WAVES ​ Incident wave​ ​ reflected wave

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium

transferring energy from one point to another without
causing any permanent displacement of the medium
A wave motion is process of transferring a disturbance Standing or stationary wave
from one point to another without any transfer of particles
Production and Propagation of waves: Based on the
of the medium.
comparison of the wave direction with the direction of
Types of waves
vibration of the particle
Waves are broadly classified into two types
1.​ Transverse waves
a.​ Based on the medium of propagation: mechanical A transverse wave is a wave in which travel perpendicularly
wave and electromagnetic wave to the direction of the vibrations producing the waves.
b.​ Based on the comparison of the wave direction 2.​ Longitudinal wave
Longitudinal waves are waves which travel in a direction
with the direction of vibration of the particle:
parallel to the vibrations of the medium.
transverse wave and longitudinal wave

Production and Propagation of waves: Based on the

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES
medium of propagation 1.​ Phase- particles which are at the same vertical
direction from their positions of rest and are
1.​ A mechanical wave is the wave that requires material
moving in the same direction are said to be in
medium for its mode of propagation (or for it to phase.
transfer energy away from the source). Examples are 2.​ Cycle - is a complete to-and-fro movement or
waves travelling through strings, water waves, and oscillation of a vibrating particle
sound waves 3.​ The amplitude (A) - is the maximum displacement
2.​ Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not need of a particle from its rest or mean position. It is
material medium for its mode of propagation (or for it measured in meter (m).
4.​ The period (T) - is the time required for a particle to
to transfer energy away from the source). Examples are
perform one complete cycle or oscillation
radio waves, visible light, ultra-violet rays, x-rays, 1 1
𝑓 = 𝑇 ​​ ​ ​ 𝑇 = 𝑓 ​​
gamma rays. Electromagnetic waves travels at the
5.​ Frequency (f) - is the number of complete cycles
speed of light (3.0×108m).
made in one seconds. It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
6.​ Wavelength (λ) - is the distance covered by the
waves after one complete oscillation.
A wave which travels along a medium transferring energy
For transverse waves, it is the distance between successive
from one part of the medium to another is called a
crests or troughs while for longitudinal wave, it is
progressive wave. The progressive wave can be divided
the distance between successive compressions or
into transverse and longitudinal waves
rarefactions. It is measured in meter (m).
7.​ Wave-velocity(v) is the distance traveled by the
waves in one second. The S.I unit is m/s

Progressive or travelling wave

A standing or stationary wave: this is formed when two

waves travelling in the opposite direction meets or by
superimposition of incident wave and its reflection. The
MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIP
amplitude of the standing wave varies along the wave.
𝑣 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 – 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧)
λ = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)
−1
𝑇 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑆 )
Considering O and P that are out of phase by Φ, then we
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ have
𝑣 = 𝑓λ​​ ​ ​
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
---3 (2π𝑥
λ
− Φ ​ ​ ) ​ --8
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 Where:
Φ 𝑥
λ 2π
= λ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ --9
𝑣= 𝑇
​​ ​ ​ --4 2π𝑥
1 Φ= λ
​ ​ ​ ​ --10
From equation 1, 𝑓 = 𝑇
But 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡
We have: 2π𝑣𝑡
λ Φ= λ ​ ​ ​ ​ --11
𝑣 = 𝑇 ​​ ​ ​ --5
Substituting equation 11 into equation 8 gives:
𝑣 = 𝑓λ​​ ​ ​ --6
λ = 𝑣𝑇​​ ​ ​ --7 (2π𝑥
λ
2π𝑣𝑡
− λ ​​ )
---12
2π
λ
(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) ​ ​ ​ ---13
Worked example Also from equation 12, putting 𝑣 = 𝑓λ we can have
A radio station broadcasts at frequency of 300 KHz. If the
speed of the wave is 3 x 108 ms-1, calculate the period and (2π𝑥
λ
− λ
2π𝑓λ𝑡
)
wavelength of the wave?
𝑇= 𝑓
1 ( 2π𝑥
λ
− 2π𝑓𝑡 ​ ) ​ ---14
Recall that ω = 2π𝑓
𝑇=
1
​ Thus, equation 12 can be re-written as:
300000

𝑇 = 3. 3 × 10 𝑠​
−6
​
(2π𝑥
λ
− ω𝑡 ​ ​ ) ​ ---15

λ Example: ​
𝑣= 𝑇 A plane progressive wave is given by the equation
3×10
8 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2000π𝑡 − 0. 5𝑥)
𝑣= 5 Calculate: (i) The wavelength of the wave (ii) The speed (iii)
3×10
The frequency (iv) The period
Solution:
λ = 1000𝑚 By comparing the given equation
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2000π𝑡 − 0. 5𝑥) with the standard equation
Mathematical representation of wave motion – ( 2π𝑥
λ
− 2π𝑓𝑡 )
Progressive wave We have for:
The general equation for stationary wave is given by: (i) The wavelength of the wave
2π𝑓𝑡 = 200 π𝑡
( )​​
2π𝑥
λ
---8
2ft=2000t
Where f=1000Hz
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 (ii) The speed
2π𝑥
λ = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 λ
= 0. 5𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 2π
λ
= 0. 5
𝑥 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
λ=2π×2
λ=12.57m
(iii) The frequency
v=fλ
v=1000 × 12.57
v=12570m/s
 (iv) The period
1
𝑡= 𝑓 PROPERTIES OF WAVES
1 All waves exhibit the following properties
𝑡= 1000 •​ Reflection
•​ Refraction
t=10-3s-1
•​ Diffraction
•​ Interference
CLASSWORK
Apart from the properties listed above transverse waves
1.​ What is wave?
has another properties called polarization.
2.​ Elias radio station broadcasts at a frequency of
21MHz. If the speed of light in the air 3×108ms-1,
Reflection
calculate the wavelength of the broadcast.
3.​ Define stationary wave This is a property of wave which occurs when a travelling
ASSIGNMENT
wave strikes a surface and it bounces back. The travelling
SECTION A
1.​ An electromagnetic radiation has a speed of 3×108ms-1 wave is the incident wave while the one that bounces back
and a frequency of 106Hz, calculate its wavelength (a)
is the reflected rain. In case of water waves generated in a
3.3×103m (b) 3.0×102m (c) 3.0×10-2m (d) 3.3×108m (e)
3.3×10-3m ripple tank, if the waves were made to incident normally
2.​ A body oscillates in simple harmonic motion according on a plane strip, the wave will be reflected back along their
π
to the equation 𝑥 = 0. 05 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3π + 3
) where original course.
x is expressed in meters. What does 0.05 represents? If the waves are incident at a particular angle, it will be
(a) velocity (b) frequency (c) period (d) amplitude (e) observed that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
none of the above of reflection in line with the laws of reflection
3.​ Which of the following is not a mechanical wave (a) Reflected wave
wave propagated in stretched string (b) waves in a
closed pipe (c) radio waves (d) water waves (e) sound
waves
4.​ The maximum displacement of particles of wave from
their equilibrium positions is called (a) wave velocity
(b) period (c) amplitude (d) wavelength (e) frequency

