TYPES OF RESEARCH

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Definition:
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. Descriptive research
is used to systematically describe a phenomenon, situation, or population without analyzing
causes or relationships. It focuses on the "what," "when," "where," and "how" of a subject.

Key Features:

 Observational, not experimental

 Does not investigate causes
 Uses surveys, case studies, and observational methods
 Gathers factual information

Example:
Study: "Internet Usage Patterns Among College Students"

 A researcher collects data on how much time students spend online daily, what websites
they visit, and their preferred online activities.
 The study presents trends and statistics but does not analyze why students use the internet
in certain ways.

Definition:
Analytical research goes beyond description and attempts to analyze the causes, relationships,
and effects of a phenomenon. It focuses on the "why" and "how" aspects.

Key Features:

 Examines causes, effects, and relationships

 Uses critical thinking and statistical analysis
 Often involves hypothesis testing
 Uses case-control studies, experiments, and statistical tools

Example:
Study: "The Impact of Excessive Internet Use on Academic Performance"

 The researcher collects data on students' internet usage and their grades.
 Statistical analysis is used to determine if there is a correlation between excessive internet
use and lower academic performance.
 The study explores whether high internet usage causes a decline in grades.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:

Fundamental Research (Basic or Pure Research)

Definition:
Fundamental research aims to expand knowledge by developing theories, principles, and
generalizations without immediate practical application. It focuses on understanding concepts,
mechanisms, and phenomena.

Key Features:

 Seeks to increase knowledge rather than solve specific problems.

 Lays the foundation for future applied research.
 Often conducted in universities and research institutions.
 Uses theoretical models, experiments, and observations.

Example:
🧪 Study: "Quantum Computing and Its Theoretical Capabilities"

 Researchers study quantum mechanics to understand how quantum computers can

process information.
 There may not be an immediate application, but the findings help develop future
computing technology.

2. Applied Research

Definition:
Applied research is conducted to solve specific real-world problems. It uses fundamental
research findings to develop new technologies, processes, or solutions that benefit industries and
society.

Key Features:

 Problem-solving oriented and practical.

 Focuses on specific industry or societal needs.
 Conducted in corporate R&D labs, healthcare, engineering, and technology fields.
 Uses experiments, case studies, and fieldwork to implement solutions.

Example:
💻 Study: "Developing an AI-Based Cybersecurity System for Preventing Online Fraud"

 Researchers use AI and machine learning (fundamental concepts) to design a

cybersecurity system.
 The study leads to the creation of an actual tool that prevents cyber threats in banking.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

1. Quantitative Research

Definition:
Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns,
relationships, or trends. It is structured and uses statistical methods to draw conclusions.

Key Features:

 Uses numbers, measurements, and statistics.

 Data is collected through surveys, experiments, or structured observations.
 Often uses large sample sizes for generalizability.
 Results are objective and measurable.

Example:
📊 Study: "The Impact of Online Learning on Students' Exam Scores"

 Researchers survey 500 students and collect their exam scores before and after using online
learning platforms.
 Statistical analysis (mean, correlation, t-tests) is used to determine if online learning improves
performance.
 The findings show that students using online learning scored 15% higher on average than those
who did not.

2. Qualitative Research

Definition:
Qualitative research explores non-numerical data such as opinions, experiences, and behaviors.
It focuses on understanding why people think or behave in certain ways.

Key Features:

 Uses text, audio, video, or open-ended responses.

 Data is collected through interviews, focus groups, case studies, or observations.
 Typically involves smaller sample sizes but provides deep insights.
 Results are subjective and descriptive.

Example:
🗣 Study: "Student Perceptions of Online Learning During the Pandemic"

 Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with 20 students about their experiences with online
learning.
 Students express concerns about lack of interaction, technical difficulties, and motivation.
 The study identifies themes such as "learning flexibility" and "lack of personal connection" but
does not provide numerical conclusions.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

1. Conceptual Research

Definition:
Conceptual research is based on theories, ideas, and abstract concepts rather than direct
observation or experiments. It focuses on developing new theories or refining existing ones
without relying on practical experiments or real-world data.

Key Features:

 Idea-driven: Focuses on logical reasoning and intellectual analysis.

 Non-experimental: Does not involve real-world data collection or testing.
 Common in theoretical sciences, philosophy, and literature.
 Used for hypothesis formulation and theory development.

Example:

📖 Study: "Theoretical Framework for Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)"

 A researcher proposes a new theoretical model explaining how AGI could work based on logic,
existing AI theories, and philosophical arguments.
 No actual AI system is built or tested; the study remains conceptual.
 The goal is to enhance understanding rather than prove something experimentally.

2. Empirical Research

Definition:
Empirical research is based on real-world evidence and observation. It involves collecting
data, conducting experiments, and analyzing results to test hypotheses or theories.

Key Features:

 Data-driven: Uses observations, measurements, or experiments.

 Uses quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method approaches.
 Can be replicated and verified by other researchers.
 Common in sciences, engineering, medicine, and social sciences.

Example:

🧪 Study: "Testing the Performance of Machine Learning Algorithms on Real-World

Data"

 A researcher collects real-world datasets (e.g., customer purchase behavior).

 Runs different machine learning models on the data to compare their accuracy.
  Uses statistical analysis to determine which model performs best.
 Findings are based on experimental results, not just theoretical assumptions.

Research Methods versus Methodology

Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used
by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as
research methods. research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not
sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may

be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we
study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his
research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher
to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square,
how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of
these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate and why.
Key Differences in Research Processes

Feature Basic Research Process Applied Research Process

Purpose Expands knowledge and theories Solves real-world problems
Focus "Why does this happen?" "How can we use this knowledge?"
Approach Theoretical and conceptual Practical and experimental
Outcome New principles, models, or New technology, product, or solution
theories
Example Studying deep learning algorithms Creating an AI-powered image recognition
system

Research Process:
Criteria of Good Research

Good research must be systematic, objective, and reliable. It should contribute to knowledge,
solve problems, or help in decision-making. Below are the key criteria that define high-quality
research:

1. Clarity of Purpose

 The research should have a clear objective or problem statement.

 Example: A study on “The Impact of AI on Healthcare Diagnosis” should define its purpose—
whether to improve accuracy, efficiency, or patient outcomes.

2. Systematic Approach

 Research should follow a structured process—from identifying the problem to data collection,
analysis, and conclusion.
 Example: A scientific study should follow the research methodology step by step (hypothesis
formulation → data collection → analysis → conclusion).

3. Objectivity and Neutrality

 The research should be free from bias and based on factual evidence.
 Example: A study on the effectiveness of online education should include both positive and
negative findings, not just favorable results.

4. Validity and Reliability

 Validity: The research should measure what it is intended to measure.

 Reliability: The results should be consistent when repeated under similar conditions.
 Example: A COVID-19 vaccine trial must provide the same effectiveness rate across different
populations to be considered reliable.

5. Accuracy and Precision

 Data collection and analysis should be error-free and precise.

 Example: A weather forecasting model must have accurate temperature predictions, or it will
mislead users.

6. Ethical Considerations

 Research must follow ethical guidelines, including informed consent, data privacy, and avoiding
plagiarism.
 Example: A medical study must have approval from an ethics committee before testing on
humans.
7. Generalizability

 The findings should apply to a larger population beyond the study sample.
 Example: A survey on student learning habits should include diverse students from different
backgrounds for broader applicability.

8. Contribution to Knowledge

 Good research should add value to the field by solving problems, proposing new theories, or
improving existing solutions.
 Example: A new AI algorithm that improves speech recognition should offer better performance
than existing models.

9. Logical and Critical Analysis

 Research should be based on sound reasoning and logical conclusions.

 Example: If a study finds that exercise improves memory, it should explain how and why, using
scientific reasoning.

10. Replicability

 Other researchers should be able to repeat the study and obtain similar results.
 Example: If an experiment on drug effectiveness produces different results each time, it lacks
replicability.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:

(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the
problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be, occupies
an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables, Yj.

(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of
action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number
of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.

(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of
which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be
at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.

(iv) The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the objective, but
they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. In simple words, we can say
that the choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.

SELECTING THE PROBLEM

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. Research guide can at the most
only help a researcher choose a
subject. However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on
the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be
collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be
explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind
of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the
research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for
any study and is a step of the highest importance.

Importance of Literature Review in Defining the Research

Problem
A literature review is a critical analysis of existing research on a particular topic. It helps
researchers understand what has already been studied, identify gaps, and refine their research
problem.

Why is the Literature Review Important in Defining a Research Problem?

1. Identifies Research Gaps

 Helps find unanswered questions or unexplored areas in existing studies.

 Ensures that the research problem is original and valuable.
✅ Example:
If past research on AI in healthcare only focuses on diagnosis but not on patient monitoring, a
researcher might identify remote AI-based patient care as a gap.

2. Avoids Duplication

 Prevents researchers from repeating studies that already have solutions.

 Helps refine the research problem to focus on new insights rather than repeating known facts.

✅ Example:
A study on cloud computing security should check if the same threats have already been
addressed before proposing a new problem.

3. Provides Theoretical & Conceptual Framework

 Helps define key concepts, theories, and models related to the research.
 Supports the study with credible academic sources.

✅ Example:
A study on human-computer interaction (HCI) may use existing cognitive psychology
theories to understand user behavior in UI/UX design.

4. Refines Research Questions & Hypotheses

 Helps in formulating precise and focused research questions.

 Helps in developing testable hypotheses based on prior findings.

✅ Example:
If previous research shows that students using AI-based learning tools perform 20% better, a
researcher may ask:
"How do AI-based tutoring systems impact students with learning disabilities?"

