioxide (SO2); 3. Carbon Monoxide (CO);
4. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2); 5. Ground-level ozone (O3+); 6. Lead (Pb)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) determines concentrations and durations at which gases are harmful
for human health.
• Particulate Matter

Dispersed airborne solid and liquid particles larger than

molecules but smaller than 500 μm

Molecules are approximately 0.0002 μm in diameter

PM10 and PM2.5
 PM10: <10 μm, coarse (2.5-10 μm) and fine particles
– Anything larger deposited in the HAR (nasal-pharangycal)
 PM2.5: <2.5 μm, fine particles

Sources of PM (10 microns or smaller): Effects of PM:

• Fuel combustion • Respiratory/cardiovascular disease

• Industrial processes • Damage to lung tissue
• Transportation sources • Carcinogenesis
• Premature death
• Reduced visibility
Effects on human health

 Enter human body via respiratory system

 Damage respiratory organs (over 50% of 0.01 - 0.1 μm particles penetrate
into pulmonary compartment)

• 1  particles > 10 µm → removed in nose and throat

• 2,3  particles = 5 to 10 µm → removed in trachea & bronchi
→ do not get to lungs
• 4  particles = 0.5 to 5 µm → alveoli → lung damage
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

SO2 nonflammable
non-explosive
colorless
pungent/irritating odor when concentration > 3 ppm
through photochemical or catalytic processes: SO2  SO3 [or sulfuric acid (H2SO4)]

Sources of SO2:
• Oil/coal combustion
• Metal smelting

Effects of SO2:
• Respiratory illness
• Alteration in lung’s defenses
• Aggravation of existing cardiovascular/chronic lung disease

Other Effects:
SOx  accelerate metal corrosion (through formation of sulfuric acid)
SO2  sulfuric acid  attack many building materials: limestone, marble, roofing slate, mortar
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
 Colorless and odorless
 Very stable (life time = 2 to 4 months)
 Global emission is large (> 300 million tons/yr)  20% are human-made

Sources of CO (invisible):
• Fossil fuels/carbon-based materials Oxygen + hemoglobin  Oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb)
 incomplete combustion CO + hemoglobin  Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb)
H H complete hemoglobin’s affinity for CO = 210 times its affinity for O
H C C H + O2 CO2
H H
Fuel + O2 CO
Effects
High CO concentration  physiological/pathological changes
Cause detrimental effect on human health
CO  deprive body tissues of necessary oxygen

Silent Killer
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

• No direct damage to materials

• NO2 + moisture  nitric acid (HNO3)  corrosion of metal surfaces
• Acid rain  decreased soil pH
• Reddish-brown gas
 reduce visibility
 affect plant growth and yield
 increased bronchitis in children forms: N2O, NO, NO2 , N2O3 , N2O5

Total nitrogen oxide emissions by source, Canada, 1990 to 2017

• Sources of NO2 (Reddish-brown):
Oxidize
 Fuel combustion High temp (combustion) NO  NO2

• Effects of NO2:
 Respiratory system irritation
 Respiratory illness (bronchitis)
• Ozone (O3)
Photochemical smog
 Ground level
 Photochemical smog

Sources of Ozone:
• Complex chemical reactions in atmosphere (NOX)
and hydrocarbon gases
• Automobiles
• Power plants
• Factories Source: http://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Photochemical_smog

Effects of Ozone: VOC + NOx + sunlight  photochemical oxidants (O3, ...)

• Formation of smog
• Attacks lung tissue
Volatile organic compounds
• Reduces lung function
• Sensitizes lungs to other irritants
• Lead (Pb)

 Heavy metal that can cause neurological damage and adverse effect on organs such as liver and
kidneys

 Children  particularly vulnerable (absorb 4–5 times as much ingested lead as adults from a given
source & tend to put their hands or other objects into their mouths)

 Sources of Lead  fall dramatically in past decades

• Automobiles (gasoline with lead)  fall dramatically in past decades
• Smelting
• Manufactures
• Lead erosion

 Effects of Lead:

• Neurological damage
• Adverse effects on liver/kidney
2.3.2 Air toxics
Hazardous air pollutants (HAP):

Chemicals emitted in smaller quantities but their effects can

be severe in small doses: Benzene, asbestos, heavy metals.

