Research methodology

Meaning of Research:
The word “research” comes from the French word rechercher, which means “to search
again” or “to investigate thoroughly.”
In simple words, research means finding new information or knowledge about a topic by
studying it carefully and systematically.
It is a careful and organized process of collecting data, analyzing it, and drawing conclusions
to solve a problem or answer a question.
Definition of Research
C.R. Kothari:
> “Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific

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topic.”
Meaning: Research is a logical and step-by-step process to gather useful information on
a particular subject.
Creswell, 2008),
"Research is systematic investigation to establish the facts.”
In Simple Words:
Def;
Research is a systematic investigation to find new knowledge, solve problems, or verify facts
through data collection and analysis.
Def;
A well effective way to study something and get new knowledge or information.

Five purposes of research :

1. To Explore
Definition: To discover new ideas or problems about which little is known.
Example: Exploring how online learning affects university students’ motivation.
2. To Describe
Definition: To present an accurate picture of a situation or event as it exists.
Example: Describing how many students use online classes and how often they attend.
3. To Explain
Definition: To find out the causes or reasons behind a particular phenomenon.
Example: Explaining why some students perform better in online classes than others.
4. To Predict
Definition: To forecast future events or outcomes based on present data.
Example: Predicting students’ exam results based on their participation in online learning.
5. To Improve
Definition: To apply research findings to make positive changes or solve problems.
Example: Improving online teaching methods to increase students’ performance and
engagement.
Types of Research
1. Exploratory Research
Definition:
Exploratory research is done when a topic is new or not well understood. It helps the
researcher to explore ideas, identify problems, and find what to study in detail later.
(It is an early stage of research meant to gain understanding, not to give final answers.)
Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom):
A researcher interviews teachers and students to explore what challenges and advantages
exist in online learning compared to traditional classrooms.
(Here, the goal is just to explore opinions and experiences — not to measure or compare
yet.)
2. Descriptive Research
Definition:
Descriptive research aims to describe the characteristics or facts of a population or situation.
(It answers questions like what, when, where, and how much, but not why something
happens.)
Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom):
A survey is conducted among 300 students to find out how many prefer online classes and
how many prefer traditional classes.
(This describes preferences — it does not explain why they prefer one method.)
3. Analytical Research
Definition:
Analytical research focuses on analyzing (examining in detail) existing data or information to
understand why or how something happens.
(It involves reasoning, comparison, and use of statistics to find relationships or causes.)
Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom):
A researcher collects exam results of students from both online and traditional classes and
analyzes the data to find out why traditional students perform better (for example, because
of more face-to-face interaction).
4. Predictive Research
Definition:
Predictive research is used to forecast (guess or estimate about the future) outcomes based
on current or past data.
(It tells what is likely to happen under certain conditions.)
Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom):
Using current data, a researcher predicts that online classes will become more effective in
the next five years as technology improves and students adapt to virtual learning methods.
Classification Based on Application
a. Pure / Basic / Fundamental Research
Meaning:
Pure or Basic research is done to gain new knowledge or understanding about a topic or
problem for the first time, without thinking about its practical use right now.
It focuses on developing and testing theories or ideas that increase our general knowledge.

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The main purpose is to add to existing knowledge and help in future studies.
Example: Studying how the human brain processes language — just to understand how

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it works, not to solve any specific problem.
In short: Basic research increases scientific knowledge and is theoretical and universal in
nature.
b. Applied / Decisional Research
Meaning:
Applied research is done to solve a specific, practical problem by using the knowledge