5. Identifies Suitable Research Methods

 Reveals which methodologies have been successful in previous research.

 Helps select appropriate data collection and analysis techniques.
✅ Example:
If most cybersecurity studies use machine learning models for intrusion detection, a researcher
might consider using the same technique for their study.

6. Strengthens Justification for the Study

 Proves that the research problem is important and relevant.

 Provides evidence-based reasoning to support the need for the study.

✅ Example:
If a literature review shows that 80% of companies face phishing attacks, a study on better
email security measures becomes more justified.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources in a Literature Review

A literature review involves analyzing existing research to understand a topic, identify gaps,
and refine the research problem. It includes both primary and secondary sources, each serving
a different role in supporting research.

1. Primary Sources

Definition:

Primary sources are original, first-hand materials created by researchers, scientists, or experts
based on their own research, experiments, or observations.

Characteristics:

✅ Provides new data, findings, or evidence.

✅ Created at the time of the study or event.
✅ Directly presents original research without interpretation.

Examples of Primary Sources in Research:

📄 Research Papers & Journal Articles – Original studies presenting new findings (e.g., a
paper on AI improving cancer detection).
🧪 Experimental Results – Lab reports or clinical trials.
🎤 Interviews & Surveys – First-hand responses from participants.
📝 Theses & Dissertations – In-depth research by scholars.
📊 Statistical Data – Raw data from government reports or experiments.

🔹 Example:
A study published in Nature presenting a new deep-learning algorithm for detecting
cyberattacks is a primary source.

2. Secondary Sources

Definition:

Secondary sources analyze, interpret, or summarize primary sources rather than presenting
new, original data.

Characteristics:

✅ Provide summaries, discussions, or critiques of primary research.

✅ Offer interpretation and context to existing studies.
✅ Written after the original research, using collected data.

Examples of Secondary Sources in Research:

📚 Review Articles – Summarize multiple studies on a topic (e.g., "A Review of AI in

Cybersecurity").
📖 Books & Textbooks – Explain research concepts and theories.
📰 News Articles & Reports – Discuss research findings without conducting original studies.
🎥 Documentaries – Explain scientific discoveries based on existing research.
📝 Meta-Analyses & Systematic Reviews – Summarize multiple experimental studies.

🔹 Example:
A book on cybersecurity trends that explains findings from various research papers but does
not present new experiments is a secondary source.

Monograph, Patent, Research Database, and Web as a

Source
When conducting research, different sources provide various types of information. Among them,
monographs, patents, research databases, and web sources play crucial roles in gathering
reliable and relevant data.

1. Monograph

Definition:

A monograph is a detailed, specialized book or report on a single subject, written by an expert.

Unlike general textbooks, monographs focus on in-depth research on a particular topic.

Characteristics:

✅ Written by a single author or group of experts.

✅ Covers a specific research topic in great detail.
✅ Often published by academic publishers or institutions.

Examples of Monographs:

📚 "Deep Learning for Computer Vision" – A book explaining advanced AI techniques.

📚 "Quantum Computing: Theory and Applications" – A detailed analysis of quantum
algorithms.

Use in Research:

 Provides comprehensive knowledge on a specific topic.

 Useful for background research and theoretical foundations.
 Often peer-reviewed, making them reliable sources.

🔹 Example in Computer Science:

A monograph on "Blockchain Security: Mechanisms and Challenges" would provide a
detailed discussion on blockchain vulnerabilities.

2. Patent

Definition:

A patent is a legal document granted by a government that gives an inventor exclusive rights to
their invention for a set period (usually 20 years). Patents contain technical details of new
inventions.
Characteristics:

✅ Contains detailed technical descriptions, drawings, and claims.

✅ Protects intellectual property (IP).
✅ Publicly available after approval, providing innovation insights.

Examples of Patents:

📄 Patent for the First Smartphone (IBM, 1994) – US Patent No. 5,465,317.
📄 Patent for Google's PageRank Algorithm – US Patent No. 6,285,999.

Use in Research:

 Helps in technological innovation and development.

 Provides detailed descriptions of new inventions.
 Useful in industrial and applied research.

🔹 Example in Computer Science:

If researching new encryption techniques, studying patents related to AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard) encryption can provide valuable insights.

3. Research Database

Definition:

A research database is a digital collection of scholarly articles, journals, conference papers,

and other academic materials. It helps researchers find peer-reviewed and credible sources.

Characteristics:

✅ Contains academic and scientific publications.

✅ Includes peer-reviewed and high-quality research papers.
✅ Provides advanced search options for finding specific studies.

Examples of Research Databases:

📂 IEEE Xplore – Research papers in engineering and technology.

📂 PubMed – Biomedical and life sciences research.
📂 Google Scholar – General academic database for various disciplines.
📂 ACM Digital Library – Computer science research papers.

Use in Research:
  Essential for literature reviews and finding primary sources.
 Ensures access to credible and scholarly information.
 Provides citation details for referencing.

🔹 Example in Computer Science:

If researching "AI in Cybersecurity", using IEEE Xplore can provide recent studies on AI-
based intrusion detection systems.

4. Web as a Source

Definition:

The web (internet) is a broad source of information that includes government websites, blogs,
online articles, company reports, and open-access journals. However, not all web sources are
reliable.

Characteristics:

✅ Contains both credible and non-credible information.

✅ Provides quick access to a vast amount of data.
✅ Includes official and unofficial sources.

Examples of Web Sources:

🌐 Government Websites – (e.g., NASA, WHO, IEEE) provide official reports.

🌐 Corporate Websites – (e.g., Microsoft, Google) share tech innovations.
🌐 News Websites – (e.g., BBC, Wired, TechCrunch) report on recent trends.
🌐 Blogs & Forums – (e.g., Medium, Stack Overflow) offer opinions and discussions.

Use in Research:

 Quick access to news, company reports, and industry trends.

 Useful for current developments (e.g., AI advancements, cybersecurity threats).
 Requires fact-checking to ensure credibility.

🔹 Example in Computer Science:

If researching "Trends in AI Ethics", government reports from EU AI Regulations or blogs
from AI experts can provide valuable insights.
Identifying Research Gaps from Literature
What is a Research Gap?

A research gap is an unexplored or underexplored area in existing studies that requires

further investigation. Identifying a research gap is crucial for developing original and impactful
research.

Steps to Identify a Research Gap from Literature

1. Conduct a Thorough Literature Review

📌 Search in Research Databases – Use platforms like IEEE Xplore, Google Scholar, ACM
Digital Library, and Scopus.
📌 Review Journal Articles – Focus on recent publications to find the latest advancements.
📌 Analyze Systematic Reviews – These summarize multiple studies and highlight unexplored
areas.

✅ Example: If researching "AI in cybersecurity," review papers discussing machine learning

in threat detection and look for unaddressed challenges.

2. Look for Inconsistent or Conflicting Findings

📌 If two or more studies provide different conclusions, there may be a gap in understanding.
📌 Identify methodological weaknesses or limitations in existing research.

✅ Example:

 Study A: Finds that deep learning improves malware detection.

 Study B: Claims that traditional rule-based methods are more reliable.
 💡 Research Gap: "How can deep learning models be optimized to outperform rule-based
systems?"

3. Identify Understudied or Emerging Topics

📌 New technologies or trends often create research gaps.

📌 Identify areas with limited studies or new applications.
✅ Example:

 Blockchain is well studied in cryptocurrency, but its applications in supply chain security may
have limited research.
 💡 Research Gap: "How can blockchain improve transparency in global supply chains?"

4. Examine Future Research Suggestions

📌 Many research papers include a "Future Work" section where authors suggest potential
studies.
📌 Use these suggestions to build on existing knowledge.

✅ Example:

 A paper on AI in medical diagnosis may suggest "Further studies are needed on AI bias in
healthcare."
 💡 Research Gap: "How can AI bias be minimized in medical image analysis?"

5. Explore Methodological Limitations

📌 Identify studies with small sample sizes, outdated methods, or lack of real-world
validation.
📌 Find ways to improve or expand existing methodologies.

✅ Example:

 A study on self-driving cars may have used only simulated environments.

 💡 Research Gap: "How do AI-based self-driving models perform in real-world road conditions?"

6. Investigate Geographical or Contextual Gaps

📌 Research may be limited to certain regions, demographics, or industries.

📌 Expanding studies to different populations or settings can address these gaps.

✅ Example:

 Studies on remote work productivity focus mainly on developed countries.

 💡 Research Gap: "How does remote work impact productivity in emerging economies?"
Example of Research Gap Identification Process

Topic: "AI in Cybersecurity"

Literature Review Findings:

 AI detects cyber threats faster than traditional methods.

 AI struggles with adversarial attacks (hacking AI models).
 Most studies use synthetic datasets, not real-world attacks.

Identified Research Gaps:

1. How can AI be improved to resist adversarial attacks?

2. How do AI models perform in real-world cybersecurity threats (not just simulations)?
📖 1. Aspects of Method Validation

Method validation ensures that the selected data collection and analysis methods provide
accurate, reliable, and consistent results across multiple tests. It is essential for maintaining
the credibility of research outcomes.