Effects: Neurological, immunological, mutagenic and other

serious health effects.
 2.3.3 Acid Deposition
• Acid Deposition

pH of natural rain? Around 5.6

Naturally: CO2(g) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + HCO3− (aq) H2CO3(aq)

Acid rain: provides a lot more H+ (over a hundred times more in many cases) this makes it much easier
for the reaction to run

Soil bacteria community Metals corrosion

Sources:
• Industrial Emission
• Fossil Fuel Combustion
• Powerplant
• Vehicle Emission
• Deforestation
• Chemical Manufacturing
Source: Liu et al. (2021) Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 224, 112681
• Damage to historical monuments (Acid rain)
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)  the major component of marble

2H+ + CaCO3  Ca2+

CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

Black-crust  George Washington, New York

A mixture of crystals of calcium carbonate, This statue of George Washington was first put outside in New York City
in 1944. During the next 58 years (in 2002), acid rain caused significant
nitrate and calcium sulfate damage to the statue.
makes up

A Stone Statue of the Herten Castle Wall in Germany (Photo on

left taken in 1908, photo on right taken recently)
 2.3.4 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion • Ozone hole over Antarctica
• Ozone depletion is not limited to
the area over the South Pole

The chlorine catalytic

cycle that destroys
ozone

• Ozone layer  in the stratosphere

• Absorbs ultraviolet radiation that's harmful to humans, animals
and plants.
• Ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
→ chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) ….
 2.3.5 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

NOT currently branded as air

pollutants

• Water vapor
• Carbon dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous Oxide
• Fluorinated Gases

Energy 75% fossil fuels

GHG Emission and Climate Change
Kyoto protocol 1993  reduce GHG; IPCC 1995

• Increasing concern of GHG emission  climate change

• Frequent extreme weather  flooding, drought, and
wildfire  huge economic loss and health risk

Pierrefond / Montreal Flood Spring 2017

https://mtltimes.ca/Montreal/social-life/opinion/dont-build-
wetlands-looking-recent-damage-pierrefonds-areas/
2016 Fort McMurray wildfire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Fort_McMurray_wildfire Pre-industrial
2.4. Water Pollution
2.4.1 Sources and use of water
• Surface water
• Ground water
• Earth has a precious layer of water—most of it
saltwater—covering about 71% of the earth’s
surface.

• Surface Water and Groundwater

 Surface water

 freshwater and seawater in streams, rivers, reservoirs, and oceans.

 appear in solid form as snow, ice

 Groundwater
 exist below the land surface
 consist water and air that fills pores and factures that exist
underground
2.4.2 Water Contaminants
Two Types of Water Pollution
• Point Source Pollution
√ Water pollution that can be traced to a specific origin
Example: discharge via effluent pipes from treatment plant

• Non-point Source Pollution

√ Pollutants that enter bodies of water over large areas rather than being concentrated at a single point of entry
√ Diffuse, but its cumulative effect is very large
Example: runoff from agricultural fields or parking lots

Industrial Water Pollution

 Pollutants include:
 organic matter
 petroleum products
 metals
 acids
 toxic compounds
 nutrients
 particulates
 Point-sources well regulated compared to non-point sources

Agricultural Water Pollution

 Major source of water pollution
 Nutrients: N, P
 Pesticides: contaminate streams, lakes, groundwater
2.4.2.1 Major Water Contaminants

• Biological pathogens
• Organic chemicals and toxic organic chemicals
• Inorganic chemicals: nutrients, toxic metals, salts
• Sediments
• Acidity
• Heat
Biological pathogens

Pathogen Size, μm Escherichia coli

Bacteria 10-1 – 10
Viruses 10-2 – 10-1

Protozoa 10 – 102

Nematode helminth worms 1 – 105

Trematode helminth worms 1 – 105
Tapeworms ~40 (egg) up 6 m (worm)
Organic chemicals

Chemical classes:
• Pesticides and herbicides
• Organic solvents
• Fuel components
• Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

Health effect of organic chemicals:

• Carcinogenicity – cause or suspected to cause cancer
• Teratogenicity (terra-tau-genicity) – cause birth defects
• Nervous system impairment
• Liver and other organ impairment
• Reproductive impairment

Toxic organic chemicals:

Oil spills are main example. Pesticides too: DDT. These substances don’t break down and stay on the skin of
the surface water organisms and so get passed down the food chain. Can cause cancer, birth defects, and
reproduction issues.
 Inorganic chemicals
• Nutrients: Nitrogen and phosphorus. Runs off into surface water supplies and causes depletion of oxygen.
The excessive nitrogen levels also cause diseases in drinking water.
• Toxic metals: Excessive levels of manganese, zinc, mercury, lead, arsenic can damage vital body organs
• Salts: Calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Tolerance of salts varies between species occupying the waterflow.
Chemical Adverse effect
Antimony Blood disorders
Arsenic Skin damage, cancer
Barium Increased blood pressure
Lead in Drinking Water of Montreal
Beryllium Intestinal lesions
Cadmium Kidney damage
Chromium Dermatitis Lead pipe line
Copper Gastrointestinal, liver or kidney
damage
Chemical Adverse effect
Cyanide Nervous system impairment
Fluoride Dental fluorosis (staining), bone
disease
Lead Impaired mental development Source: https://globalnews.ca/news/6113701/montreal- Source: https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2019/11/04

Mercury Kidney damage, birth defects drinking-water-lead- flint-michigan/ /lead-levels-water-canadian-cities-worse-flint/4154196002/

Nitrate Methemoglobinemia (blue-baby

syndrome)
Selenium Hair loss, circulatory problems
Sodium High blood pressure
Thallium Blood, kidney, liver, intestinal effects
Sediments and Suspended solids:

• Solid particles that enter a water body and settle to the bottom. A high level of TSS will
produce turbid water that blocks sunlight.

Acidity:

• pH is around 7 normally. Any pH below 5.5 is noticeably acidic.

Heat:

• Heat release from power plants in water body will affect species like the salmon which can’t
easily adapt to thermal change.
 2.4.3 Drinking Water Quality
• 200 thousands water intake source in the world, has to be protected for drinking
• Safe Water Drinking Act (SWDA) of 1974 from the EPA
- Established max contaminant levels (MCLs) for organic and inorganic chemicals, for pathogens; testing of fecal contaminant
- Specified treatment technologies that must be used to protect against disease-causing microorganisms
- primary (health) and secondary standards (welfare) (like CAA)
- also consider cost and technical feasibility

• 3 parameters to care (standards for pathogens)

- Total coliform: zero total coliform colonies per
100 milliliters of water

- Fecal coliform: 3 (1970), 1 (1990), 0 (21st century)

 spread disease (0 in all development countries)

- E.coli verify if fecal is human or animal

2.4.4 Surface Water Quality

• The federal Water Pollution control act (WPCA) of 1958. The 1972 amendment following the Act
- established national goals for the quality of U.S surface waters
- use of technology to control wastewater
- quantitative limits by industry and by point source dicharge with goals to reach

• Contaminant most responsible for water quality degradation are nutrients and bacteria with
agriculture industry leading source of water quality degradation.

• Urban runoff is the second major contributor to poor water quality. Major problems today arise
primarily from nonpoint sources of water contaminants
2.4.5 Groundwater Quality
• Growing number of contaminant in groundwater supplies

• Leading pollutants is petroleum compounds (organic

chemicals) from leaking underground storage tanks

- Gas stations (underground storage tank are leaking about

12% of its content (oil) We can't repair the tank after
10% leakage

• Second most widespread problem is nitrates, a nutrient

found in agricultural fertilizers.
- others like landfill sites that leaks chemical wastes are also
a source of the toxic metals  since problem is fairly new,
no explicit measures were made
2.5. Solid and Hazardous wastes
• Danger of landfill waste: waste material in soil may migrate into surface water or groundwater, where
it can then be ingested and harm living organisms.

• Big development of environmental engineering:

- Classification of waste , hazardous vs nonhazardous waste (no mixing))  Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
- ensure the safe disposal of potentially hazardous residues from air pollution and water pollution

• Problems

 Uncontrolled dumping in the past, and illegal dumping in the

present has polluted soil and groundwater
 Barrels of chemical waste eventually corrode
 Liquid chemicals often dumped into unlined ponds
 Health risks
2.5.1 Hazardous Waste

• a solid waste or combination of solid wastes (can also be liquid) which because of the quantity,
concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may
(1) cause, or significantly contribute to, an increase in mortality or an increase in serious
irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness; or
(2) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed

• parameters to characterized hazardous waste by EPA

 4 parameters:
 ignitability: ability to burn easily or cause fires
 corrosivity: strong acids and bases that could corrode surfaces
 reactivity: react violently and cause explosions, including reactions with water.
 toxicity: threaten water supplies and health, as determined by laboratory test of leachability
- TCLP (toxicity characteristic leaching procedure), one good test that we still use now (last
15 years)
2.5.1 Hazardous Waste
 We put those parameters as standards/legislation
- Before they took samples to analyze those parameters (few control possible).
They try periodic control, too much logistic problem