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gained from basic research.
Example: Using knowledge of brain functions to design better language learning apps for
students.
🟢 In short: Applied research uses scientific knowledge to find real-world solutions.
Difference between Basic (Pure) Research and Applied Research
1. Purpose
-Basic (Pure) Research
To increase existing knowledge or understanding.​
-Applied Research
To solve real-life or practical problems.
2. Nature
-Basic (Pure) Research
Theoretical (idea-based).
-Applied Research
Practical (problem-based).
3. Scope / Applicability
-Basic (Pure) Research
Universal — can be applied anywhere.
-Applied Research
Limited — applies to a specific situation or problem.
4. Focus
-Basic (Pure) Research
​ Develops scientific theories and predictions.
-Applied Research
Develops technology, techniques, or solutions.
5. Goal​
-Basic (Pure) Research
To add new knowledge to science.​
-Applied Research
To use knowledge to solve an immediate issue.
a. Quantitative Research
Meaning:
Quantitative research is the type of research that focuses on collecting and analyzing
numerical data (data in numbers) to understand patterns, relationships, or facts.
It aims to measure variables and express results using statistics, percentages, or numbers.
The main goal is to quantify (measure) information and test hypotheses (assumptions) with

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accuracy.
Example:
A researcher compares exam scores of students studying in online vs traditional classrooms
to find which group performs better.

b. Qualitative Research
Meaning:
Qualitative research focuses on understanding meanings, opinions, behaviors, and
experiences rather than numbers.
It uses words, interviews, and observations to explore why and how people think or behave
in a certain way.

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The main goal is to gain a deep understanding of human experiences and social situations.
Example:
A researcher conducts interviews with students and teachers to understand their feelings
and challenges about online classes compared to traditional ones.
Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
1. Purpose
Quantitative Research: To measure and quantify facts using numerical data.
Qualitative Research: To explore meanings, opinions, and experiences.
2. Nature
Quantitative Research: Objective (fact-based) and scientific.
Qualitative Research: Subjective (based on personal views and feelings).
3. Type of Data
Quantitative Research: Numerical data — numbers, percentages, scores.
Qualitative Research: Non-numerical data — words, descriptions, ideas.
4. Methods Used
Quantitative Research: Surveys, experiments, questionnaires.
Qualitative Research: Interviews, focus groups, observations.
5. Analysis
Quantitative Research: Statistical analysis (mean, percentage, graphs).
Qualitative Research: Thematic analysis (patterns, themes, meanings).
6. Result
Quantitative Research: Measurable and generalizable results.
Qualitative Research: Deep understanding, not easily generalizable.
7. Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom)
Quantitative Research: Comparing exam scores of students from online and traditional
classes to measure performance.
Qualitative Research: Interviewing students and teachers to understand their feelings and
experiences about online learning.
a. Deductive Research
Meaning:
Deductive research moves from general to specific — it starts with a theory or hypothesis

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(assumed idea) and then tests it through data or observation.
(It applies existing theory to check if it’s true in a particular case.)
Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom):
A researcher starts with the hypothesis:
“Students learn better in traditional classrooms than online ones.”

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He then collects data from both groups to test if the hypothesis is correct.
In short:
Deductive research tests existing theories and moves from general to specific.
b. Inductive Research
Meaning:
Inductive research moves from specific to general — it starts with observations or data and

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then develops a new theory or pattern from them.
(It builds theory rather than testing one.)
Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom):
A researcher first observes how students behave and perform in both learning settings.
After analyzing the data, he develops a new theory, such as:

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“Online learning improves independent study skills.”
In short:
Inductive research creates new theories and moves from specific to general.

Difference between Deductive and Inductive Research;

1. Direction
Deductive Research:
Moves from general to specific (starts with a general theory and applies it to a specific case).
Inductive Research:
Moves from specific to general (starts with specific observations and builds a general
theory).
2. Purpose
Deductive Research:
To test an existing theory or hypothesis (check if a theory is true or false through data).
Inductive Research:
To develop a new theory (create a new idea or explanation from collected data).
3. Starting Point
Deductive Research:
Begins with a theory (researcher already has a theory or assumption in mind).
Inductive Research:
Begins with observations or data (researcher starts by observing facts, not theories).
4. Outcome
Deductive Research:
Confirms or rejects a theory (decides whether the existing theory fits the data).
Inductive Research:
Builds a new theory (forms a new idea or pattern after analyzing observations).
5. Example (Online vs Traditional Classroom)
Deductive Research:
Testing if traditional learning is more effective than online learning based on an existing