🔍 Key Aspects:

 Accuracy:
o Refers to how close the measured values are to the actual or true values.
o High accuracy reduces systematic errors and improves the reliability of
results.
o Example: Measuring the weight of an object using a calibrated scale to match
the actual weight.
 Precision:
o Indicates the consistency of repeated measurements under the same
conditions.
o Divided into:
 Repeatability: Consistency under identical conditions.
 Reproducibility: Consistency under different conditions.
o Example: Obtaining the same reading in multiple trials.
 Specificity:
o Ability of a method to differentiate between target variables and irrelevant
data.
o Ensures the exclusion of external factors that could affect results.
o Example: In biological research, distinguishing between similar compounds.
 Sensitivity:
o Measures the capability of a method to detect minor changes or variations in
the data.
o High sensitivity is critical for identifying small but meaningful differences.
 Linearity and Range:
o Establishes a linear relationship between the observed values and true values
across a defined range.
o Ensures that the method produces consistent results over a specific interval.
 Robustness:
o Ability of the method to remain unaffected by small variations in experimental
conditions.

📖 2. Observation and Collection of Data

Observation and data collection are critical stages in research to gather accurate information
for analysis. The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and
research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for
the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The
primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original
in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher
would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly
he will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary
and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary
data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

📊 A. Observation Methods:

The observation method is a research technique where the investigator gathers information by
watching and recording behaviors, events, or conditions without directly interacting with the
subjects.

Example:

Imagine a researcher studying consumer behavior. Instead of asking someone, "What brand
of wristwatch are you wearing?", the researcher simply looks at the watch and notes the
brand.

Advantages of Observation Method:

1. No Personal Bias:
o Since the researcher observes directly, there is no chance of getting misleading
answers.
2. Real-Time Information:
o The data collected is about what is happening right now, without confusion
from past memories or future opinions.
3. Doesn’t Rely on Responses:
o Unlike interviews or surveys, people do not need to answer questions, making
it easier to collect data without requiring active participation.

Types of Observation:

 Participant Observation:
o The researcher actively engages in the environment while observing the
subjects.
o Example: A researcher participating in a classroom setting to observe teaching
techniques.
 Non-Participant Observation:
o The researcher observes from a distance without direct involvement.
o Example: Observing customer behavior in a store without interacting with
them.
 Structured Observation:
o Predetermined categories or checklists guide the observation process.
o Example: Recording frequency of specific behaviors during classroom
observation.
 Unstructured Observation:
o Allows for open-ended, flexible observation where no fixed criteria are
followed.
 o Example: Observing social interactions without a defined checklist.

If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation. But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt
on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often
termed as non-participant observation.

While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be observed? How
the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured? In case the
observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording
the observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. But when observation is to take
place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation. Controlled and uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes place in the natural
setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to
definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled
observation.

📊 B. Data Collection Methods:

1. Primary Data Collection:

o Data gathered firsthand by the researcher through surveys, experiments, or
interviews.
o Examples:
 Interviews (structured/unstructured)
 Focus groups
 Experiments
2. Secondary Data Collection:
o Data obtained from existing sources such as journals, books, databases, and
online repositories.
o Examples:
 Census reports
 Published research papers

📖 3. Methods of Data Collection

Data collection methods can be broadly classified into qualitative and quantitative
approaches.

📚 A. Qualitative Methods:

 Interviews:
o One-on-one discussions to gather detailed insights.
o Structured Interviews: Pre-defined questions.
o Unstructured Interviews: Open-ended, free-flowing questions.
 Focus Groups:
o Group discussions led by a moderator to explore diverse perspectives.
 o Suitable for exploratory research.
 Case Studies:
o In-depth analysis of a single unit (individual, group, or event) to explore
complex issues.

Qualitative methods focus on understanding concepts, opinions, or experiences through non-

numerical data. These methods aim to explore "why" and "how" a phenomenon occurs.

🎙️ 1. Interviews

Interviews involve direct, face-to-face, or virtual conversations between a researcher and a

respondent to gather detailed, personalized insights.

📝 Types of Interviews:

 Structured Interviews:
o Pre-defined set of standardized questions asked in a fixed order.
o Easy to analyze since the responses are consistent.
o Example: An HR manager asking a candidate the same questions during
a job interview.
 Unstructured Interviews:
o Open-ended and flexible, allowing free-flowing conversation.
o Provides deeper insights but can be difficult to analyze.
o Example: A journalist conducting an open discussion about someone’s life
experiences.
 Semi-Structured Interviews:
o A mix of pre-planned questions with flexibility for additional queries.
o Offers a balance between structured and unstructured formats.
o Example: A researcher asking both fixed and follow-up questions about
customer satisfaction.

🎯 Advantages:

 Detailed and rich data.

 Allows probing deeper into responses.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Time-consuming and resource-intensive.

 Prone to interviewer bias.

👥 2. Focus Groups

Focus groups involve guided discussions with 6-12 participants, moderated by a facilitator
to explore different perspectives on a topic.

📝 Characteristics:
  Participants discuss a particular subject or product.
 The moderator ensures balanced participation and stays on topic.
 Group dynamics allow participants to build on each other's ideas.

🎯 Advantages:

 Quick collection of diverse opinions.

 Ideal for exploratory research when little is known about the topic.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Groupthink may affect responses.

 Dominant voices may overshadow other participants.

📄 3. Case Studies

Case studies provide an in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject (an individual,
group, or event) to explore complex phenomena.

📝 Types of Case Studies:

 Exploratory Case Studies: Investigate unexplored areas to form hypotheses.

 Descriptive Case Studies: Provide a detailed description of phenomena.
 Explanatory Case Studies: Explain causal relationships between variables.

🎯 Advantages:

 Deep exploration of complex issues.

 Generates comprehensive and detailed data.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Time-consuming and resource-intensive.

 Findings may not be easily generalized to a larger population.

📊 B. Quantitative Methods:

 Surveys and Questionnaires:

o Standardized instruments used to collect data from large populations.
o Open-ended and closed-ended questions help gather structured responses.
 Experiments:
o Controlled procedures to manipulate independent variables and observe
effects on dependent variables.
 Observational Studies:
 o Monitoring and recording behaviors or events in real time.

Quantitative methods focus on numerical data and statistical analysis to test hypotheses and
identify relationships between variables. These methods answer "what," "where," and "when"
questions.

📋 1. Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are structured tools used to collect data from a large population,
often through written or digital formats.

📝 Types of Questions:

 Open-Ended Questions: Allow respondents to express opinions freely.

o Example: “What do you like about this product?”
 Closed-Ended Questions: Provide predefined options for respondents.
o Example: Multiple-choice questions or Likert scale responses.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted
by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments.
In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to
answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents
who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant
for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their
own.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method
are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
 2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled
in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with
schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions
are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in research surveys.
There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has made many people
to remark that from a practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from
the technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points of difference
are as under:
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified
in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule
 is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to
spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.
Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in
importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response
often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of
schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all
questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information
is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as
questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post.
But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.
7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but
in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to
be illiterate.

️ 2. Experiments

Experiments involve manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their

effect on a dependent variable in a controlled setting.

📝 Types of Experiments:

 Laboratory Experiments: Conducted in a controlled environment to minimize

external factors.
o Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new drug.
 Field Experiments: Conducted in real-world settings to observe natural behavior.
o Example: Analyzing customer responses to new store layouts.
 Quasi-Experiments: Lack full control over variables but attempt to measure cause
and effect.

🎯 Advantages:

 High control over variables.

 Helps establish cause-and-effect relationships.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Artificial settings may not reflect real-life conditions.

 Ethical constraints may limit applicability.
👁️ 3. Observational Studies

Observational studies involve watching and recording behaviors, events, or interactions

without manipulation by the researcher.

📝 Types of Observations:

 Participant Observation: The researcher actively engages while observing.

 Non-Participant Observation: The researcher observes without interaction.
 Structured Observation: Follows a checklist or pre-defined framework.
 Unstructured Observation: Open-ended and exploratory without predefined categories.

🎯 Advantages:

 Allows for the collection of natural, real-time data.

 Minimizes biases associated with self-reported data.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Observer bias may affect results.

 Ethical concerns about privacy.

SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Let us consider some other methods of data collection, particularly used by big business houses in
modern times.
1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed
in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the
product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as
manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited
through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing
pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation. For
instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of stores is visited periodically and data are
recorded on inventories on hand either by observation or copying from store records
3. Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at
the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and
prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of
consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out what types of consumers buy
certain products and certain brands, the assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately
portray consumer’s preferences.
4. Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as
‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain
detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands.
In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly
over a period of time.
 5. Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect
information by way of indirect means. Eye camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera
and Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly used by modern big
business houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of collecting the required
information.
Eye cameras are designed to record the focus of eyes of a respondent on a specific portion of a
sketch or diagram or written material. Such an information is useful in designing advertising material.
Psychogalvanometer is used for measuring the extent of body excitement as a result of the visual
stimulus. Motion picture cameras can be used to record movement of body of a buyer while deciding
to buy a consumer good from a shop or big store.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he
has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not
confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary
data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: (a)
various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various publications of foreign
governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c) technical and trade
journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various associations
connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research
scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical
documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of unpublished data are many;
they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. By way of caution, the researcher,
before using secondary data, must see that they possess following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:
(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using
proper methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(t) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be
used by the researcher.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of
the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.
The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are

📖 4. Sampling Methods

Sampling methods determine how participants or data points are selected to represent a
population in research. Proper sampling ensures that the collected data reflects the characteristics
of the target population accurately.
Probability Sampling

In probability sampling, each element of the population has a known and equal
probability of being selected. This type of sampling eliminates bias and ensures that the
sample is representative of the population.

🎲 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an equal and independent
chance of being selected. It is the most basic and commonly used probability sampling
method.

📚 Example:

A school has 1,000 students, and the researcher wants to randomly select 100 students for a
survey. Each student has an equal probability of being chosen.