SECTION B Reflection of plane parallel wave from a plane surface

1.​ (a) What is wave motion?
LAWS OF REFLECTION
2π
(b) The equation λ
(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) represents a wave train in •​ The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal,
at point of incidence, all lie on the same plane.
which y is the vertical displacement of a particle at a •​ The angle of incidences is equal to the angle of
distance x from the origin in the medium through reflection

which the wave travelling. Explain, with the aid of a

Refraction
diagram, what A and λ represents.
This is the change in the speed and direction of waves as it
2.​ A radio waves transmitted from a certain radio station
is represented by the wave equation: passes from one medium to another.
8 When plane waves pass from deep to shallow water, their
𝑦 = 0. 75 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (0. 67π𝑥 − 2 × 10 π𝑡)
Calculate the (i) wavelength of the wave (ii) frequency of the wavelength becomes shorter and thereby travels slowly. A
change in the wavelength and speed produce a change in
wave (ii) velocity of the wave. Where x, y are in the direction of travel of waves when they cross the
meters while t is in seconds
boundary. It is important to note that during refraction,
the wavelength remains constant. CLASSWORK
Refractive index is the ratio of the sine of the incident angle 1.​ (a) List the properties of waves that you know
(i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (r). It is also the (b) Explain any two
ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first medium (v1) to 2.​ Define and explain the types of interference
the velocity in the second medium (v2)
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ASSIGNMENT
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = η = sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
= 𝑣2
= 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 SECTTION A
1.​ When a wave travels from air to water medium (a)
Diffraction
the speed reduces (b) the speed increases (c)
This is the spreading out of a wave on passing through a reflection occurs (d) all of the above (e) none of the
narrow opening. above
If waves are directed towards a large gap compared with 2.​ The phenomenon which occurs when two similar
the wavelength of the waves, slightly bent or beam of waves traveling in the same direction cross each
waves are formed on passing through the gap. other (a) reflection (b) diffraction (c) refraction (d)
If the barriers are placed closer to leave a narrow gap polarization (e) interference
waves forms spherical wave fronts on passing through a 3.​ Water waves are generated by dropping a stone
narrow shit. into a calm pool of water. If a small piece of cork is
floating in the path of the waves, the cork, as the
Diffraction occurs when the wavelength of the wave is wave progresses, will (a) sink into the water (b)
longer than the width of the opening or the size of the move up and down about the same position (c)
obstacles. move toward the center of the pool (d) move along
with the waves toward the bank of the pool (e)
Interference none of the above
4.​ Surface waves travelling in deep water at 15ms-1
This is a phenomenon which occurs when two similar
are incident at a shallow water boundary. If the
waves traveling in the same direction cross each other. If
angles of incidence and refraction are 450and 300
the waves are in phase or step so that they travel the same
respectively, calculate the speed of the waves in
distance at equal time and the crest or trough of the two
the shallow water (a) 8.1ms-1 (b) 10.0ms-1 (c)
waves arrive simultaneously or one is a complete
10.6ms-1 (d) 22.5ms-1 (e)15ms-1
wavelength ahead of the other. The resulting wave will
5.​ Which of the following is an exclusive property of
build up to twice the amplitude of the two waves; this is
transverse waves only(a) reflection (b) diffraction
called constructive or additive interference.
(c) refraction (d) polarization (e) interference
If the crest of one wave arrives with the troughs of the
SECTION B
waves, and vice-versa, the waves cancel each other out to
1.​ What is polarization? State three uses of a Polaroid
give zero resultant, this is called destructive interference.
2.​ Differentiate between reflection and refraction
Polarization
LIGHT WAVES
This is an exclusive property of transverse waves only. It is
the production of transverse vibration in only one plane. A Light wave is a visible source of energy. It is also a wave
transverse wave which vibrates in only one plane is said to
motion. It has a very short wavelength of 5×10-4mm. Light
be plane-polarized.
Polarized light can be produced by passing an ordinary light travels at a speed of 3.0×108ms-1
through a polarizer called Polaroid or crystal of calcite,
Source of Light waves
tourmaline or quartz. The arrangement of molecules
within this polarizer will only permit the passage of light in There are various sources of light: natural and artificial,
a particular plane and then absorb light due to other
luminous and non-luminous.
vibration. Thus, when an unpolarized light is passed
through a polarizer, the emergent light consists in only one Natural sources of light include the sun, fireflies, the stars.
plane.
Artificial sources of light are the candle, electric torch, the
Application of Polaroid
The Polaroid is used in sunglasses to reduce the intensity of electric lamp, incandescent, arc light and fluorescent light.
incident light and to eliminate reflected light glare.
Self-luminous or luminous sources of light are those that operation of the pin hole camera also depends on the fact
generate and emit light by themselves e. g. the sun, stars, that light travels in straight lines.
fire flies and some deep sea fishes Consequences of Rectilinear Propagation of light
Non-luminous objects are seen when they reflect or throw 1.​ Shadow 2. Eclipse 3. Pin-hole Camera
back light from a luminous objects. Examples of
non-luminous objects are moon, paper, mirror, wall etc. SHADOW
When light falls on such surface, it is may be absorbed, A shadow is an area in which light rays from a source
transmitted or reflected, sometimes a combination of the cannot reach. It is produced by the obstruction of light by
above processes may occur an opaque object.
There are two types of shadow:
Light rays and beams 1.​ partial shadow (penumbra)
A ray is the direction of the path in which light is travelling. 2.​ total shadow (umbra)
It is represented by a straight-line with an arrowhead If the light source is large, the shadow formed consist of
​​ A light ray two parts, a completely dark area known as umbra and an
outer grey area known as penumbra or partial shadow. In
A beam is a collection of two or more rays of light. Beams the umbra region, the light from the source is completely
can be parallel, convergent or divergent. blocked by the opaque body. In the penumbra region, the
A parallel beam is two or more rays travelling in the same light is partially blocked by the opaque object. The inner
direction but can never intersect each other. region of the shadow receives less than the outer parts.
Thus the penumbra becomes brighter from the umbra and
outwards.
​​ ​ ​
ECLIPSE
A parallel beam An eclipse is a result of a shadow cast by one heavenly
body on another. The sun being a luminous body and it is
A beam of light is said to be convergent when they meet at in the middle while the earth and the moon revolves round
a point the sun. If the moon is between the sun and the earth, the
shadow of the moon will be cast on the earth’s surface.
There are two types of the eclipse. Viz:
1.​ Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse): here the moon
comes between the sun and the earth in a straight
line
A convergent beam 2.​ Eclipse of the moon (lunar) eclipse: in this case, the
earth comes in between the sun and the moon.
The divergent beam occurs when a collection of light rays 3.​ Annular eclipse
has the same source is spread out apart.
PIN HOLE CAMERA
It consists of a light proof box, one end of which has a small
hole made with a pin or needle point. The opposite end
has a screen made with tracing paper or ground glass.
A divergent beam Light from an object in front of the pinhole passes through
it and form an image on the screen. If the screen is
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT replaced with a photographic paper or film, a picture of
The phenomenon of light travelling in straight line is known the object can be taken with the pinhole camera.
as rectilinear propagation of light. It can be demonstrated When using the pinhole camera to take pictures of an
by placing a candle flame at the end of a straight pipe, light object, long exposure is necessary to allow sufficient light
of the flame will be seen clearly at the other side of the to enter the box through the pin hole. The image formed
pipe. If the pipe is then bent and the process repeated, on the screen of the pinhole camera will be seen more
nothing will be seen at the other end, this clearly shows clearly if external light is excluded by covering head and
that light travels in straight line. Two natural effects that camera with a dark cloth.
result from the rectilinear propagation of light are the The image formed on the screen of the pinhole camera is
formation of eclipse and shadow, The principle of inverted, and diminished.
Increasing the size of the pin-hole makes the image blurry IMAGE FORMATION BY A PLANE MIRROR
while reducing the size of the pin-hole makes the image CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR
sharp. 1.​ It is the same size as the object
2.​ It is virtual
Linear magnification 3.​ It is laterally inverted
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the size (or height) 4.​ It is upright
of the image to the size (or height) of the object 5.​ It is far behind the mirror as the object is in front of
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 the mirror
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ​
IMAGE
​ ​ ---1
ℎ𝑖 There are two types of image:
𝑣
𝑚= ℎ𝑜
= 𝑢
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 1.​ Real image
2.​ Virtual image
​ ​ ​ ​ ---2
A real image is one that can be caught on a screen. Light
rays actually pass through real image. A virtual image is
Reflection of Light waves
one that cannot be caught on a screen. It is one through
Reflection is the bouncing back of light waves when it which rays do not actually pass but which is nevertheless
visible to the eye.
strikes a surface.
LATERAL INVERSION
Reflection of plane mirrors The effect on plane mirror on objects placed in front of it
whereby the appearance of the image looks like a reversal
There are two types of reflection:
of the object is known as lateral inversion
1.​ Regular Reflection
2.​ Diffuse Reflection or Irregular Reflection
In regular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on a
smooth or polished surface are reflected as parallel rays in
one direction.
IMAGES FORMED BY INCLINED MIRROR
When two mirrors are placed at an angle to each other, the
number of images formed is given by:

360
𝑛= θ
− 1​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​​
Regular reflection N = Number of images
Ө = Angle of inclination
In diffused or irregular reflection, parallel rays of light When Ө = 1800, the two mirrors will act as a single mirror
incident on a rough or irregular surface are reflected in and therefore formed only one image. When Ө = O, the
various directions two mirrors are parallel to each other and the image of
object placed between them will be at infinity.