 1980s and 1990s, huge legislation made by EPA to regulate contaminant sizes
• RCRA: resource conservation and recovery act
• Comprehensive, Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): superfund to
decontaminate the sites after doing the inventory of sites in US and ask responsible parties to pay
for cleanup costs. (in total, there is 1200 contaminant sites in US), In CANADA (100 contaminant
sites mostly in the north).
- Problem: legal issues slowed down the process to find responsible parties and clean up sites
properly. More money was spent on legal proceedings and studies than actual sites
cleanup.

• Solution: EPA's Brownfields initiative. Promote redevelopment of abandoned industrial sites

without rigid requirements imposed by CERCLA.
2.5.2 Nonhazardous Waste
Municipal solid waste (MSW) refers to recyclables and compostable materials, as
well as garbage from homes, businesses, institutions, and construction and lOMoARcPSD|29132674

demolition sites.

Canadians produce more garbage than anyone else Source: https://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/details/environment/municipal-waste-generation.aspx

Canadians generate approximately 31 million tonnes of

garbage a year (and only recycle about 30 per cent of
that material). Thus, each Canadian generates
approximately 2.7 kg of garbage each day.

Source: https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/canadians-produce-more-garbage- Source: https://www.crcresearch.org/solutions-agenda/waste

than-anyone-else-1.1394020
2.5.2 Hazardous Waste

Waste Management Hierarchy

• Waste hierarchy
-waste minimization and cleaner technology
-waste reuse and recycling
(definition is partly political)

-incineration with energy recovery

-landfilling
2.6 Radioactive Wastes
• Main source is uranium mining, milling and refining.

• Nuclear regulation committee (NRC): determines danger of radioactive waste

• Most dangerous: high-level waste. Requires permanent isolation from the human environment
because it induces mutations and various forms of cancer.

Different kind of radioactive waste:

- High level radioactive waste

• Most dangerous kind of waste. Require permanent isolation from the human environment. characterized not only
by the intensity of its radioactivity but also by its very long half-life.
• nuclear fission: subatomic particles are release with secondary radioactive products that breakdown in different
part, result= still radiation that is emitted (alpha, gamma and beta radiation).
• Dangerous for human health
- Alpha <-- less strong radiation (absorbed or redirected with few cm thick material) *used in medicine
- beta <-- more strong radiation (absorbed or redirected with half meter to a meter)
- gamma <-- no way to stop or be absorbed as of today

Currently no permanent method for disposal of high level radioactive waste.

2.6 Radioactive Wastes

- Low level radioactive waste

• low levels of radioactivity spread across large volumes of material.

Example: protective gloves and clothing worn by workers at nuclear power plants; bottles,
test tubes, and syringes used in medical research and treatment; and contaminated
water, pipes, or equipment from the chemical processing or treatment of nuclear
materials

• waste disposal: burial of waste containers in special landfills

2.7 Depletion of Natural Resources
• In the face of worldwide population growth, and with the world’s population desiring an improved
standard of living, the demand on the earth’s natural resources undoubtedly will continue to
increase

• Human use and consumption of the earth’s natural resources are generally for three purposes:
(1} as a source of food
(2) as a source of energy
(3) as a source of raw materials for structures, devices, and other human endeavors

Two categories of natural resources:

- Renewable
- Nonrenewable (non-sustainable in long term)
2.8 Land use and Ecological Impacts

• ecological impact: describe some of these broader implications of human activities for the
environment

• Ecology: study of how organisms interact with their environment

• Ecosystem: refer to any biological community that functions as a cohesive unit within its physical
environment. Forest ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, and desert ecosystems (examples)
2.8.1 Biodiversity

• The growth of human settlements and the exploitation of natural resources has caused the
extinction of an increasing number of plant and animal species.

• Loss of biological species affects the functioning and balance of an ecosystem

• Effort: the 1973 Endangered Species Act  Loss of habitat  Marine ecosystem  Land Use
practices

• the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),

adopted in 1969, requires an environmental
impact statement (EIS) to be prepared for any
major construction project involving federal funds.

In many cases, the EIS process has revealed potential

problems that have led to substantial revisions or
cancellations of some projects.