✅ Advantages:

 Easy to implement and understand.

 Minimizes selection bias.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 May not work well if the population is heterogeneous.

 Requires a complete list of the population.

📊 2. Systematic Sampling

In systematic sampling, the first element is selected randomly, and subsequent elements are
chosen at regular intervals from a list.

📚 Example:

A company has a list of 500 employees, and the researcher wants to select 50 employees for
a survey. The researcher randomly selects a starting point and then selects every 10th person
from the list.

✅ Advantages:

 Easy to implement and ensures even distribution.

 Suitable for large populations.

⚠️ Disadvantages:
  May introduce periodicity bias if a pattern exists in the list.
 Less effective when the population is not randomly ordered.

📚 3. Stratified Sampling

In stratified sampling, the population is divided into homogeneous subgroups (strata), and
a random sample is drawn from each stratum. It ensures that all subgroups are adequately
represented in the sample.

📚 Example:

A university wants to survey 200 students about campus services. The student population
consists of 60% undergraduates and 40% postgraduates. Stratified sampling ensures that
the sample maintains the same proportion, selecting:

 120 undergraduates (60%)

 80 postgraduates (40%)

✅ Advantages:

 Ensures representation of all subgroups.

 Reduces sampling error in heterogeneous populations.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Requires prior knowledge of population characteristics.

 Difficult to implement for large or unknown populations.

🏙️ 4. Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and a random sample
of clusters is selected. All elements within the chosen clusters are included in the sample.

📚 Example:

A city is divided into 10 zones, and a researcher wants to study healthcare facilities. The
researcher randomly selects 3 zones and surveys all residents in those zones.

✅ Advantages:

 Cost-effective and less time-consuming.

 Useful for geographically dispersed populations.

⚠️ Disadvantages:
  Higher sampling error compared to stratified sampling.
 Results may be less representative if clusters are not homogeneous.

🎯 Summary of Probability Sampling Methods

Method Key Feature Example
Simple Random Sampling Equal chance of selection Selecting 100 students randomly
(SRS)
Systematic Sampling Regular interval selection Choosing every 5th person
Stratified Sampling Dividing into strata and Sampling equal proportions of
sampling groups
Cluster Sampling Randomly selecting clusters Choosing zones and sampling
residents

Definition of Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where not all members of the population
have a known or equal chance of being selected. It is often used when random sampling is
not feasible due to practical constraints such as time, cost, or difficulty in accessing the entire
population.

Unlike probability sampling, non-probability sampling does not allow for statistical
generalization to the entire population, but it is useful in exploratory research, qualitative
studies, and when studying specific groups.

🎯 Types of Non-Probability Sampling

🏪 1. Convenience Sampling

 Participants are selected based on their availability and ease of access.

 No random selection is involved; the researcher selects the easiest subjects to reach.
 Used for quick and inexpensive data collection but may lead to selection bias.

📚 Example:

A researcher distributes a survey to shoppers in a mall because they are easily accessible.
This does not ensure a representative sample, as only people visiting the mall at that time are
included.

✅ Advantages:

 Quick and easy data collection.

 Cost-effective.

⚠️ Disadvantages:
  High risk of bias.
 Cannot generalize findings to the entire population.

🎯 2. Purposive Sampling (Judgmental Sampling)

 Subjects are deliberately chosen based on specific characteristics, expertise, or criteria that
align with the research objective.
 Common in qualitative research and expert opinion studies.

📚 Example:

A study on climate change policies interviews climate scientists rather than randomly
selecting people from the general public.

✅ Advantages:

 Ensures inclusion of relevant respondents.

 Useful for specialized research topics.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Subjective selection may introduce bias.

 Findings are not generalizable beyond the selected group.

🔄 3. Snowball Sampling

 Initial participants (seeds) refer new participants, creating a chain-referral process.

 Useful for studying hard-to-reach populations (e.g., drug users, homeless individuals, rare
disease patients).

📚 Example:

A study on homeless individuals starts by interviewing 5 individuals. These participants

then refer others in their network, gradually increasing the sample size.

✅ Advantages:

 Effective for hidden or marginalized populations.

 Helps build trust within the target group.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Sample may be biased towards particular social groups.

 Growth of the sample depends on participants’ willingness to refer others.
📊 4. Quota Sampling

 Ensures that specific subgroups (e.g., age groups, gender, occupation) are adequately
represented by setting a fixed quota for each.
 Similar to stratified sampling but does not involve random selection.

📚 Example:

A company wants to survey 500 people about a new product, ensuring equal representation
from:

 Teenagers (125 participants)

 Adults (125 participants)
 Middle-aged individuals (125 participants)
 Seniors (125 participants)

✅ Advantages:

 Ensures key subgroups are represented.

 Faster than stratified random sampling.

⚠️ Disadvantages:

 Not randomly selected, leading to selection bias.

 Results may not be generalizable.

📌 Comparison of Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Method Selection Criteria Example Key Feature
Convenience Based on availability Surveying people in a Quick and cost-
Sampling mall effective
Purposive Based on researcher Interviewing climate Selects knowledgeable
Sampling judgment experts participants
Snowball Referral-based Finding participants for a Useful for hidden
Sampling recruitment drug abuse study populations
Quota Sampling Ensures proportional Sampling equal numbers Guarantees subgroup
representation from age groups inclusion
📖 5. Data Processing and Analysis Strategies and Tools

🔎 A. Data Processing:

1. Data Cleaning:
o Identifying and correcting errors or inconsistencies.
o Removal of incomplete or duplicate data.
2. Data Coding:
o Converting qualitative responses into numerical or categorical formats for
analysis.
o Example: Assigning numeric codes to responses in a survey.
3. Data Entry:
o Transferring data into digital formats (e.g., Excel, SPSS) for analysis.

📊 B. Data Analysis Strategies:

1. Descriptive Analysis:
o Summarizes data using mean, median, mode, standard deviation, etc.
o Useful for understanding the basic features of data.
2. Inferential Analysis:
o Draws conclusions beyond immediate data using hypothesis testing.
o Example: Applying t-tests or ANOVA to infer population characteristics.
3. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA):
o Identifies patterns, trends, and relationships through visualization and initial
analysis.
4. Confirmatory Data Analysis (CDA):
o Confirms hypotheses and tests assumptions.

Data Analysis Strategies: Detailed Insights

Data analysis involves organizing, transforming, and interpreting raw data to extract
meaningful insights and support decision-making. It consists of several approaches that serve
different objectives depending on the type of study and data collected.

📌 1. Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive analysis is used to summarize and organize data to describe its main features in
a quantitative manner. It focuses on presenting basic characteristics of the data through
numerical and graphical summaries.
Inferential Analysis

Inferential analysis uses statistical techniques to draw conclusions about a population based
on a sample. It allows researchers to make generalizations and test hypotheses.

📚 Key Techniques in Inferential Analysis:

✅ Hypothesis Testing:

 Tests whether a given assumption about the population is true.

T-test Formula

The t-test formula helps us to compare the average values of two data sets and determine if
they belong to the same population or are they different. The t-score is compared with the
critical value obtained from the t-table. The large t-score indicates that the groups are
different and a small t-score indicates that the groups are similar.

One-Sample T-Test Formula

Chi Square Formula
Chi-square formula is used to compare two or more statistical data sets.
The chi-square formula is used in data that consist of variables distributed
across various categories and helps us to know whether that distribution is
different from what one would expect by chance.

Example: You research two groups of women and put them in categories of
student, employed or self-employed.

Group 1 Group 2

Student 40 30

Employed 89 67

Self-employed 3 7

The numbers collected are different, but you now want to know

 Is that just a random occurrence? Or

 Is there any correlation?
What is the Chi Square Formula?

The chi-squared test checks the difference between the observed value
and the expected value. Chi-Square shows or in a way check
the relationship between two categorical variables which can be can be
calculated by using the given observed frequency and expected frequency.
The Chi-Square test gives a P-value to help you know the correlation if any!

A hypothesis is in consideration, that a given condition or statement might be true, which we

can test later. For example

 A very small Chi-Square test statistic indicates that the collected data matches the
expected data extremely well.
 A very large Chi-Square test statistic indicates that the data does not match very well. If
the chi-square value is large, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Chi-Square test statistic is called P-value. The P-value is short for probability value. It defines
the probability of getting a result that is either the same or more extreme than the other actual
observations. The P-value represents the probability of occurrence of the given event. The P-
value is used as an alternative to the rejection point to provide the least significance for which
the null hypothesis would be rejected. The smaller the P-value, the stronger is the evidence in
favor of the alternative hypothesis given observed frequency and expected frequency.

Hypothesis
P-value Description
Interpretation

It indicates the null

P-value
hypothesis is very Rejected
≤ 0.05
unlikely.

P-value It indicates the null Accepted or it “fails

> 0.05 hypothesis is very likely. to reject”.

The P-value is near the The hypothesis

P-value
cut-off. It is considered as needs more
> 0.05
marginal attention.

Examples Using Chi Square Formula

Example 1: Calculate the Chi-square value for the following data of incidences
of water-borne diseases in three tropical regions.