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theory.
(Researcher starts with a theory and checks it with data.)
Inductive Research:
Observing student performance and behavior in both settings to form a new theory about

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online learning.
(Researcher begins with observations and then develops a theory.)
Language data collection
Definition:
Language data collection refers to the process of gathering information (data) about how
people use, understand, and learn language.
-This data helps researchers study language patterns, structures, meanings, pronunciation,
communication styles, and more.
In simple terms:
It means collecting real examples of language use — spoken or written — for the purpose of
linguistic research.
Purposes of Language Data Collection (with Definitions)
1. Language Pattern:
The regular and repeated way people use words and sentences in communication.
(Pattern = repeated style or habit of speaking/writing)
2. Language Structure:
The internal system of a language — how grammar, syntax (sentence order), and word
formation work together.
(Syntax = arrangement of words in a sentence)
3. Meaning (Semantics):
The study of how words and sentences express ideas, thoughts, and emotions.
(Semantics = meaning of words and sentences)
4. Pronunciation:
The way words are spoken or the sound patterns of a language.
(Includes accent, stress, and tone)
5. Improve Technology:
To help develop better tools like translation apps, speech recognition, and AI-based
language systems.
(AI = Artificial Intelligence — computer systems that think and learn like humans)
6. Teaching Methods:
To create effective and practical ways of teaching and learning languages using real
examples.
(Effective = successful in producing desired results)
Perfect — here’s the same content rewritten in a synthesized paragraph style, with clear
definitions, examples, and bracket explanations for difficult words:
Types of Language Data
Language data can be spoken or written, and it can come from natural or experimental
settings. (Natural = real-life use; Experimental = controlled or planned situations)
1. Spoken Data:
This type of data is collected from real conversations or speech. (Speech = spoken words) It
helps researchers study how people actually talk in daily life.
Example: Interviews, classroom discussions, phone calls, public speeches, or TV talk
shows.
2. Written Data:
Written data is collected from any written source. (Source = where information comes from)
It allows researchers to study how language is used in written communication.
Example: Newspapers, essays, letters, emails, or text messages.
3. Experimental Data:
This type of data is gathered through planned activities or language tests. (Planned =
carefully designed before doing) Researchers control the situation to observe how people
respond to certain language tasks.
Example: Asking students to retell a short story or complete an unfinished sentence.
4. Natural Data:
Natural data is collected from everyday language use without any researcher control.
(Without control = no interference from researcher) It shows how people naturally speak in
real situations.
Example: Friends casually talking in a café or people chatting in a market.

Here’s a clear and complete explanation of the Methods of Collecting Language Data —
written in a simple, synthesized way with bracket meanings for difficult words:

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Methods of Collecting Language Data

Language data can be collected through different methods depending on the purpose of
research. (Purpose = reason or goal) These methods help researchers gather accurate and
useful information about how people use language.
1. Observation Method:
In this method, researchers watch and listen to people’s natural conversations without
interrupting them. (Observation = watching carefully; Interrupt = to stop or disturb) It helps
collect real, natural language data.
Example: Observing how students talk in class or how people greet each other in a market.

2. Interview Method:
Researchers collect data by asking people questions directly about their language use,
habits, or opinions. (Interview = a question-and-answer session)
Example: Asking people how they use certain words or phrases in daily life.
3. Questionnaire / Survey Method:
This method uses written questions to collect information from many people. (Questionnaire
= a written list of questions) It helps gather large amounts of data in a short time.
Example: Distributing a survey about which language people speak at home or school.
4. Recording Method:
Researchers record spoken conversations, speeches, or discussions for later analysis.
(Analysis = detailed study) This helps capture pronunciation, tone, and natural speech
patterns.
Example: Recording a classroom lesson or a group discussion.
5. Experimental Method:
In this method, researchers design specific tests or tasks to study language behavior.
(Behavior = the way people act or respond)
Example: Asking participants to describe pictures or form sentences under certain
conditions.