EFFECT OF MIRROR ROTATION ON REFLECTED RAY-MIRRO

GALVANOMETER
If the direction of an incident ray on a mirror is kept
constant and the mirror is rotated through twice that
​​ Diffuse or scattered reflection angle. This fact is utilized in mirror galvanometer (to
measure very small electric current) and in the navigator’s
LAWS OF REFLECTION sextant.
The first law of reflection states that the incident ray, the
reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all Example
lie on the same plane The reflection of a narrow beam of light incident normally
The second law of reflection states that the angle of on a plane mirror falls on a metre rule parallel to the
incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection (r). mirror and at a distance of 1m. Calculate the angle of
rotation of the mirror if the reflected beam is displaced 2.​ The aperture – this is the width or diameter of the
21.26cm along the metre-rule when the mirror rotated. mirror.
3.​ The center of curvature (c) –this is the centre of the
Angle ONP = 2 Ө large sphere from which the spherical mirror is
Tan 2 Ө = 21.26 carved out.
​ 100 4.​ The radius of curvature (R) – this is the distance
​​ = 0.2126 between the center of curvature and the pole of
​2 Ө = tan-1 (0.2126) the mirror.
​2 Ө = 120 5.​ The principal axis – this is the imaginary line
​ Ө = 60 passing through the pole (p) and the center of
curvature (c)
USES OF PLANE MIRROR 6.​ The principal focus (f) – this is the point on the
It is used in periscope principal axis where the incident rays converges
It is used in kaleidoscope (for concave mirrors) or appear to diverge (for
It is used in sextant convex mirror)
Reflection of curved mirrors 7.​ Focal length (f) – this is the distance between the
Curved mirrors differ in size, shape and direction of their focus and the pole of the spherical mirror. It is
curvature. In respect of shape, we have spherical and always half of radius of curvature
parabolic mirrors. 𝑅
𝑓 = 2 ​​ ---4
There are two types of spherical mirrors –concave and
𝑅 = 2𝑓​ ---5
convex mirrors
1.​ Concave mirrors– the concave mirrors are
Spherical aberration
hollowed-out toward the incident light like the
This is the phenomenon whereby a spherical mirror of
inside surface of a spoon. It is also called a
wide aperture cannot bring all parallel rays to the same
converging mirror.
focus. In other to avoid this, spherical mirrors of small
aperture are usually used. This is also why parabolic
mirrors are used in place of spherical mirrors in
searchlights and car headlamps.

Construction of ray diagrams

The following tips are used in constructing ray diagrams
i.​ Light rays parallel to principal axis are reflected
​​ Concave mirror
through the focus
ii.​ A light ray passing through the center of the
2.​ Convex mirrors – these mirrors bulge towards the
curvature is reflected back along the same path
incident light like he back of a spoon. Convergent
iii.​ A light ray passing through the focus is reflected
mirrors are also referred to as divergent mirrors.
parallel to the principal axis.
iv.​ Light rays striking the mirror at the pole is reflected
such that the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection
Characteristics of image formed by concave mirrors
a.​ Object before center of curvature: the image
formed is:
●​ same size the object
●​ between the center of curvature and the
focus
​​ Convex mirror
●​ inverted
●​ real
b.​ Object at the center of curvature: the image
Terms used with spherical mirrors
formed is
1.​ The pole (p) – this is the midpoint of the spherical
●​ same size the object
mirrors
●​ at the center of curvature
 ●​ inverted ●​ All distances are measured from the pole of the
●​ real mirror to either left or right
c.​ Object between the center of curvature and the ●​ The distance of real objects and real images are
focus: the image formed is positive
●​ Magnified ●​ The distance of virtual objects and virtual images
●​ Beyond the center of curvature are negative
●​ Inverted ●​ The focal length of a concave mirror is positive
●​ real while the focal length of a convex mirror is
d.​ Object at focus: the image formed is negative
●​ Formed at infinity Example
e.​ Object between focus and the pole: the image 1.​ An object which is 5.0cm high is placed 10.0cm in
formed is front of a convex mirror of focal length 15.0cm.
●​ Magnified Find the position, size and nature of the image
●​ Behind the mirror produced.
●​ Virtual Solution
●​ Erect Using “real is positive”
f.​ Object at infinity: the image formed is Given that f=-15cm, u=10cm
●​ Diminished 1 1
+ 𝑢 = 𝑓
1
𝑢
●​ Formed at the focus
●​ Real 1
+
1
=
−1
𝑣 10 15
●​ Inverted
Characteristics of image formed by convex mirrors
The image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual,
1
𝑣
=− ( + ) 1
15
1
10

=− ( )
1 5
erect and diminished in size; it is formed between the pole
𝑣 30
and the principal focus. This is unlike the case of the
concave mirror which can produce either real or virtual 𝑉 =− 6. 0𝑐𝑚
images that may be inverted or erect, magnified or For magnification
diminished in size according to the position of the object. 𝑣
𝑚= 𝑢
Linear magnification −6
𝑚= 10
This is defined as the ratio of the image size to the object
size 𝑚 =− 0. 6
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
ℎ𝑜
𝑚= =
𝑣
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 0. 6 × 5. 0 = 3. 0𝑐𝑚
ℎ𝑖 𝑢