India Equador South America Total

Typhoid 31 14 45 90

Cholera 2 5 53 60
 Diarrhoea 53 45 2 100

86 64 100 250

Solution:

Setting up the following table:

Oi – (Oi – (Oi –
Observed Expected
Ei Ei)2 Ei)2/Ei

31 30.96 0.04 0.0016 0.0000516

14 23,04 9.04 81.72 3.546

45 36.00 9.00 81.00 2.25

2 20.64 18.64 347.45 16.83

5 15.36 10.36 107.33 6.99

53 24.00 29.00 841.00 35.04

53 34.40 18.60 345.96 10.06

45 25.60 19.40 376.36 14.70

2 40.00 38.00 1444.00 36.10

Answer: Chi Square = 125.516

ANOVA Test

ANOVA Test is used to analyze the differences among the means of various groups using certain
estimation procedures. ANOVA means analysis of variance. ANOVA test is a statistical significance
test that is used to check whether the null hypothesis can be rejected or not during hypothesis testing.

An ANOVA test can be either one-way or two-way depending upon the number of independent
variables. In this article, we will learn more about an ANOVA test, the one-way ANOVA and two-
way ANOVA, its formulas and see certain associated examples.

What is ANOVA Test?

ANOVA test, in its simplest form, is used to check whether the means of three or more populations
are equal or not. The ANOVA test applies when there are more than two independent groups. The
goal of the ANOVA test is to check for variability within the groups as well as the variability among
the groups. The ANOVA test statistic is given by the f test.

ANOVA Test Definition

ANOVA test can be defined as a type of test used in hypothesis testing to compare whether the means
of two or more groups are equal or not. This test is used to check if the null hypothesis can be rejected
or not depending upon the statistical significance exhibited by the parameters. The decision is made
by comparing the ANOVA test statistic with the critical value.

ANOVA Test Example

Suppose it needs to be determined if consumption of a certain type of tea will result in a mean weight
loss. Let there be three groups using three types of tea - green tea, earl grey tea, and jasmine tea. Thus,
to compare if there was any mean weight loss exhibited by a certain group, the ANOVA test (one
way) will be used.

Suppose a survey was conducted to check if there is an interaction between income and gender with
anxiety level at job interviews. To conduct such a test a two-way ANOVA will be used.

ANOVA Formula

There are several components to the ANOVA formula. The best way to
solve a problem on an ANOVA test is by organizing the formulas into an
ANOVA table. The ANOVA formulas are given below.
Limitations of One Way ANOVA Test

The one way ANOVA is an omnibus test statistic. This implies that the test will determine whether
the means of the various groups are statistically significant or not. However, it cannot distinguish the
specific groups that have a statistically significant mean. Thus, to find the specific group with a
different mean, a post hoc test needs to be conducted.
Two Way ANOVA
The two way ANOVA has two independent variables. Thus, it can be
thought of as an extension of a one way ANOVA where only one variable
affects the dependent variable. A two way ANOVA test is used to check the
main effect of each independent variable and to see if there is an
interaction effect between them. To examine the main effect, each factor is
considered separately as done in a one way ANOVA.

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is an initial investigation of data to identify patterns,

relationships, and anomalies before applying formal modeling.

Confirmatory Data Analysis (CDA)

Confirmatory Data Analysis (CDA) is used to test predefined hypotheses and validate
assumptions derived from exploratory analysis. It applies formal statistical models to
confirm relationships between variables.
📖 6. Data Analysis Using Statistical Packages

📈 A. Sigma STAT:

 Specialized for biological and clinical research data.

 Provides parametric and non-parametric test options.
 Built-in modules for hypothesis testing and regression.

📈 B. SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences):

 Comprehensive software for managing and analyzing data.

 Supports a variety of statistical tests including descriptive, regression, and inferential
statistics.

📊 C. Application in Statistical Tests:

1. Student t-Test:
o Compares the means of two groups.
o Paired t-test: Compares related groups.
o Independent t-test: Compares unrelated groups.
2. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):
o Tests differences between means of multiple groups.
o One-way ANOVA: Tests differences between one independent variable and
multiple groups.
o Two-way ANOVA: Tests effects of two independent variables simultaneously.
📖 7. Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing helps determine whether to accept or reject a hypothesis based on

statistical evidence.

🔎 A. Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1. Formulate Null and Alternative Hypotheses:

o Null Hypothesis (H₀): Assumes no effect or difference.
o Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Assumes a significant effect or difference.
2. Set the Significance Level (α):
o Defines the probability of rejecting H₀ when it is true.
o Common values: 0.05, 0.01.
3. Choose an Appropriate Test:
o Parametric Tests: Require normally distributed data.
o Non-Parametric Tests: Do not assume normality.
4. Calculate Test Statistic:
o Determines the likelihood of observed results if H₀ is true.
5. Compare with Critical Value or p-Value:
o If p-value < α, reject the null hypothesis.
6. Make a Decision:
o Draw conclusions based on the test results.

📖 8. Common Errors in Data Collection and Analysis

 Sampling Bias: Results from selecting an unrepresentative sample.

 Measurement Errors: Inaccuracies due to poor data collection tools or procedures.
 Omitted Variable Bias: Failing to include critical variables in the analysis.
 Overfitting: Building overly complex models that misinterpret noise as patterns.
 Ethics and Intellectual
UNIT 15 ETHICS AND INTELLECTUAL Property Rights
PROPERTY RIGHTS

Structure

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Requisite for Ethics in Research
15.4 Ethical Issues Related to Confidentiality
15.4.1 Confidentiality
15.4.2 Anonymity
15.4.3 Challenges in Confidentiality
15.5 Ethical Issues Related to Publication, Reproducibility and Accountability
15.5.1 Publication
15.5.2 Authorship
15.5.3 Peer Review
15.5.4 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
15.5.5 Citation and Acknowledgement
15.5.6 Reproducibility and Accountability
15.6 Copyright and Related Rights
15.7 Royalty
15.8 Reproduction of Published Material
15.9 UGC- Consortium for Academic Research and Ethics
15.10 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
15.11 TRIPS -Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
15.12 Let Us Sum Up
15.13 Key Words
15.14 Suggested Further Reading/References
15.15 Answers to Check Your Progress

15.1 INTRODUCTION
The researcher is fully responsible for the ethical conduct and publishing of
their research. Research ethics refers to the application of basic ethical
principles to scientific research (Thomas, 2017). Research ethics is defined as
the norms or set of principles for the conduct of research that differentiate
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. This set of principles helps the
researchers to guide their research designs and practices.The Chief Justice of
the U.S. Supreme Court,Justice Potter Stewart quoted that ethics is
understanding how to differentiate between the right of doing and doing
right. The researcher should familiarize themself with the ethical principles 385
Scientific Report involved in research planning to the publication process. This helps the
researcher tostrictly follow necessary precautions to avoid any type of
misconduct during research and in publication. This unit has been aimed at
discussing the importance of ethics in research and publication. The unit also
focuses on various ethical issues related to confidentiality, publishing,
plagiarism, citation, reproducibility, copyright and intellectual property
rights.

15.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the significance of ethics in research;
 explain ethical issues in research conduct and publication process; and
 explain the legal initiatives to protect intellectual property rights.

15.3 REQUISITE FOR ETHICS IN RESEARCH

The public considers thefindings published by the researchers in various
research communications are completely correct and unique. So, it is the
responsibility of each researcher to follow certain ethics in their work fields.
The maintenance of integrity in academics and quality in research lies with
ethics. The researcher should follow and spread the ethical values involved in
the conduct and publishing of research (Flick, 2014;Patwardhan et al., 2020).
The Second World War has become a landmark in research ethics with the
formation of the Nuremberg code against the conduct of medical research at
concentration camps. The Nuremberg trials led to the formulation of the
Nuremberg code, in 1947 to prevent abuse of human participants in research
(NIH, 2008). Motivated by this code, World Medical Association (WMA)
adopted the Declaration of Helsinki in June 1994 which provided direction to
those involved in research on human subjects. Many revisions were
subsequently made to govern the ethical aspects of human research.
The scientists and researchers must consider and follow the ethics in research
and should adhere to the code of conduct during their research work
execution.The responsible conduct of research (Shamoo and Resnik, 2015)
lies with the following points:
• Honesty and integrity
• Protection of human subjects
• Care of lab animals
• Respecting Intellectual Property Rights
• Objectivity
• Data Management
• Responsible publishing
386
 • Confidentiality Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
• Avoid plagiarism
• Openness
• Avoid scientific misconduct
Intellectual honesty is an inevitable factor in good research practice. It is also
involved with the prevention of misconduct in research by following
publication ethics. The proper research planning and research design had an
integral role in conducting good research. Apart from the study design and
ethical approval, the other issues related to research ethics are confidentiality
issues, inappropriate data (fabrication and falsification) and improper analysis
of data, reproducibility, inappropriate authorship, overlapping publications,
and various types of plagiarisms, improper citations and acknowledgements.

15.4 ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO

CONFIDENTIALITY
The human subjects in research completely need privacy and dignity. Privacy
refers to the individual right to prevent accessibility of others to personal
details, thoughts and health-related information (McCabe, 2004).

15.4.1 Confidentiality
Confidentiality refers to removing all the information related to the
identification of participants from the research report, even though the
participants and their details are very much known to the researcher. The
identifying information is being hidden from everyone to prevent the
personal data of participants to be used by other researchers.This will help to
build up trust between the respondent and the researcher, maintaining dignity
and providing respect to the respondent.
The steps taken to protect data privacy and maintain confidentiality are:
- Storage of research records securely and with limited access
o to signed consent files in a locked file drawer. This will prevent
the threat to data open to all.
o Password protection to all files with survey data. This will make
sure the data access only by those approved researchers.
- Eliminating or giving codes for the identifying information of
respondents
- Dissemination of research results without any personal details of
respondent
- Informed consent from participants for publicizing the research
findings involved personal information
387
Scientific Report Confidentiality should be secured in all probable means if the researcher
cannot follow anonymity in data collection. The general guidelines for
exceptions to maintain confidentiality are consent from the respondent, court
order, continued treatment of a patient, compliance with the law and
communication of a threat (Merideth, 2007).