Perfect! Here’s your answer again — with different and simple subheading words for each
ethical point (so they don’t all sound the same):

Ethical Rules for Collecting Language Data

Researchers must follow moral and professional rules to protect participants’ rights and
privacy.
1. Permission (Informed Consent)
Researchers must get clear approval from participants before collecting any data.
(Consent = agreement or permission)
2. Privacy Protection (Confidentiality)
Personal details of participants must be kept private and not shared publicly.
(Confidentiality = keeping information secret)
3. Safety and Care (No Harm)
Researchers must ensure that participants do not face any emotional or physical discomfort.
(Harm = hurt or negative effect)
4. Truthfulness (Honesty and Transparency)
Researchers should be open about the purpose of their study and how the data will be used.
(Transparency = openness and clarity)
5. Free Choice (Voluntary Participation)
Participation should be based on one’s own decision, not on pressure or force.
(Voluntary = done by free will)
What Is Data Analysis?
Definition:
 Data Analysis means organizing, summarizing, and interpreting the information (data) that
you have collected so that you can find patterns, relationships, and meanings relevant to
your research question.
In simple words:
It’s the process of turning raw data into useful knowledge.
Example:
If you survey 100 students about study hours and marks, data analysis helps you find that
students who study more get higher scores.
Steps in Data Analysis
1. Data Preparation
Clean your data — remove errors,
incomplete responses, or duplicates.
2. Data Organization
Arrange data into categories, codes, or
tables.
3. Data Interpretation
Look for patterns, similarities, differences,
and relationships.
4. Data Presentation
Summarize findings through tables, charts,
or text.
5. Drawing Conclusions
Relate findings to your research questions
and theories
Types of Data Analysis
1. Qualitative Analysis:
It deals with non-numerical data such as words, opinions, or experiences. Researchers look
for themes, meanings, or patterns in the information.
Example: Analyzing interview responses to understand students’ feelings about online
learning.
Common Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Coding:
Labeling parts of the data to identify key ideas or patterns.
(Example: Marking where students use words like “you know” or “like.”)
2. Thematic Analysis:
Grouping similar codes into broader themes or categories.
(Example: Creating themes such as “use of fillers” or “informal tone.”)
3. Content Analysis:
Counting how often certain words, phrases, or ideas appear in the data.
(Example: Noting how many times students mention “motivation” or “stress.”)
4. Discourse Analysis:
Studying how language is used to create meaning, identity, or power relationships.
(Example: Examining how teachers’ language influences classroom authority.)
2. Quantitative Analysis:
It deals with numbers and measurable data. Researchers use statistics, graphs, and tables
to find patterns or relationships.
Example: Calculating the average marks of students in a test.
Basic concept of quantitative data analysis
Population
Meaning: The entire group you’re studying.
Example: All English learners in your school.
Sample
Meaning: The part of the population you collect data from.
Example: 30 students from your class.
Variable
Meaning: Any feature you’re measuring.
Example: Gender, age, test score.
Data
Meaning: The information collected about variables.
Example: Test scores or survey answers.
Different between qualitative and quantitative data analysis
Nature of Data
Qualitative: Textual, verbal (based on words, opinions, or descriptions)
Quantitative: Numerical (based on numbers or measurable data)
Goal
Qualitative: Understand meanings (to explore ideas and experiences)
Quantitative: Measure quantities (to calculate or compare results)
Approach
Qualitative: Interpretive (focuses on understanding and explanation)
Quantitative: Mathematical (uses formulas, counting, or statistics)
Output
Qualitative: Themes, categories (main ideas or patterns found in data)
