Subject: Physics

Topic: Waves

Week: 8-10

Class: SS 2

A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium transferring energy from one point to
another without causing any permanent displacement of the medium

A wave motion is the process of transferring a disturbance from one point to another without
any transfer of particles of the medium.

Types of waves

Waves are broadly classified into two types

1. Based on the medium of propagation: mechanical wave and electromagnetic wave

2. Based on the comparison of the wave direction with the direction of vibration of the particle:
transverse wave and longitudinal wave

Production and Propagation of waves: Based on the medium of propagation

 Production and propagation of mechanical waves

A mechanical wave is a wave that requires a material medium for its mode of propagation (or
for it to transfer energy away from the source). Examples are waves traveling through springs,
water waves, and sound waves

 Production and propagation of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not need a material medium for their mode of
propagation (or for them to transfer energy away from the source). Examples are radio waves,
visible light, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, and gamma rays. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed
of light (3.0×108m).

A wave which travels along a medium transferring energy from one part of the medium to
another is called a progressive wave. The progressive wave can be divided into transverse and
longitudinal waves

A standing or stationary wave: this is formed when two waves traveling in the opposite direction
meet or by the superimposition of the incident wave and its reflection. The amplitude of the
standing wave varies along the wave.
  Production and Propagation of waves: Based on the comparison of the wave direction
with the direction of vibration of the particle

1. Transverse waves

A transverse wave is a wave that travels perpendicularly to the direction of the vibrations
producing the waves.

2. Longitudinal wave

Longitudinal waves are waves which travel in a direction parallel to the vibrations of the medium.

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES

1. Phase – particles that are in the same vertical direction from their positions of rest and are
moving in the same direction are said to be in phase.

2. Cycle – is a complete to-and-fro movement or oscillation of a vibrating particle

3. The amplitude (A) – is the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest or mean position.
It is measured in meter (m).

4. The period (T) – is the time required for a particle to perform one complete cycle or
oscillation

5. Frequency (f) – is the number of complete cycles made in one second. It is measured in
Hertz (Hz)
6. Wavelength (λ) – is the distance covered by the waves after one complete oscillation. For
transverse waves, it is the distance between successive crests or troughs while for longitudinal
waves, it is the distance between successive compressions or rarefactions. It is measured in
meter (m).

7. Wave velocity (v) is the distance traveled by the waves in one second. The S.I unit is m/s

Worked example

1. A radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 300 KHz. If the speed of the wave is 3 x 108 ms-1,
calculate the period and wavelength of the wave.

Mathematical representation of wave motion – Progressive wave

The general equation for the stationary wave is given by:

Example:

A plane progressive wave is given by the equation 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 (2000𝜋 𝑡 − 0.5𝑥 )

Calculate: (i) The wavelength of the wave (ii) The speed (iii) The frequency (iv) The period
WEEK NINE

PROPERTIES OF WAVES

PROPERTIES OF WAVES

All waves exhibit the following properties

• Reflection

• Refraction

• Diffraction

• Interference

Apart from the properties listed above transverse waves have other properties called
polarization.

Reflection

This is a property of a wave that occurs when a travelling wave strikes a surface and it bounces
back. The travelling wave is the incident wave while the one that bounces back is the reflected
rain. In the case of water waves generated in a ripple tank, if the waves were made to incident
normally on a plane strip, the wave will be reflected along their original course
LAWS OF REFLECTION

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie on the same
plane.

2. The angle of incidences is equal to the angle of reflection

Refraction

This is the change in the speed and direction of waves as it passes from one medium to
another

When plane waves pass from deep to shallow water, their wavelength becomes shorter and
thereby travels slowly. A change in the wavelength and speed produces a change in the
direction of travel of waves when they cross the boundary. It is important to note that during
refraction, the wavelength remains constant. The refractive index is the ratio of the sine of the
incident angle (i) to the sine of the angle of refraction (r). It is also the ratio of the velocity
of the wave in the first medium (v1) to the velocity in the second medium (v2)

Diffraction

This is the spreading out of a wave on passing through a narrow opening. If waves are directed
towards a large gap compared with the wavelength of the waves, slightly bent or beams of
waves are formed on passing through the gap. If the barriers are placed closer to leave a narrow
gap waves form spherical wavefronts on passing through a narrow shit

Diffraction occurs when the wavelength of the wave is longer than the width of the opening or
the size of the obstacles.

Interference
This is a phenomenon that occurs when two similar waves traveling in the same direction cross
each other. If the waves are in phase or step so that they travel the same distance at equal time
and the crest or trough of the two waves arrive simultaneously or one is a complete wavelength
ahead of the other. The resulting wave will build up to twice the amplitude of the two waves;
this is called constructive or additive interference. If the crest of one wave arrives with the
troughs of the waves, and vice-versa, the waves cancel each other out to give zero resultant,
this is called destructive interference

Polarization

This is the exclusive property of transverse waves only. It is the production of transverse
vibration in only one plane. A transverse wave that vibrates in only one plane is said to be plane
-polarized.