15.4.2 Anonymity

In the case of anonymity, the personal information details of participants are

not collected and the participants are non-identifiable in future.The
respondent of the research subject will be continued to be unidentified
throughout the research and after the completion of the research
process.Although the anonymity standardconfirms the confidentiality of the
personal identity, maintaining anonymity is not an easy task. The participants
involved with the research need to be studied multiple times, more chance of
personal exposure and hence revealing anonymity is higher. There is a need
for adequate care and a high requirement for the proper anonymity of human
subjects.

15.4.3 Challenges in Confidentiality

The protection of the respondents from their identification based on their

beliefs, diseases and habits used in research is the responsibility of the
researchers. Privacy protection starts with the framing of research work,
continues throughout the research and extends also to publication and dataset
sharing. Confidentiality and anonymity play a significant role in safeguarding
the privacy of human subjects or respondents in the research.
The right to privacy is an important right of all the participants. The need is
there to maintain the confidentiality of collected respondent data throughout
the research period. The personal data of the participants should be protected
for a long time during its storage and usage is very much essential. The
information of the respondent has not been shared with anyone at any point in
time. The researcher should give special care to the respondents of the
vulnerable population involved in research related to HIV/AIDS, genetic
disorders, and physical and mental diseases.
Focus group discussion is an issue in research ethics with confidentiality and
anonymity of respondents. The risks are involved in complete guaranteeing
confidentiality.This research design is not favourable to confidentiality. All
the respondents in the group should agree to keep the discussion confidential
and respect each other's privacy through an informed consent process. So, at
the beginning itself, the participants are informed about this by the researcher
who also informs them of the need for their support to assure confidentiality
or anonymity.
The researcher has to make attempts to reduce and inform the participant
about the risk involved is mandatory. The privacy protection of respondents
is the duty of all associated with the research- researcher, respondents,
support staff and those involved in publishing research. The breach of
388 confidentiality is not accepted at any cost.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Enlist the basic principles of responsible conduct of research?
……………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………

……….………………………………………………………………………

………………….……………………………………………………………

15.5 ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO

PUBLICATION, REPRODUCIBILITY AND
ACCOUNTABILITY
Research ethics is not only related to research conduct, data collection and
analysis but also related to the publishing process. The preparation of
publication includes ethical issues such as fraudulent publication, authorship
credit, plagiarism andcitations (Malone, 1998).

15.5.1 Publication
The fraud publication can be intentional (if it is aimed at any form of gains)
or unintentional (publishing incorrect data due to negligence or carelessness).
Sometimes the researcher intentionally publishes the research work having
overlaps in the publications. The duplicate or redundant publication refers to
those overlapping publication which was already published and not referred
to the first one (Mutch, 2011). Salami publication refers to those publications
which are part of a single research process just to increase the volume of
publications (Abraham 2000). Another important issue is predatory journals
that publish most of the submitted articles without proper reviewing based
only on payment (Patwardhan and Desiraju, 2020).

15.5.2 Authorship
An author of a research publication is the person who is actively involved in
conceptualising and designing the research, conduct of research, data
analysis, and interpreting and writing the research paper (Council of Science
Editors (CSE),2012). The author contributes intellectually to scientific
content and moulds the research in a presentable and understandable form
(Winston, 1985).
Sometimes, the authorship is credited to those persons who have not even
contributed to research in any way. The disputes on academic integrity are
avoided if, at the beginning of the research project itself, a clear idea of
credits given to the authors, contributors and persons to be acknowledged is
389
Scientific Report finalized. The persons involved in mere data collection, grammar and
language editing and formatting are not eligible for authorship. So, care
should be taken to implicit the guidelines to authors given in the
journal.Academic career advancement lies with publications and driving
forces like publish or perish, respect and fame stimulate authorship
determination (Anderson and Boden, 2008; Mandal and Parija, 2013).
The ethical issues related to authorship are multiple authorship, authorship
misconduct, and inappropriate authorship (Kempers, 2001)
15.5.2.1 Multiple Authorship: Nowadays, most papers are written by
multiple authors. It is also known as co-authorship or shared authorship.
Multiple authorship is defined as publication by two or more named persons
(Macfarlane, 2017).The first author is the one who has contributed much to
research work and writing papers, and who is supposed to receive more
credit. The corresponding author is also given equal importance as his or her
contribution is also significant. The co-authors are given the order of
authorship as per their contribution, alphabetical or any other criteria
(Tscharntke et al., 2007).
In the case of multiple authors, only one person is given the first or principal
authorship and sometimes co-authors have given the positions either in terms
of seniority or alphabetical order without considering their actual
contributions.The multiple authorships may lead to the issue in the order of
sequence of their authorship that reflects their contribution (Regaldo, 1995).
15.5.2.2 Authorship Misconduct: The misconduct and misbehaviour related
to authorship conflicts are presenting the idea or work of friends or
colleagues as our own, causing harm intentionally to other's research, and
projecting our own fabricated and fraudulent research as more efficient
(Smith et al., 2020)
15.5.2.4Inappropriate Authorship: Inappropriate authorship is an unethical
behaviour related to the publishing of research papers. The common
inappropriate authorships are guest and honorary authorships.
Honorary Authorship: It is also known as gift authorship. It refers to
naming someone as an author without any type of contribution to research
and he or she has not been eligible to meet any criteria for being an author.
He has nothing contributed to credit for his public responsibility (Rennie and,
Flanagin, 1994; Wislar et al. 2011; Zaki, 2011,). It is giving credit to those
not qualifying for authorship. In other words, giving undue credit to a person
as an author who has contributed nothing to the research.Guest authorship is
another unethical matter with authorship in research ethics. The researchers
are forced to add the name of a person with no contribution, just for future
funding, grants or any other gains (Bavdekar 2012).
15.5.2.4 Ghost Authorship: It refers to not giving credit to those persons
who have actuallycontributed a lot to the research work and purposefully

390
ignored during the listing of authors. It is the opposite of honorary Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
authorship.

15.5.3 Peer Review

15.5.3.1 Types of Peer Review
Peer review is the system that evaluates the quality of a manuscript before
publication. The editors take the help of reviewers who are independent
researchers for checking the originality, validity and significance of the
manuscript. The different types of peer revieware:
- Single-blind peer review process: The identity of the authors is known
to the reviewers but authors may not know the reviewer(s) identity.
- Double-blind peer review where both the reviewer and author
identities are hidden.
- Open peer review where both the reviewer and author identity
areknown to each other
- Transparent peer review
Besides these common peer review types, there are other styles such as triple-
blind, transparent, collaborative and post-publication peer reviews.The
selection of peer reviewers by the editors is crucial in getting high-quality
review reports on the manuscript for publication in a journal (Black et al.,
1998).
15.5.3.2 Ethical Issues related to Peer Review
The ethical issues associated with the peer review process (Rockwell, 2014)
are
- The manuscripts under review are completely confidential and are
mandatory for the reviewers to maintain the confidentiality of data
and avoid its use for their research publication.
- The expertise of the reviewer, time spent on review and reviewers
affect the quality of the review process.
- The reviewers may have a real or apparent conflict of interest by
being co-author, same institutional affiliation, collaborator or have
acknowledged for their help in the manuscript.
- Editors also face a conflict of interest from institutional affiliations
and collaborations and personal relationships.
- Financial conflicts of interestare also considered research misconduct.

15.5.4 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism

15.5.4.1 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is one of the common and widely seen ethical challenges faced by
different academic and research organizations that have been committed by
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Scientific Report students, teachers or scientists in the communication of research(Debnath, E
2016; Thomas, 2017). Plagiarism means using the intellectual work of others
as our own and consists of stealing an idea, interpretations, opinions, or
paragraphs and sentences in books and papers, without proper
acknowledgement (Jenn, 2006; Sinha et al., 2009). Sometimes that is
unintentional, but copying any work of others with no credits to the correct
owner comes under stealing as it causes harm to those researchers (Traniello
and Bakker, 2016).The ‘cut and paste’ from internet sources, changing the
order of words, not acknowledging others' work and taking up the credit by
own are also examples of plagiarism.
Types of Plagiarism
Burg et al. (2007) categorised plagiarism into wholesale plagiarism and
mosaic plagiarism.
Wholesale Plagiarism: Wholesale plagiarism where stealing the complete
material owned by someone and submitting it in their name. This practice is
mostly seen among students for submitting assignments. It is a 'blatant' type
of plagiarism students commit to gain grades or marks.
Mosaic Plagiarism: It has three subtypes- verbatim, conceptual and
structural plagiarism.

 Verbatim Plagiarism: The words or phrases are copied from the

source without any quotations (Burg et al., 2007). It refers to
copying word for word or unacknowledged direct quotation
(Worthington, 2014).

 Conceptual Plagiarism: The person steals the concept in terms of

ideas or facts from a source without citation (Meo and Talha, 2019).
It is the plagiarism of ideas.