​ ​ ​ ​ ---6 Thus, the image is formed 6.0cm behind the mirror and the
Mirror formula height 3.0cm. it is erect, virtual, diminished
The focal length, f, object distance, u, and the image
distance, v, can be related using the formula below: CLASSWORK 10
1 1 1 1.​ (a) What do you understand by the term lateral
+ 𝑢 = 𝑓​ ​ ---7
𝑢 inversion? (b) write your first name in block form to
buttress (a)
Sign convention 2.​ Differentiate between concave and convex mirror
This is used to know and calculate by properly assigning 3.​ Two plane mirrors inclining at an unknown angle,
sign to all the parameters used in mirror forms 11 images. Find the value of the angle
i.​ The new Cartesian – here, all the distances 4.​ Mention three uses of plane mirrors
measure to the left of the mirror from the pole
are negative while distances measured to the ASSIGNMENT
right of the mirror from the pole are positive SECTION A
ii.​ Real is positive and virtual is negative – this is 1.​ Which of the following abatement is true of virtual
the most widely accepted and used in image (a) it is formed on the screen (b) it is formed
calculations for mirrors and lenses. In this case: by the intersection of actual rays (c) rays of light do
 not pass through it (d) all of the above (e) none of position of the object and the magnification of the
the above
image
2.​ An object is placed between two plane mirrors
inclined at 600 to each other. How many images will 2.​ (a) Explain with the aid of diagram how the image
the observer see? (a) 6 (b) 5(c) 4 (d) 3 (e) 2 of an object is formed by a plane mirror
3.​ An object is place 15cm in front of a concave mirror (b) State four characteristics of the image
of focal length 20cm, the image formed is (a) real,
inverted and diminished (b) real, inverted and 3.​ (a) Define the following terms (i) principal focus (ii)
magnified (c) virtual, erect and diminished (d) radius of curvature (iii) principal focus
virtual, erect and magnified (e) virtual, inverted (b) The screen of a pinhole camera is a square of side
and magnified
4.​ A concave mirror can be used to produce can be 160mm and it is 150mm behind the pole. The
used to produce a parallel beam of light if a light camera is placed 11m from a flag staff and
bulb is placed (a) between its focus and the pole
(b) at its focus (c) at its center of curvature (d) positioned so that the image of the flag staff is
between its focus and the center of curvature (e) formed centrally on the screen. The image
none of the above
5.​ When an image is formed in a plane mirror, the occupies three-quarters of the screen. What is the
image formed will be (a) the same size as the length of the staff?
object (b) smaller than the object (c) laterally
inverted (d) always virtual (e) all of the above
6.​ Using the real is positive sign convention REFRACTION OF LIGHT
determine the sign of the focal length of a convex
mirror (a) positive (b) negative (c) neutral (d) none Refraction is the bending away of light from the normal as
of the above (e) options (a) and (b) it passes from one medium to the other.
7.​ An object is placed in front of a concave mirror of There is a change in the direction and speed of a ray of
radius of curvature 12cm. if the height of the real light when it passes from medium to another medium of
image formed is three times that of the object, different density. This change in the direction of the light
calculate the distance of the object from the mirror of the light ray which is due to difference in the speed of
(a) 24cm (b) 16cm (c) 12cm (d) 8cm (e) 4cm light in different media is called refraction.
8.​ A magnified erect image four times the size of the When a ray of light travels from optically less dense
object is formed by a concave mirror of focal length medium (air) to an optically dense medium (water, glass),
12cm. what is the distance of the image from the it bends towards the normal.
pole of the mirror? (a) -36cm (b) -18cm (c) -24cm A ray passing from glass or water to air is bent away from
(d) -3.6cm (e) 24cm the normal
9.​ A boy walks away from a plane mirror at a constant
speed of 5.0ms-1 in a direction normal to the LAWS OF REFRACTION
surface of the mirror. At what speed does his image 1.​ The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at
move away from him? (a) 5.0ms-1 (b) 2.50ms-1(c) the point of incidence; all lie on the same plane.
3.5.0ms-1(d) 1.25.0ms-1 (e) 0.00ms-1 2.​ The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
10.​The image of an object is located 6cm behind a the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for
convex mirror. if its magnification is 0.6, calculate a given pair of media.
the focal length of the mirror (a) 3.75cm (b) 6.60cm The second law is known as Snell’s law
(c) 10.00cm(d) 15.00cm(e) 20.00cm sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑛= sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
SECTION B
The constant,n, is known as the refractive index of the
1.​ (a) Give the differences between real and a virtual
second medium with respect to the first medium. It is a
image
number which gives a measure of refraction or bending of
(b) A magnified, virtual image is formed 12cm from a light as it travels from one medium to another.
concave mirror of focal length 18cm. calculate the As the ray of light travels from air to glass, the refractive
index can be written as:
 sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑛 =
𝑎 𝑔 sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟

From the principle of reversibility of light REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

1 A thick slab of glass appears to be only two –third of its real
𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑎 𝑔 𝑎 𝑔 thickness when viewed vertically from above. Similarly,
water in a pond appears to be only three quarters of its
Furthermore, real depth. Rays from a coin at the bottom of a bucket of
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1( 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚) water are refracted away when they leave water and enter
𝑛 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠2 (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚)
𝑎 𝑔 the eyes. They appear as if coming from a virtual image,
which is apparent depth while the actual depth of the
Determination of Refractive index bottom remains and is referred to as real depth
Refractive index=real depth/apparent depth
EFFECTS OF REFRACTION
The phenomenon of refraction is responsible for the CLASSWORK
following 1.​ State the laws of refraction
1 The bottom of a clear river or pond appears shallower 2.​ The velocities of light in air and glass are 3.0 x108 m/s
than it really is and 1.8 x108 m/s respectively. Calculate the sine of
2 A rod or spoon appears bent or broken when it is partially the angle of incidence that will produce an angle of
immersed in water or any liquid refraction of 300 for a ray of light incident on glass
3 Letters in print seem to be nearer when we place a thick
block of glass over them ASSIGNMENT SECTION A
1.​ The direction of light ray changes as it passes from
REFRACTION THROUGH RECTANGULAR PRISM one medium to the other. The phenomenon is called
(a) diffraction (b) reflection (c) dispersion (d) deviation
​ (e) refraction
​ 2.​ The horizontal floor of a reservoir appears to be 1.0m
deep when viewed vertically from above. If the
refractive index of water is 1.35, calculate the real
depth of the reservoir (a) 2.35m (b) 1.35m (c) 1.00m
(d) 0.50m (e) 0.35m
Total internal reflection & Critical angle 3.​ Which of the following is an application of refraction
When light passes at a small angle of incidence from a (a) eye glasses (b) car headlamp (c) touch light (d)
denser to a less dense medium e.g. from glass to air, there shaving mirror (e) none of the above
is a strong refracted ray. There is also a weak ray reflected 4.​ A ray of light is incident normally on an air-glass
back into the denser medium. interface. What is its angle of refraction (a) 900(b) 600
When the angle of incidence increases, the angle of (c) 450 (d) 300 (e) 00
refraction also increases. At a certain increase of the angle 5.​ A transparent block 5.0cm thick is placed on a dot. The
of incidence, the angle of refraction is 900. This angle of dot when viewed is seen 3.0cm from the top of the
incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of block. Calculate the refractive index of the material of
2 3 3 5 5
refraction in the less dense medium is 900, is referred to as the block (a) 5 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) 3 (e) 2
the critical angle ( c). For angle of incidence greater than C,
the refracted ray disappears and all the incident light is SECTION B
reflected back into the denser medium. At this point, the 1.​ (a) What is:(i) refraction of a wave? (ii) Critical angle?
ray is said to experience total internal reflection. Example b) A water poured into a jar to a depth of 21cm. the bottom of
of total internal reflection is the mirage on the road, where
the refractive density of warm air is less than that of cool the jar appears to be raised by 3cm when viewed
air and light meets a layer at a critical angle, it suffers total vertically. Calculate the refractive index of the water
internal reflection.
2.​ A ray of light incident at an angle of 300 at an air-glass
interface (i) draw a ray diagram to show deviation of
the ray in glass (ii) determine the angle of deviation
REFRACTION THROUGH RECTANGULAR PRISM A ray of light experiences minimum deviation when passing
​ symmetrically through an equilateral triangular prism.
a.​ Calculate the angle of incidence of the ray
b.​ Calculate the minimum deviation
[Refractive index of glass = 1.5]
Solution

a.​ r + r = 60o (Exterior angles of a ∆)