Quantitative: Tables, charts, averages (numerical summaries and visuals)
Example
Qualitative: Analyzing essays (studying written responses for ideas)
Quantitative: Analyzing test scores (examining marks or numerical results)
Tools for data collection
Tools for data collection are the instruments, devices, or methods that researchers use to
gather information from participants or sources.
In simple words:
Data collection tools = Anything used to collect information for research.
Types
1. Questionnaire
Definition:
A questionnaire is a written set of questions that participants answer to provide information.
It is usually used in surveys.
Example:
A Google Form asking students about their satisfaction with online classes.
Types:
1. Open-ended questionnaire – answers in the form of sentences.
2. Closed-ended questionnaire – answers in the form of options (Yes/No).
2. Interview
Definition:
An interview is a verbal conversation where the researcher asks questions directly
(face-to-face, phone, or online).
Example:
Interviewing English teachers about classroom challenges.
Types:
1. Structured interview – fixed list of questions.
2. Semi-structured interview – some fixed, some flexible questions.
3. Unstructured interview – free, open conversation with guiding topics.
3. Observation
Definition:
Observation is a tool where the researcher watches people, events, or situations to collect
data.
Example:
Watching how students behave and interact during an English class.
Types:
1. Participant observation – researcher joins the group.
2. Non-participant observation – researcher only watches.
4. Document (Documentary Sources)
Definition:
Documentary sources involve collecting data from existing written or recorded materials, not
from people directly.
Example:
Using school attendance records to study student dropout trends.
Types:
1. Personal documents – diaries, letters, autobiographies.
2. Official documents – government reports, school records, certificates.
3. Historical documents – archives, old newspapers, manuscripts.
Here is a clear, simple, and systematic explanation of Research Methods in easy English.
Research Methods:
“Research methods are the systematic techniques, procedures, and strategies that a
researcher uses to collect, measure, and analyze data in order to answer a research
question or test a hypothesis.”
Just tell me
2. Difference (Very Simple)
Research Methodology = the overall plan/strategy of research
Research Methods = the tools/techniques used inside that plan
Example:
Methodology = full recipe
Methods = ingredients + steps
3. Main Types of Research Methods
(1) Qualitative Methods
Used to collect non-numerical data (opinions, feelings, experiences).
Examples:
-Interview
-Focus group
-Observation
-Document analysis
Data = words, descriptions, themes
(2) Quantitative Methods
Used to collect numerical data (numbers, statistics).
Examples:
-Surveys with closed-ended questions
-Experiments
-Tests
Statistical analysis
Data = numbers, percentages, graphs
(3) Mixed Methods
Combination of qualitative + quantitative methods in one study.
Example:
Using a questionnaire (quantitative) + Interview (qualitative) to study students’ attitudes.
Difference Between Research Methodology and Research Methods
1. Definition
Research Methodology:
The overall strategy, plan, or framework that explains how the research will be conducted
and why certain methods are chosen.
Research Methods:
The specific techniques or tools used to collect and analyze data.
2. Focus
Research Methodology:
Focuses on the logic behind the methods—the “why”.
Research Methods:
Focuses on the actual procedures—the “how”.
3. Scope
Research Methodology:
Broad and covers the entire research process (design, sampling, data collection, analysis,
ethics).
Research Methods:
Narrow; refers only to techniques used for data collection and analysis (interviews,
questionnaires, tests).
4. Purpose
Research Methodology:
To provide a complete blueprint of the research.
Research Methods:
To provide the tools needed to conduct the research.
Here is a clear, simple, and well-organized explanation of the Interview Method, including
definition, types, and steps — perfect for exams or notes.