 Structural Plagiarism: This type of plagiarism refers to paraphrasing

by changing the words or phrases in a sentence without any citation
of the source (Weber-Wulff, 2014).
The other types of plagiarism are plagiarism of secondary sources when the
data was taken from a secondary source and plagiarism of authorship when a
researcher puts his or her name as author in place of the original author (Meo
and Talha, 2019).
Debnath (2016) reported the major reasons for plagiarism are ease in
information accessibility, publication pressure for career advancement, low
confidence, poor writing skills, rapid manuscript preparation to achieve the
target and lack of awareness.
15.5.4.2 Self-plagiarism
This is another ethical issue associated with someone republishing or re-
submit his or her own already published paper without proper citation of
392
original work (Bretag and Mahmud, 2009). The researcher is benefited from Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
the presentation of ideas as new one though it has already been published
earlier (Bruton, 2014).Duplicate publication is the most common type of self-
plagiarism. It also includes redundant publication, augmented publication and
salami fragmented publication (Roig, 2010). It may lead to infringement or
piracy of copyright of the earlier publisher and ethical code violation.The
violating ethical code is extreme when a researcher duplicates the complete
set of data,treatments, or even the paper. This is noticeable from papers of
different years of publication, but with a common author. Sometimes these
papers have different outcomes.
15.5.4.3 Plagiarism Detection Tools
In the present scenario, there are many ways to check plagiarism and control
the copying of others' work using plagiarism detection software (Meo and
Talha, 2019).The plagiarism checking softwareis either paid or free- of cost
(Naik et al., 2015).
Some of the paid plagiarism detection software are

 iThenticate (http://www.ithenticate.com)

 Turnitin (https://turnitin.com)

 Ephorus (http://www.ephorus.com)

 Urkund (http://www.urkund.com)

 Plagiarism Scanner (http://www.plagiarismscanner.com)

Some examples of free onlinesoftware are

 Duplichecker Checker (http://www.duplichecker. com)

 Viper (http://www.scanmyessay.com)

 Plagium (http://www.plagium.com)

 Plagiarism Checker (http://www.plagiarismchecker.com)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. How gift authorship differs from ghost authorship?

……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
….……………………………………………………………………………
…………….…………………………………………………………………
393
Scientific Report 2. “Duplicate publication is a type of self-plagiarism”. Discuss.
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……….………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………

15.5.5 Citation and Acknowledgement

15.5.5.1 Citation
The citation refers to the practice of providing notations in the text of a paper
which helps to identify the proofs or sources of what we claim and are
helpful for further research (https://ori.hhs.gov/ethically-questionable-
citation-practices).It is documentation of a particular source that had an
impact on the research work.The citation itself is an acknowledgement of the
researcher for the source in a particular context that provides a summary of
data about an article, journal, book or website for easy accessibility to any
other researcher (https://lib.dmu.edu/su/ethicaldoc/whatcite). The citation is
represented either as numbers in parentheses or superscript as per American
Medical Association style or a single author’s last name or first author’s last
name or last name of two authors subsequently followed by a year as per
American Psychological Association. The citation is normally seen as an in-
text citation, as footnotes or as endnotes.
A detailed reference list was given at the end of the paper with a list of
authors, year of publication, the title of - the article, book chapter, book,
technical report,journal title, volume and issue number, page numbers and
publisher. In case of online related references have additional information
like DOI (Digital Object Identifier) and URL (Uniform Resource Locator) at
the end of the reference.
Ethical Issues related to Citations
The ethical issues related to citations are
- Fail to cite the original author- because of the journal's limitation in citing
many references in an article
- Authors' tendency to manipulate references in an improper manner
o Irrelevant citation of big leaders (Patwardhan and Desiraju, 2020)
o to back up his results with only supporting references
o citation stuffing with own work without any relevance
o to improve the impact factor of journals and own article citations
o Journal editors force the authors to add articles from their journal
o Coercive self-citation (Wilhite & Fong, 2012)
394
15.5.5.2 Acknowledgement Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
The content of acknowledgements may include pre-formulated financial
disclosure statements, gratitude to persons for technical help, editing and
reviewing (Paul-Hus and Desrochers, 2019; McCain, 1991; Weber and
Thomer, 2014). Mostly in the acknowledgement section the author thanks
non-author contributors or collaborators related to research work and paper
writing for expertise and assistance. There is no established format for
acknowledgement. Sometimes the acknowledgements had exaggerations and
overemphasis on a particular person, facilities or institutes (Hollander 2001).
The issues related to acknowledgement include the personal touch covering
up the actual contributions, spelling mistakes of persons, and funding
agencies (Jeschin et al.,1995; Rigby 2011).

15.5.6 Reproducibility and Accountability

15.5.6.1 Reproducibility
Reproducibility is an important part of good science that ensures the ability
ofthe researcher to reproduce the same results with repetition of experiments
multiple times (Popper 1959;Resnik and Shamoo, 2017;Essawy et al. 2020).
Reproducibility refers to the accurateness and consistency of results over
time and researchers (Segers et al., 2010). It is a part of precision testing with
the ability to recalculate a figure from data, parameters and programs
(Schwab et al., 2000; Lister, 2005). The benefits of reproducible research
(Alston and Rick, 2021)are
 Researchers can explain clearly the experimental procedure and the
reason for the experimental performance.
 It helps researchers to be rapid and modify analyses and figures if
required, which saves time.
 It enables researchers well prepared for their next research work and
quick reconfiguration of previously conducted research tasks for
another research work.
 It provides confidence and trust among fellow researchers and peer
reviewers.
 It also brings high paper citations.
Ethical Issues with Reproducibility
The deviation in reproducibility in research is due to some lacuna in
experimental design, variation in experimental materials, quality and integrity
of data, data fabrication or falsification, and error in statistical data analysis
(Landis et al 2012, Shamoo and Resnik 2015, Shammo, 2016). The scientific
misconduct results in retractions of the publications (Fang et al., 2012). The
reproducibility is also limited by complexity, changes in technology, manual
errors, instrumental errors and publishing rapidly the novel research results to
protect intellectual property rights.
395
Scientific Report 15.5.6.2 Accountability
Accountability refers to the obligations of the researcher or organization who
are responsible for the decisions and actions based on the performance and
behaviourto explain judgements of different stakeholders in research (Beu
and Buckley, 2001; Saeed, 2020). It gives assurance of readiness and
preparedness for the evaluation of an individual by the audience
(www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu).It is the responsibility of the researcher to
avoid biases, design the wrong research methodology, and report incorrect
data and unsuitable use of information (Yip et al., 2016). The fabrication and
falsification of data are serious fraud in research and publication (Scott-
Lichter, 2012).

15.6 COPYRIGHT AND RELATED RIGHTS

The copyright refers to the legal rights that artists hold over their literary and
creative works (copyright.gov.in; WIPO, 2016; Maurya, 2021). Copyright is
one of the important aspects of intellectual property rights. The two types of
rights are protected by Copyright - economic rights (owned by the author to
get the financial rewards from users of his or her work) and moral rights (let
the creator take actions to protect their link with the work) (WIPO, 2016).
The following are protected by copyright- Books, music, paintings,
sculptures, films, computer programs, databases, advertisements, maps, and
technical drawings (Thomas, 2017; Maurya, 2021). The copyright is hence
meant for artistic work, cinematographic work and original literary work
(Rao, 2021). The Copyright Act, 1957 and Copyright Rules, 2013 (amended
in 2016) play a significant role in the protection ofthe work such as original
literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works and cinematograph films and
sound recordings from unauthorized usesin India (WIPO, 2016;
copyright.gov.in). The primary objective of copyright laws is to protect the
author's work and to encourage and remunerate original and creative
contributors (Monika and Malik, 2022). The copyright law gives the right
solely to the content creator. The law aimed to have a balance between the
interest of the creator and the public (WIPO,www.wipo.int). The copyright
law prevents others from stealing, copy-pasting, creating another work from
others' work or simply claiming others' work as their own (Thomas, 2017).
Creativity is essential for the progress of sustainable development of society
and innovations and creativity need to be protected (copyright.gov.in).
The duration of copyright protection in India as per the Copyright Act, 1957
is 60 years. The five amendments were made to Copyright Act, 1957 during
1983, 1984, 1992, 1994, 1999 and 2012 after its implementation in 1958
(Copyright Office, GoI). The Copyright (Amendment) Rules, 2021 were
recently notified by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Department for
Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade), GoI Notification, 2021.
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In the open access journals, there is free online access and permission to use Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
the information for any responsible use with citation. The authors can choose
from the following towards copyright (Hoornand and van der Graaf, 2006)
 Retain it - an early Open Access copyright model where the author
keeps the copyright
 Share it - with a Creative Commons licence where the author shares
the copyright
 Transfer it (partly) - traditional journals that go Open Access where
the author transfers only the commercial exploitation rights to the
journal publishers
The violation or infringement of copyright law can be minimized or
prevented by fair use or by taking copyright permissions from the author
(Joseph et al., 1996; Freund, 2016). The exemptions to copyright law to use
the work without any permission from the owner of copyright includes use
for research, study, criticism, review and news reporting, in library and
schools and the legislatures (copyright.gov.in).

15.7 ROYALTY
The royalty refers to earning income by the creator or author for the
copyrighted work from the licensee (Watt, 2006; Mohammadi, 2011;
Johnson, 2015). The royalty owned by the holder of copyrighted material
helps him or her to earn the best remuneration accessible in the market from
the licensee who wishes to use it for financial gains (Watt, 2006).
The mutual agreement between the copyright holder and the licensee leads to
legal binding in terms of royalty contracts by confirming a specific rate of
payment towards royalty. The 'running royalty' term was usually used to
denote the earnings by licensor throughout the life as a per cent of sales or as
a fixed amount (Sung, 2006). The rate of royalty payment to the author
differs and up to 10% is the benchmark offered to the author by most
publishers. The chances for an increase in royalty rate are also high once the
sale has increased, as initially, the publisher's effort is to cover up the
expenditure incurred for publishing the work (WIPO) and so the author earns
less initially.