Where 2r = 60
i = angle of incidence 60
𝑟= 2
r = angle of refraction
e = angle of emergence r = 30o
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
d = lateral displacement 𝑛= sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟

sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
1. 5 = sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
Refraction through triangular glass prism
𝑖 = 1. 5 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
= 1. 5 𝑥 0. 5
sin i = 0.75
i = sin-1 0.75
= 48.6o or 48o36’
b.​ dm = 2(i – r)
In a triangular prism, the ray is deviated through an angle = 2(48.6 – 30)
called the angle of deviation (d). = 2 x 18.6
If deviation (d) is plotted against the angle of incidence (i), = 37.2o
the shape of the curve is given below. Example 2
A 60o prism of refractive index 1.50 is placed in water of
refractive index 1.33. Calculate the angle of minimum
deviation
for the light refracted through the prism.
Solution
Absolute refractive index at the interface
𝑛𝑔 1.5
Characteristics of the ray at minimum deviation, dm, n =
w g 𝑛𝑤
= 1.33
= 1. 1278
1.​ The ray passes symmetrically through the prism ∴ 𝑛 = 1. 13
2.​ Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
emergence, i.e. i = e.
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛
1
2 (𝐴+ 𝑑𝑚)
But 𝑛= 1
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴
3.​ dm = 2(i – r) 2

sin𝑠𝑖𝑛
1
(𝐴+ 𝑑𝑚) sin𝑠𝑖𝑛
1
2 (60+ 𝑑𝑚)
Refractive index 𝑛 =
2 1. 13 = 1
1 sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 (60)
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝐴 2

sin𝑠𝑖𝑛
1
2 (60+ 𝑑𝑚)
1. 13 = sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
Example 1 (WAEC)
​sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (60 + 𝑑𝑚) = 1. 13 𝑥 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30
1
2
1.​ The optical centre (C) of a lens is the centre of the
​sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (60 + 𝑑𝑚) = 1. 13 𝑥 0. 5
1
lens through which rays of light pass without
​sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (60 + 𝑑𝑚) = 0. 565
1
deviation
−1 2.​ The principal axis of a lens is an imaginary line
​ 2 (60 + 𝑑𝑚) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0. 565
1
joining the centres of curvature of the two faces of
𝑜
​ 2 (60 + 𝑑𝑚) = 34. 4
1 the lens and passing through the optical centre.
𝑜
3.​ The principal focus (F) of a lens is a point on the
​60 + 𝑑𝑚 = 2 𝑥 34. 4 principal axis to which all rays which are parallel and
​60 + 𝑑𝑚 = 68. 8 close to the axis converge, or from which they
​𝑑𝑚 = 68. 8 − 60 diverge after refraction through the lens.
A converging lens has real principal focus; while, a diverging
= 8.8o
lens has a virtual focus.
Real and apparent depth
​
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 4.​ The focal length (f) is the distance between the
Example 3 optical centre and the principal focus of the lens
A transparent rectangular block 5.0 cm thick is placed on a 5.​ The power (P) of a lens is the reciprocal of the focal
black dot. length in metre. The unit is the dioptres (i.e. m—1)
The dot when viewed from above is seen 3.0 cm from the
top of the Formation of images by converging lens
block. Calculate the 1.​ Object between C and F
a.​ refractive index of the block
b.​ displacement of the dot
Solution
(a)

The image formed is

i.​ Erect
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 5
𝑛= = ii.​ Virtual
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 3
iii.​ Magnified (magnification > 1)
= 1.67
iv.​ Behind the object
(b) ​ Displacement D = Real depth – Apparent depth
​​ ​ =5–3
Application: As a simple microscope for viewing biological
​​ ​ = 2 cm
specimens

REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES 2.​ Object at F

Types of lenses

1.​ Convex or converging lens

2.​ Concave or diverging lens

Lens terminologies The image is at infinity

3.​ Object between F and 2F

The image is
i.​ Real
ii.​ Inverted
The image is
iii.​ Diminished
i.​ Real
iv.​ At F
ii.​ Inverted
Application: In a telescope for viewing distant objects such
iii.​ Magnified
as the stars.
iv.​ Beyond 2F

Image formation by diverging lens

Application: In a projector

4.​ Object at 2F

​
For all positions of the object, the image is
i.​ Virtual
The image is ii.​ Erect
i.​ Real iii.​ Diminished
ii.​ At 2F Between the object and the lens
iii.​ Inverted
iv.​ Same size as the object (magnification = 1)
Application: To produce an exact copy of an object Lens formula
1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑢
+ 𝑣
5.​ Object beyond 2F
Where:
f = Focal length
u = Object distance from the lens
v = Image distance from the lens
Linear magnification (m)
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚 = 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

The image is 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝑚 = 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠
i.​ Real
𝑣
ii.​ Inverted 𝑚 = 𝑢
iii.​ Between F and 2F
iv.​ Diminished (magnification <1)
Example 1
Application: In the lens camera
An object is placed 5 cm from a converging lens of focal
length 15 cm. Find the nature, position and magnification
6.​ Object at infinity
of the image.
Solution
u = 5 cm;​ f = 15 cm (real focus)
 1 1 1 1 1 1 Solution
𝑓
= 𝑢
+ 𝑣 𝑣
= 𝑓
− 𝑢
(a)​ u = 10 cm;​ f = -15 cm (virtual focus)
1 1 1
𝑣
= 15
− 5
1 1 1
1 −2 = +
𝑣
= 15
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

1 1 1
−15 = +
𝑣= 2
−15 10 𝑣

1 1 1
v = -7.5 cm (virtual image) 𝑣
= − 15
− 10
∴ Position: 7.5 cm from the lens 1 −2−3
𝑣
= 30
Nature: Virtual image
𝑣 1 −5
𝑚= 𝑢 𝑣
= 30

7.5 −30
𝑚= 5
𝑣= 5

m = 1.5 v = -6 cm
Example 2 The image is virtual 6 cm from the lens
A converging lens produces a four times magnified and 1
Power of the lens = 𝑓 (𝑚)
upright image of an object placed in front of it. If the focal 1
=
length of the lens is 10 cm, calculate the object distance. −0.15 𝑚

Solution = - 6.7 m-1

m = 4;​ f = 10 cm ​ ​ = - 6.7 dioptres
𝑣 = - 6.7D
𝑚= 𝑢

𝑣 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT (I)

4= 𝑢 1.​ The lens camera
v = 4u In a camera, the distance between the lens and the film is
adjustable to focus objects in front of the lens on the film.
1 1 1 This is done with the aid of a focusing ring.
𝑓
= 𝑢
+ (−𝑣)
(virtual image)

1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑢
− 𝑣

1 1 1
10
= 𝑢
− 4𝑢

1 4−1
10
= 4𝑢

1 3
10
= 4𝑢

4𝑢 = 3 𝑥 10 ​
4u = 30 The amount of light reaching the film is regulated by a
𝑢=
30 shutter of variable speed and a diaphragm which control
4
the size of the aperture with the aid of a diaphragm
u = 7.5 cm adjusting ring.
Example 3 The position of the object is always beyond twice the focal
The focal length of a diverging lens is 15 cm length of the lens
a.​ What is the nature and position of the image of an
object 10 cm from the lens? 2.​ The compound microscope
b.​ Calculate the power of the lens
 For a higher magnification, two bi-convex lenses of short both the objective lens and the eyepiece produces a
focal length, with that of the eyepiece longer than that of final virtual, magnified image at infinity.
the objective lens are used.
The position of the object is usually between f and 2f in
front of the objective lens to form an enlarged real and
inverted image which in turn serves as a real object to the
eyepiece.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS (II)

The human eye
​
The eyepiece is adjusted until the image of the objective
lens is between its principal focus and the optical centre to
produce a final image which is enlarged, VIRTUAL and
inverted.
The magnifying power, m of the compound microscope is
the product of the magnification of the individual lenses;
i.e
m = magnification of the objective lens x magnification of
Parts of the human eye:
the eyepiece. 1.​ The cornea: This is the transparent front portion of
the eye which bulges out. It is a protective covering
OPTICAL INSTRUMENT (I) in front of the lens and partly focuses the light
3.​ The astronomical telescope entering the eye.
This is the simplest telescope using two converging lenses. 2.​ The iris: This acts as a diaphragm regulating the
The objective lens has a long focal length while the amount of light entering the eye
eyepiece has a short focal length. Parallel rays from 3.​ The lens: This focuses light coming from an object
a distant object such as a star form a real, inverted on the retina.
and diminished image I1 on the principal focus of the 4.​ The ciliary muscles: They suspend the lens and
objective lens (fo). As in a compound microscope, contract or relax to vary the thickness of the lens and
the eyepiece is adjusted as a magnifying glass to consequently the focal length.
form a magnified, virtual and inverted image. 5.​ The retina: This is the light sensitive part of the eye
on which images are formed.