Polarized light can be produced by passing an ordinary light through a polarizer called a
Polaroid or a crystal of calcite, tourmaline, or quartz. The arrangement of molecules within
this polarizer will only permit the passage of light in a particular plane and then absorb light due
to other vibrations. Thus, when an unpolarized light is passed through a polarizer, the emergent
light consists of only one plane.

Application of Polaroid

The Polaroid is used in sunglasses to reduce the intensity of incident light and to eliminate
reflected light glare.

WEEK TEN

LIGHT WAVES

 Light waves

 Source of Light waves

 Reflection of Light waves

 Reflection of the plane and curved mirrors

Light waves

Light wave is a visible source of energy. It is also a wave motion. It has a very short wavelength
of 5×10-4mm. Light travels at a speed of 3.0×108ms-1

Source of Light waves

There are various sources of light: natural and artificial, luminous and non-luminous. Natural
sources of light include the sun and the stars. Artificial sources of light are candles, electric
torches, electric lamps, incandescent, arc light, and fluorescent light. Self-luminous or luminous
sources of light are those that generate and emit light by themselves e. g. the sun, stars, fireflies,
and some deep sea fishes Non-luminous objects are seen when they reflect or throw back
light from luminous objects. Examples of non-luminous objects are the moon, paper, mirrors,
walls, etc. When light falls on such surface, it may be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected,
sometimes a combination of the above processes may occur

Light rays and beams

A ray is the direction of the path in which light is travelling. It is represented by a straight line
with an arrowhead

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

The phenomenon of light travelling in a straight line is known as rectilinear propagation of light.
It can be demonstrated by placing a candle flame at the end of a straight pipe, the light of the
flame will be seen clearly at the other side of the pipe. If the pipe is then bent and the process
repeated, nothing will be seen at the other end, this clearly shows that light travels in a straight
line. Two natural effects that result from the rectilinear propagation of light are the formation of
eclipse and shadow, The principle of operation of the pinhole camera also depends on the fact
that light travels in straight lines

SHADOW

A shadow is an area in which light rays from a source cannot reach. It is produced by the
obstruction of light by an opaque object. There are two types of shadow: partial (penumbra)
shadow and total (umbra) shadow. If the light source is large, the shadow formed consists of
two parts, a completely dark area known as umbra and an outer grey area known as penumbra
or partial shadow. In the umbra region, the light from the source is completely blocked by the
opaque body. In the penumbra region, the light is partially blocked by the opaque object. The
inner region of the shadow receives less than the outer parts. Thus the penumbra becomes
brighter from the umbra and outwards.

ECLIPSE

An eclipse is a result of a shadow cast by one heavenly body on another. The sun is a luminous
body and it is in the middle while the Earth and the moon revolve around the sun. If the moon is
between the sun and the earth, the shadow of the moon will be cast on the earth’s surface.
There are two types of the eclipse. Viz:

1. Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse): here the moon comes between the sun and the earth in a
straight line

2. Eclipse of the moon (lunar) eclipse: in this case, the earth comes in between the sun and the
moon

PIN HOLE CAMERA

It consists of a lightproof box, one end of which has a small hole made with a pin or needlepoint.
The opposite end has a screen made with tracing paper or ground glass. Light from an object in
front of the pinhole passes through it and forms an image on the screen. If the screen is
replaced with photographic paper or film, a picture of the object can be taken with the pinhole
camera. When using the pinhole camera to take pictures of an object, long exposure is
necessary to allow sufficient light to enter the box through the pinhole. The image formed on
the screen of the pinhole camera will be seen more clearly if external light is excluded by
covering the head and camera with a dark cloth. The image formed on the screen of the pinhole
camera is inverted

Linear magnification
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the size (or height) of the image to the size (or height) of
the object

Reflection of Light waves

Reflection is the bouncing back of light waves when it strikes a surface.

Reflection of Light waves

Reflection is the bouncing back of light waves when it strikes a surface. Reflection of plane
mirrors There are two types of reflection:

1. Regular Reflection

2. Diffuse Reflection or Irregular Reflection

In regular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on a smooth or polished surface are reflected
as parallel rays in one direction
REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction of light Refraction is the bending away of light from the normal as it passes from one
medium to the other.

There is a change in the direction and speed of a ray of light when it passes from medium to
another medium of different density. This change in the direction of the light of the light ray
which is due to the difference in the speed of light in different media is called refraction.

When a ray of light travels from an optically less dense medium (air) to an optically dense
medium (water, glass), it bends towards the normal. A ray passing from glass or water to air is
bent away from the normal

LAWS OF REFRACTION

1. The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence; all lie on the same
plane.

2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant for a given pair of media. The second law is known as Snell’s law
REFRACTION THROUGH RECTANGULAR PRISM

The refractive index, n=sin(A/2+D/2)/sinA/2

Total internal reflection & Critical angle

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

A thick slab of glass appears to be only two–thirds of its real thickness when viewed vertically
from above. Similarly, water in a pond appears to be only three-quarters of its real depth. Rays
from a coin at the bottom of a bucket of water are refracted away when they leave the water
and enter the eyes. They appear as if coming from a virtual image, which is apparent depth
while the actual depth of the bottom remains and is referred to as real depth

Refractive index=real depth/apparent depth