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Interview Method
1. Definition
The interview method is a data collection technique in which the researcher asks questions
directly from participants through a face-to-face, telephone, or online conversation to gather
detailed information.
OR
2. Interview Methods
Definition
An interview is a structured conversation in which a researcher asks questions to gather
data directly from participants.
It is a qualitative method used to explore participants’ experiences, opinions, and
perspectives.
2. Types of Interviews
(1) Structured Interview
Definition:
An interview with fixed, pre-determined questions asked in the same order to every
participant.
Example:
A job interview with a prepared list of 10 questions.
(2) Unstructured Interview
Definition:
An interview with no fixed set of questions; the conversation flows freely based on the
participant’s answers.
Example:
A researcher talking openly with teachers about classroom problems.
(3) Semi-Structured Interview
Definition:
An interview where the researcher has some prepared questions, but they can also add
new or follow-up questions during the conversation.​
It is flexible—not completely fixed like a structured interview, and not completely free like an
unstructured interview.
Example:A researcher with a guide but adding new questions during the conversation.
(4) Focus Group Interview
Definition:​
A focus group interview is a group discussion where 6–12 participants sit together and talk
about one topic.​
The discussion is guided by a moderator/interviewer, who asks questions and keeps the
conversation on track.​
Participants share their ideas, opinions, and experiences, while the moderator leads the
discussion.
Features:
-Group discussion
-Multiple viewpoints
-Saves time (collects data from many -people at once)
Example:
A group of students discussing online teaching advantages and disadvantages.
Steps in conducting an interview
1. Plan the interview
This means deciding why you are doing the interview and what information you need. You
prepare your questions in advance.
2. Select participants
Choose the people you want to interview. Contact them and fix a suitable time.
3. Conduct the interview
Meet the participant (face-to-face or online), ask your questions, listen carefully, and write
down or record the answers (with permission).
4. Close the interview
End the conversation politely. Thank the participant and check if they want to add anything.
5. Analyze the data
Read all the answers, look for important points or patterns, and use them to help answer
your research question.
Discourse analytic approaches Introduction
Discourse analytic approaches are different ways of studying language in real use. These
approaches examine how people speak, write, and communicate in everyday situations,
texts, and social contexts. Each approach focuses on a different aspect of language such as
power, structure, meaning, or interaction.
1. Conversation Analysis
Definition:
Conversation Analysis (CA) studies the structure of everyday talk, including turn-taking,
pauses, repairs, and how people manage conversations.
Example:
Analyzing how students take turns speaking in a classroom discussion or how people greet
each other on the phone.
2. Critical Discourse Analysis
Definition:
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) studies how language expresses power, ideology, and
inequality in society. It focuses on political, media, and institutional texts.
Example:
Analyzing political speeches to see how leaders use language to influence public opinion.
3. Pragmatic Discourse Analysis
Definition:
This approach studies how meaning depends on context, not just words. It includes speech
acts, politeness, implicature, and how context shapes interpretation.
Example:
“Can you open the window?” is understood as a request, not a question about ability.
4. Genre Analysis
Definition:
Genre analysis studies different types of texts (genres) and how each has its own structure,
purpose, and style.
Example:
Studying the format of a research article (Introduction → Method → Results → Discussion).
5. Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Definition:
Multimodal discourse analysis examines how meaning is made using multiple modes such
as language, images, gestures, sound, colors, and layout.
Example:
Analyzing a YouTube advertisement that uses words + music + images to convey meaning.
4. Textual Analysis
Definition
Textual analysis studies how written texts are organized, structured, and patterned. It
examines text types, layouts, organization, and linguistic choices that create meaning.
Example
Analyzing how a newspaper article uses headlines, paragraphs, and quotes to persuade
readers.
5. Narrative Analysis
Definition
Narrative analysis studies how people construct stories to give meaning to events, identity,
and experience.
Example
Analyzing a patient telling the story of their illness to understand how they make sense of
their personal struggle.
What is Multimodal?
Multimodal means using more than one mode (way of communication) at the same time.
A mode can be:
-Words (language)
-Images
-Sounds
-Gestures
-Colour
-Layout
-Videos
-Facial expressions
Modes of Communication
1. Linguistic (Words) – Spoken or written language.
2. Visual (Images) – Photos, diagrams, colors, layout.
3. Aural (Sound) – Music, voice tone, background noise.
4. Gestural (Body language) – Facial expressions, hand movements.
5. Spatial (Layout) – Arrangement of text and visuals.
In simple words:
Multimodal = when communication uses many signs together, not just words.
Example:
A TikTok video uses speech + music + visuals + text → this is multimodal communication.
What is Multimodal Analysis?
Multimodal analysis is the study of how different modes work together to create meaning.
In simple words:
Multimodal analysis studies how meaning is created through a combination of modes, not
just language alone.
Example:
#In a TV advertisement:
-words persuade
-images show the product
-music creates emotion
-colors attract attention
Multimodal analysis examines how all these modes combine to convey the message.

Mid Term……..