Accommodation
This is the ability of the eye to vary the focal length of the
lens to form images of both far and near objects.
To view near objects, the ciliary muscles contract, thereby
making the lens to be thicker; this reduces the focal length.
When the principal focus of the eyepiece is adjusted to When viewing far objects, the muscles relax, the lens
coincide with that of the objective lens, the becomes thin with a longer focal length.
telescope in normal adjustment. In normal Normal vision
adjustment, the image I is on the principal foci of Near point: This is the nearest point at which an object can
be clearly seen. It is about 25 cm from the lens.
Far point: This is the farthest point at which an object can
be clearly seen. The far point is at infinity
NOTE:​ The “least distance of distinct vision” is the
distance from the near point to the eye

Defects of vision and correction

1.​ Long sightedness (hypermetropia)
A person with long sightedness can see objects at infinity
(the far point), but cannot see objects at his/her near point
as it is further than the normal 25 cm.

​
Correction is effected by using a diverging lens which
diverges the rays entering the eyes so that they apparently
appear to be coming from the defective eye’s own far point
(F).
3.​ Astigmatism
​ This is due to the inability of the optics or optical system to
focus objects sharply on the retina. It is caused by
irregular curvature of the cornea or the crystalline lens.
Correction is by the use of recommended glasses or
contact lenses.
4.​ Presbyopia
This is defect associated with old age caused by loss of
accommodation.
The rays from an object at the normal 25 cm are focused Correction is by the use of spectacles/reading glasses and
behind the retina as a result of the eyeball being too short the use of contact lenses.
or the lens not convergent enough.
The defects is corrected by using a suitable converging lens Example 1
to reduce the divergence of the ray to make them appear A woman cannot see clearly objects closer to the eye than
to be coming from the near point of the defective eye (O). 75 cm. Calculate the focal length and the power of the
spectacle lenses needed to correct this defect. Take the
2.​ Short sightedness (myopia) least distance of distinct vision for a normal eye as 25 cm.
This defect makes a person to see only near objects clearly Solution
as his/her far point is not at infinity; but, just a short This is long sightedness. The corrective spectacle lens must
distance away. Parallel rays from a distant object are be able to produce a virtual image of any object placed at
focused in front of the retina. This is as a result of the the normal near point (25 cm) at the defective eye’s own
eyeball being too long or the lens too convergent. near point of 75 cm.
v = -75 cm (virtual);​ ​ u = 25 cm

1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑢
+ 𝑣

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑓
= 25
+ −75
⇒ 𝑓
= 25
− 75
1 2 75
= ⇒𝑓 = S/n Eye Camera
𝑓 75 2
1. Has a variable focal length Has a fixed focal
f = 37.5 cm = 0.375 m (real focus, converging lens)
1 1 as it accommodates both length
Lens power = = = + 2. 67 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
+𝑓 +0.375 far and near objects
Example 2 2. The distance between the The distance
A certain person with defect of vision cannot see distinctly lens and the retina is fixed between the lens
objects beyond 80 cm from his eye. How can this defect and the film is
be corrected? variable
Solution 3. Can suffer from eye Cannot suffer from
This is short sightedness. defects eye defects
The corrective lens should be able to form a virtual image 4. A biological organ A mechanical and/
of any object at infinity at the defective eye’s own far point or electronic
of 80 cm. Device
v = - 80 cm (virtual);​ ​ u = ∞ (infinity)
1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑢
+ 𝑣

1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = 0− DISPERSION OF LIGHT
𝑓 ∞ −80 𝑓 80
Dispersion is the separation of white light into its
1 −1 −80
𝑓
= 80
⇒𝑓 = 1 constituent colours after passing through a triangular
f = - 80 cm = -0.8 m (virtual focus, diverging lens) prism.
1 1
Lens power = +𝑓
= −0.8 𝑚
= − 1. 25 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
Correction: Diverging lens of focal length 80 cm and power
-1.25 dioptres

The human eye versus the camera ​

Similarities Some facts on dispersion
Eye Camera 1.​ White light is refracted towards the base of the
1. It is impregnated with It is a light-tight box prism with violet being deviated most and red the
black pigment inside painted black least.
Inside 2.​ Though, white light travels at the same speed in a
2. The iris regulates the The diaphragm does vacuum or air, in glass, the constituent colours travel
light entering the eye the same in at different speeds.
a camera 3.​ Red light having the longest wavelength travels with
3. The opening created The opening created the fastest speed (𝑣 = 𝑓λ); while, violet with the
by the iris is the pupil by the shortest wavelength has the least speed
diaphragm is the 4.​ The refractive index of the glass prism increases from
aperture red to violet.
4. It uses a natural It uses artificial
converging lens converging lens Pure and impure spectrum
5. It has light sensitive It has a film for the Pure spectrum: This is a spectrum in which the constituent
retina on which same purpose colours of white light are seen distinctly as they occupy
images are formed separate positions without overlapping.
Impure spectrum: This is a spectrum in which the
Differences constituent colours overlap and not seen distinctly.
 Primary colours are fundamental or basic colours that
Colour of objects in white light cannot be produced by mixing other colours; while
When white light falls on objects, all the seven colours may secondary colours are colours obtained by mixing any two
be reflected from the object, giving it white appearance, or primary colours such as:
all the colours may be absorbed making the object to Red + Green = Yellow
appear black. Red + Blue = Magenta
When only some colours are reflected, the object appears Blue + Green = Cyan
coloured. A red object absorbs all the colours of white Complementary colours
light reflecting only red. Complementary colours are any two colours when mixed in
the correct intensity gives white.
Coloured filters When a primary colour and a secondary colour opposite
A blue filter allows only blue light to pass through it, the are mixed, the result is white light, e.g.
same thing is true of green filter. With yellow filters, there Red + Cyan = White
are two possibilities depending on the type of yellow light Blue + Yellow = White​
used. Green + Magenta = White
With pure yellow light, yellow filters transmit only yellow; NOTE: White light is produced by mixing the three primary
with compound (impure) yellow light, three colours: red, colours.
green and yellow are transmitted at the same time. This
yellow light looks just the same to the eye as that which
Colour mixing by subtraction
comes from a filter transmitting only pure yellow.
This is a method of mixing coloured paints (or pigments) in
The yellow petals of flowers and most yellow paints are
such a way that the final colour is the common colour
examples of compound yellow.
reflected by the paints mixed together. For example:​
Appearance of coloured objects in coloured light
​
A green leaf appears green in green light or in white light
Yellow paint + Blue paint = Green paint
because the only colour it reflects is green. But in any
The yellow paint as an impure colour reflects red, GREEN
other colour of light, it will appear black.
and yellow, absorbing the added blue colour.
The yellow petals of flower appear yellow in yellow or
Similarly, the blue paint as an impure colour
white light, in red light, it looks red and in green light, it reflects blue and GREEN, absorbing the red and yellow in
appears green because it is compound yellow. the added yellow paint.
Since the only colour reflected by both is GREEN, the

DISPERSION OF LIGHT (II) mixture appears green.