15.8 REPRODUCTION OF PUBLISHED

MATERIAL
The understanding of which published materials are to be acquired
permissions and which do not need any permissions is very important. The
copyrighted publications in any form or any part have not been able to
reproduce without any written permission or consent (Scharle and Szabó,
2000). But no permission is needed for reproducing published material which
does not have any copyright.

397
Scientific Report Nowadays the publisher makes it mandatory for authors to seek written
permission before reproducing any copyrighted material in their article for
submission. The permission request form is available under the 'Permission
and Reprints' page on websites of many publishers like Elsevier, Springer,
Science, etc. Permission is very much required to use the matter from
copyrighted materials such as figures, images and tables from articles in
journals, newspapers and magazines, books as such or chapters in books,
websites, photographs, and any artworks, logos, and advertisements (George,
2017).
The confirmation in the form of written permission or consent should be
obtained from the copyright holder to avoid copyright infringement. The due
credit should be given to the original author if we are using the earlier
published work by mentioning his or her name or name of the organization
with the published year in the text and detailed bibliographic data in the
references. The facts and information which is known by many people and
are possible to verify from different locations come under common
knowledge and they do not require citations. The examples are as follows:
your observation and experience, historical events, folklore etc. It would be
better to cite the sources or give a list of reference sources from which the
common knowledge was found to avoid any ethical issues. The copyrighted
material can be used by following fair use or in the public domain or Creative
Commons licenses are applied to them.
The public can follow the principle of fair use of copyrighted material
without written permission for criticism, comments, teaching, etc.
(Pappalardo and Fitzgerald, 2015). Creative Commons (CC) licenses are
considered a good solution for copyright protection in the digital era (Kim,
2007). The CC licenses free distribution and non-commercial use of
copyrighted material by retaining copyright
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/). The six major CC licenses
(Source:https://creativecommons.org/licenses/; Courtney and Slater, 2018)
are:
i) Attribution (CC BY)- allows the free use and even for commercial
purposes with citation of original work.
ii) Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA)- allows the free use and even
for commercial purpose with citation of original work and have the
same license applicable for the new work.
iii) Attribution-NoDerivs (CC BY-ND)- allows the free use and
even for commercial purpose with citation of original work but
restrict sharing
iv) Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC)- allows the use but not
for commercial purpose with citation of original work
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 v) Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (CC BY-NC-SA)- allows Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
the use but for non-commercial purposes with citation of original
work and can have a similar license for the new creations.
vi) Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND)- allows
only downloading and sharing with citation without any change or
commercial use

15.9 UGC-Consortium for Academic Research and

Ethics
To ensure and promote the quality and integrity of research and following
publication ethics in Indian Universities, University Grants Commission has
established Consortium for Academic Research and Ethics(CARE).It aimed
at improving the research ethics in the conduct and publication (Patwardhan
and Thakur, 2019; Patwardhan and Desiraju, 2020;https://www.ugc.ac.in/e-
book/Academic%20and%20Research%20Book_WEB.pdf). The list of
quality journals in different disciplines was monitored continuously and
updated. The new journals are analysed and included only after following the
validated procedures by the UGC Cell established at Savitribai Phule Pune
University, Pune (Patwardhan and Thakur, 2019).

15.10 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

Intellectual property (IP)refers to ideas, inventions, and creativity of mindthat
hadgiven the readiness of the public to grant the status of the property (Saha
and Bhattacharya, 2011; Inda, 2021). World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) defined Intellectual property as creations of the mind,
such as inventions, literary and artistic works, designs, symbols, names and
images used in commerce (WIPO, https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/).
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) provide the right to the author for their
creativity (Shukla et al., 2022). Copyright is one of the significant parts of
intellectual property rights (Monika and Malik, 2022). The major types of
intellectual properties (Saha and Bhattacharya, 2011) are:
 Patents: It is an exclusive right granted to an inventionwhich is a
product or a process that provides, in general, a new way of doing
something, or offers a new technical solution to a problem
(WIPO,https://www.wipo.int/patents/en/)
 Industrial Designs: Features of any shape, configuration, surface
pattern, the composition of lines and colours applied to an article
(www.copyright.gov.in/Documents/handbook.html)
 Trademarks: Itis a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or
services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises by any
mark, name, or logo (WIPO, https://www.wipo.int/trademarks/en/)

399
Scientific Report  Copyright: Expression of ideas in material form and includes
literary, musical, dramatic, artistic, cinematography work, audio
tapes, and computer software (www.copyright.gov.in)
 Geographical Indications: It is a sign used on products that have a
specific geographical origin and possesses qualities or a reputation
that are due to that origin (WIPO, https://www.wipo.int/
geo_indications/en/)
IP is protected by law which enables people to receive recognition and get
financial benefits from what they have invented or created.

15.11 TRIPS - Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual

Property Rights
World Trade Organization (WTO) played an integral role in the protection of
intellectual property rights with the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement. TRIPS agreement was signed on 15th
April 1994 and it came into effect on January 1st,1995. It is a multilateral
agreement on intellectual property (IP) between WTO members on trade-
related aspects. TRIPS combined conventions of WIPO namely the Paris
Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the Berne
Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works for setting up
standards for the protection of IPR. The other characteristics of the TRIPS
agreement are enforcement of IPR and resolution of disputes related to trade
among the members (Source: WTO, https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/
trips_e/intel2_e.htm). The TRIPS agreement has taken care of theprotection
of all types of intellectual property such as copyright, trademarks, patents,
industrial designs, trade secrets, geographical indications and exclusionary
rights over plant varieties. (Thomas, 2017; https://www.wto.org/).

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the common ways to represent citations in an article in a
journal?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……….………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………

2. Is it mandatory to obtain written permission for all copyrighted

materials?
400
………………………………………………………………………………. Ethics and Intellectual
Property Rights
……………………………………………………………………………….
……….………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………

15.12 LET US SUM UP

The scientific community and the public need to condemn the practice of
violation of ethics, fraud and wilful conduct for the advancement of sciences.
The policies to address the ethical issues mainly related to plagiarism,
fabrication, and conflicts of interest have already been present at academic
and governmental institutions like an ethical committee or an institutional
review board. Research ethics can be easily achieved if scientists follow good
research practices, and maintain proper records, accountability,
reproducibility, citations, acknowledgements and appropriate authorships,
publication and peer review. The creation of the mind in terms of literary
work, artistic work and cinematographic works comes under intellectual
properties. The intellectual property is safeguarded under IPR by copyright
and related rights, trademarks, patents and industrial designing. TRIPS play
an integral role in the protection of IPR associated with knowledge and
creativity.

15.13 KEY WORDS

Research Ethics : Research ethics is defined as the norms or set of
principles for the conduct of research that differentiate
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.
Confidentiality : Itrefers to removing all the information related to the
identification of participants from the research report,
even though the participants and their details are very
much known to the researcher.
Plagiarism : Plagiarism means using the intellectual work of others as
our own and consists of stealing ideas, interpretations,
opinions, or paragraphs and sentences in books and
papers, without proper acknowledgement.
Verbatim : The plagiarism in which words or phrases are copied
Plagiarism from a source without any quotations.
Self-plagiarism : The plagiarism type in which someone republishes or re-
submits his or her own already published paper without
proper citation of original work.
Citation : It refers to the practice of providing notations in the text
of a paper which helps to identify the proofs or sources
of what we claim and is helpful for further research.
401
Scientific Report Reproducibility : Reproducibility refers to the accurateness and
consistency of results over time and researchers.
Accountability : Accountability refers to the obligations of the researcher
or organization who are responsible for the decisions and
actions based on the performance and behaviour to
explain judgements of different stakeholders in research.
Intellectual : It provides the right to authors for their creativity.
Property Rights
(IPR)

15.14 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

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Web Links:
 https://copyright.gov.in/documents/copyrightrules1957.pdf
 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
 https://lib.dmu.edu/su/ethicaldoc/whatcite
 https://ori.hhs.gov/ethically-questionable-citation-practices
 https://www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/ethics-in-
crisis-management/lesson-1-prominent-ethical-issues-in-crisis-
situations/ethical-principles-of-responsibility-and-accountability/
 https://www.ugc.ac.in/e-
book/Academic%20and%20Research%20Book_WEB.pdf
 https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/
 https://www.wipo.int/copyright/en/

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 Ethics and Intellectual
15.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Property Rights

Check Your Progress 1

1. The principles of responsible conduct of research are honesty and
integrity, protection of human subjects, care of lab animals, respecting
Intellectual Property Rights, objectivity, data management, responsible
publishing, confidentiality, avoiding plagiarism, openness and avoiding
scientific misconduct.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Gift authorship or guest authorship orhonorary authorship refers to
authorship to someone who has not contributed to research in any form
or does not qualify for authorship. But ghost authorship defines
purposeful ignorance as not giving authorship to an author who had
contributed to research work.
2. The duplicate publication is publishing the same article twice. This is
possible by submitting the same article to different journals at the same
time. It is scientific misconduct as well as self-plagiarism. It comes
under self-plagiarism as the author is submitting the same article by all
means and without mentioning the earlier publication.
Check Your Progress 3
1. The citation is represented either as numbers in parentheses or
superscript as per American Medical Association style or as the last
name of the author or authors with published year as per American
Psychological Association. The citation is normally seen as an in-text
citation, as footnotes or as endnotes.
2. The principle of fair use or public domain had not needed written
consent from the copyright holder. The exemptions to copyright law to
use the work without any permission from the owner of the copyright
includes use for research, study, teaching, criticism, comments, review
and news reporting, in library and schools and legislatures. Creative
Commons (CC) licenses are considered a good solution for copyright
protection.

409