Additive colour mixing of light
This is the method used for mixing coloured lights by 1.​ What colour would a green book look:
reflection from a white [Link] the colours are ​a)​ in white light? ​ b)​ in green light?
produced by mixing three colours called primary colours ​c)​ in red light?​ ​ d)​ through a red
(red, green and blue) ​ ​ filter?
2.​ A plant with green leaves and red flowers is placed
in:
a)​ green;
b)​ red;
c)​ blue light. What colour will the leaves and
flowers appear in each case? Assume that
all the colours are pure
Primary and secondary colours
3.​ The diagram below shows the overlapping of red, Solution
green and blue lights from three different ​​ ​ v = 2x/t
projectors. What are the colours of the areas Sea depth, x = vt
marked letters A – D? ​​ ​ 2
​​ ​ x = 1560 x 0.2
​​ ​ ​ 2
312 = 156 m {Option B}

Beat
Beats are regular rise and fall in the loudness produced
​
when two notes of almost equal pitch or frequency are
sounded together or superimposed.
SOUND WAVES (I)
Factors affecting the speed of sound The number of beats produced per second (frequency of
1.​ Temperature the beats) is the positive difference of the frequencies of
2.​ Density the two sources.
3.​ Wind direction f = f2 - f1
​
Note: The speed of sound is fastest in solid and least in gas. Example 2
Two tuning forks of frequencies 256 Hz and 260 Hz are
Echoes and its Applications sounded closed to each other, what is the frequency of the
beat?
Echo is the effect of reflection of sound from a hard Solution
surface. ​f = f2 - f1
For echo to be heard, the sound has to travel twice the ​ = 260 – 256
distance between the source of the sound and the ​ = 4 Hz
reflecting surface.

​Speed of sound = distance covered by sound Example 3

​​ ​ ​ time taken If a 256 Hz tuning fork produces a note of 4 beats per
​ v = 2x second, what is the frequency of the notes emitted?
​ t Solution
Application of echoes ​​ f = f2 - f1
1.​ Determination of the speed of sound in air ​​ 4 = 256 – f1
2.​ Determination of the depth of the sea​ ​ ​​ f1 = 256 – 4
3.​ Oil and gas exploration ​​ = 252 Hz
4.​ Locating underwater objects or obstacles ​​ or
​​ f = f2 - f1
Example 1 ​​ 4 = f2 – 256
A pulse of a sound is transmitted from a ship and the ​​ f2 = 256 + 4
reflection from the sea bed is recorded after 0.2 s. ​​ = 260 Hz
Calculate the depth of the sea [Take the speed of sound in
water = 1560 ms-1] Use(s) of beats
A. 312.0 m B. 156.0 m C. 78.0 m D. 31.2 m 1.​ Fine – tuning musical instruments
2.​ To determine the frequency of a tuning fork
3.​ To detect dangerous gases in mines The loudness of sound depends on its intensity. The
intensity (I) of a sound wave is defined as the rate of flow
Differences between Musical Notes and Noise
of energy per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
1)​ Musical notes are sounds of regular vibrations at
constant frequencies; while noise is a sound of the wave.
irregular vibration.
2)​ The frequencies of music are discrete with a Example 1 (WAEC/SSCE 1991)
dominant frequency; the frequencies of noise are A man standing 300 m away from a wall sounds a whistle.
continuous and random with no dominant The echo from the wall reaches him 1.8 s later. Calculate
frequency the velocity of sound in air
3)​ Music is pleasing to the listener; while noise Solution
irritates x = 300 m; ​ t = 1.8 s, v =?
2𝑥
v= 𝑡
Characteristics of musical notes/sound
2 𝑥 300 600
v= 1.8
= 1.8
a.​ Pitch v = 333.3 m/s
This refers to the position of a note on the musical scale
based on the frequency of the source producing the note. Example 2 (WAEC/SSCE 1995)
The pitch is directly proportional to the frequency. For A sound note of frequency 200 Hz and wavelength 1.7 m is
example in the diatonic musical scale, there are eight produced at a point near a hill. If the echo of the sound is
frequencies which correspond to eight notes or pitches: received 3 second later at the point, how far away is the hill
doh: ray: me: fah: soh: la: te: doh. from the point?

b.​ Quality or timbre: Solution

This enables us to differentiate notes of the same pitch f = 200 Hz;​ λ = 1.7 m; t = 3s
(frequency) produced by different musical instruments. If v=fλ
a note is played on a piano and a flute, it is easy to v = 200 x 1.7 = 340 m/s
distinguish the tone of one instrument from another 2𝑥
But v = 𝑡
because of the presence of overtones which gives the note 𝑣𝑡
∴ x=
its characteristic quality 2

​No instrument apart from the tuning fork produces pure

340 𝑥 3 1020
notes. The strongest audible frequency of a musical note x = 2
= 2
is called the fundamental frequency (fo) which gives the
note its characteristic pitch. The other frequencies or x = 510 m
notes that accompany the fundamental frequency are
called the overtones or harmonics.
Effects of Temperature and Pressure on the Velocity of
The quality of sound/notes produced depends on the
Sound
harmonics or overtones.
Temperature: The velocity of sound increases with
​The overtones or harmonics could be simple integral
temperature. An increase in temperature decreases the
multiple values of the fundamental frequency in the order:
density of a gas which consequently makes the velocity of
fo = fundamental frequency = 1st harmonics
the sound to increase.
f1 = 1st overtones = 2nd harmonics
f2 = 2nd overtones = 3rd harmonics
Pressure: The velocity of sound in gases is independent of
f3 = 3rd overtones = 4th harmonics
the pressure.

c.​ Loudness
Hearing Aids
These are small electronic devices plugged into the ears to Resonance in Strings and its harmonics/overtones
amplify the surrounding sound in hearing -impaired A segment or loop is the distance between two successive
people. Modern hearing aids can be so small that they are nodes.
nearly impossible to spot. λ
1 segment = 2
Resonan No of Wavelen Frequency
Parts of hearing aid
t Segm gth
1.​ A microphone: This picks up the surrounding sound
Position ent
and converts it into an electrical signal, which is
Diagram
transmitted to an amplifier st
1 n=1
2.​ An amplifier: This increases the intensity of the
sound and sends it to the receiver λ
𝐿= Fundamen
3​ A receiver/speaker: ​ This converts amplified 2
tal
electrical signal back to sound and sends it into the
λ =2L (1st
ear from where the impulses are sent to the brain
harmonics
4.​ A battery: This is the source of power to the
)
hearing aid 2nd n=2
2nd
𝐿= λ harmonics
1. The speed of sound in air is 330 ms-1. How far from
Or (1st
the centre of a storm is an observer who hears a
λ=L overtone)
thunder clap 2 s after the lightning flash? (Neglect
3rd n=3 1
the time taken by light to travel to the observer) 𝐿= 1 2
λ
3 3rd
2.​ The following are overtones of 320 Hz EXCEPT A. 𝐿= λ
2
harmonics
960 Hz B. 640 Hz C. 520 Hz D. 1280 Hz E. 2𝐿
λ= 3 (2nd
1600 Hz [JAMB]
overtone)
3.​ Of two identical tuning forks with natural
frequency 256 Hz, one is loaded so that 4 beats per second
4th n=4
are heard when they are sounded together. What is the L = 2λ 4th
frequency of the loaded tuning fork? ​ A. 260 Hz B. 252 harmonics
𝐿 (3rd
Hz C. 248 Hz D. 264 Hz E. 258 Hz [JAMB] [Show λ= 2
overtone)
your workings]

Etc etc etc

RESONANCE, VIBRATION IN STRINGS AND PIPES
Summarily,
Resonance is a phenomenon of a vibrating body to set A spring only resonates to a given wavelength λ when the
another body or system into vibration of larger amplitude length can accommodate n segments or loops; i.e
of the same frequency as the natural frequency of the ​L = n x (one segment)
body/system1. ​L = 𝑛( )λ
2
With n = 1, 2, 3,... segments, we have the following
1
The natural frequency (fo) of a body is the
resonant positions:
frequency of its undamped oscillation when
allowed to oscillate on its own. Resonant ​ Number of​ Resonating Length
Position ​​ Segments​
1st​ ​ 1​ ​ 𝐿= 1 ( λ
2 ) or 𝐿 =
λ
2
​v = 60 x 2 x 0.45
​v = 54 m/s
2( )
λ
2nd ​ ​ 2​ ​ 𝐿= 2
or 𝐿 = λ
3( )
λ 3
3rd ​ ​ 3​ ​ 𝐿= 2
or 𝐿 = 2
λ Example 2 (WAEC/SSCE 2001)
Find the frequencies of the first three harmonics of a string
4( )
λ
4th ​ ​ 4​ ​ 𝐿= 2
or
of length 1.5 m if the velocity of the waves in the string is
𝐿 = 2λ
120 m/s

Given that v = fλ (for all waves)​​ ​

Solution
𝑣
𝑓= λ
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - (i) L = 1.5 m;​ v = 120 m/s
𝑇 For the fundamental frequency of a string,
Speed of transverse wave in a stretched string 𝑣 = 𝑚
--
the vibrating length L = 1 segment
- - - (ii) λ
​𝐿 = 2
Where T: Tension in the string (in newton)
​ m: mass per unit length of the string (in kg/m) ​λ = 2L
Using v = f λ
𝑣
By substituting equation (ii) in equation (i) for each Fundamental frequency fo = λ
resonant position, ​fo =
𝑣
2𝐿

1.​ Fundamental frequency, fo or 1st harmonics 120

fo = 3
= 40 Hz
1 𝑇
​𝑓𝑜 = 2𝐿 𝑚

1st harmonic (fundamental frequency), fo = 40 Hz

2.​ 2nd harmonics, 2fo, or 1st overtone 2nd harmonic, 2fo = 2 x 40 = 80 Hz
​2𝑓𝑜 = 2 ( 1
2𝐿
𝑇
𝑚 ) 3rd harmonic, 3fo = 3 x 40 = 120 Hz

1 𝑇 Example 3 (WAEC/SSCE 1996)

​= 𝐿 𝑚
A string of length 1.0 m vibrates in 10 loops. If the total
​
mass of the string is 1.0 x 10 -3 kg and the tension in it is 10
3.​ 3rd harmonics, 3fo, or 2nd overtone
N, calculate the frequency of the vibration.
3𝑓𝑜 = 3 ( 1
2𝐿
𝑇
𝑚 ) =
3
2𝐿
𝑇
𝑚 Solution
L = 1.0 m;​ n = 10 loops/segments;​ mass = 1.0 x 10 -3
kg; T = 10 N
Example 1 (JAMB 1989) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
−3
1.0 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔
Mass per unit length, m = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 1𝑚
A vibrator of frequency 60 Hz is used in generating
transverse stationary waves in a long thin wire. If the m = 1.0 x 10 -3 kg/m
average distance between successive nodes on the wire is 1 𝑇
𝑓𝑜 = 2𝐿 𝑚
(Fundamental frequency)
45 cm, find the speed of the transverse waves in the wire
f = nfo
Solution
∴𝑓 = 𝑛( 1
2𝐿
𝑇
𝑚 )
f = 60 Hz;​
​𝐿 =
λ
2
L = (45 cm) = 0.45 m
𝑓 = 10 ( 1
2𝑥1
10
1.0 𝑥 10
−3 )
​λ = 2L
​
​But v = f λ
𝑓 = 10 ( 1
2
10
4
)
​v = f x 2L
 1 are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency: fo, 2fo,
f = 10 x 2
x 102
3fo, 4fo,….
f = 5 x 100

Example 1
f = 500 Hz
If an organ pipe of length 40 cm open at both ends sounds
its fundamental note. Neglecting end corrections,
Factors affecting the frequency of a vibrating string
calculate the frequency of the note. (Speed of sound in air
1.​ Tension (T): ​ f∝ 𝑇
= 340 m/s)
1
2. Length (L): f∝ 𝐿 Solution
1
3. Mass per unit length (m): ​ f∝
𝑚

Vibration in pipes

Resonant Pipe closed

frequency at one end Pipe open Pipe
L = (40 cm) = 0.4 m;​ v = 340 m/s
at both ends closed at
v = fλ
both ends
𝑣
Fundament f= λ
al λ
But vibrating length L = 2
(at fundamental frequency)
frequency fo fo
λ = 2L
(fo) or 1st
harmonic 𝑣
fo = 2𝐿

2nd
340
harmonic fo = 2 𝑥 0.4
= 425 Hz
or
1st 2f
overtone 2fo o Example 2(WAEC/SSCE 2000)
(3fo) A tuning fork of frequency 600 Hz is sounded over a closed
3rd resonant tube. If the first and second resonant positions
harmonic are 0.130 m and 0.413 m respectively. Calculate the speed
or of sound in air
2nd
overtone 3f Solution
(5fo) 3fo o

​
In a pipe closed at one end, the resonant frequencies are ​​
odd multiples of the fundamental: fo, 3fo, 5fo, 7fo,…. But in
a pipe open or closed at both ends, the resonant positions Given: f = 600 Hz;​ L1 = 0.130 m;​ L2 = 0.413 m
L2 – L1= 3λ
4
−
λ
4

Since L = 85.5 cm > 60 cm (length of the jar), the possible

L2 – L1= 2λ resonant positions are:
4

L = 17.1 cm and L = 51.3 cm

λ
L2 – L1 = 2
λ = 2(L2 – L1) 1. A string is fastened lightly between two walls 24 cm
v = fλ apart. The wavelength of the second overtone is
v = f x 2(L2 – L1) ____ ​ [JAMB]
v = 2f(L2 – L1) 2.​ A transverse wave is applied to a string whose
= 2 x 600(0.413 – 0.130) mass per unit length is 3 x 10-2 kgm-1. If the string
= 1200 x 0.283 is under a tension of 12 N, the speed of
v = 339.6 m/s propagation of the wave is ____ [JAMB]
3.​ A piano wire 0.50 m long has a total mass of 0.01
Example 3 (WAEC/SSCE 2003) kg and is stretched with a tension of 800 N.
A tuning fork at a frequency of 512 Hz is held over the top Calculate the frequency of the wire when it sounds
of a jar filled with water and a tap. If the jar is 60 cm and its fundamental note [JAMB]
the speed of sound is 350 m/s, determine the possible //------
resonance positions (neglect end correction) 1.​ A tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz is vibrated just
above a cylindrical tube of height 1.2 m. If water is
Solution slowly poured into the tube, at what minimum
f = 512 Hz height will resonance occur? [Speed of sound in air
Length of tube/jar = 60 cm = 340 m/s]​ [JAMB]
v = 350 m/s 2.​ The shortest length of the air column in a
But v = fλ resonance tube at resonance is 0.12 m and the
𝑣
λ= next resonant length is 0.37 m. Calculate the
𝑓
frequency of vibration given that the speed of
350 sound in air is 340 ms-1 [WAEC/SSCE]
λ= 512 3.​ A sonometer wire has a frequency of 259 Hz and is
λ = 0.684 m under a tension of 1200 N. If a meter of the wire
For a tube closed at one end, the possible resonant has a mass of 0.03 kg, calculate the length L of the
positions/ harmonics are wire when it is vibrating in the fundamental mode
fo, 3fo, 5fo, 7fo,… [WAEC/SSCE]
∴ For the jar, 4.​ A note of frequency 300 Hz is produced when the
λ
1st resonant position L = 4 length of a wire is 80 cm and the tension is 40 N. What is

0.684
the frequency if the length of the wire is halved and the
L= 4
0.171 m = 17.1 cm
tension is doubled? [NECO/SSCE 2008]

3λ
2nd resonant position L = 4

3 𝑥 0.684
L= 4
= 0.513 m = 51.3 cm

5λ
3rd resonant position L = 4
5 𝑥 0.684
L= 4
= 0.855 m = 85.5 cm