Solution Notes

1. Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more non reacting substances in same or different physical phases.
The substances forming the solution are called components of the solution. On the basis of number of components
a solution of two components is called binary solution.
2. Solute and Solvent
In a binary solution, solvent is the component which is present in large quantity while the
other component is known as solute.
Classification of Solutions
(A) Following types of solutions are seen on the basis of physical state of solute and solvent.
Types of Solutions(not important)
Type of Solution Solute Solvent Common Examples
Gaseous Solutions Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases
Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas
Liquid Solutions Gas Gas Oxygen dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water
Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
(B) Depending upon the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent we have the following types of solutions:
(i) Unsaturated solution A solution in which more solute can be dissolved without raising temperature is called
an unsaturated solution.
(ii) Saturated solution A solution in which no solute can be dissolved further at a given
temperature is called a saturated solution.
(iii) Supersaturated solution A solution which contains more solute than that would be
necessary to saturate it at a given temperature is called a supersaturated solution.
3. Solubility
The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
(generally 100 g) at a given temperature is termed as its solubility at that temperature.
The solubility of a solute in a liquid depends upon the following factors:
(i) Nature of the solute
(ii) Nature of the solvent
(iii) Temperature of the solution
(iv) Pressure (in case of gases)
4. Henry’s Law
The most commonly used form of Henry’s law states “the partial pressure (P) of the gas in
vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction (x) of the gas in the solution” and is expressed
as
p = KH . x
Greater the value of KH, lower the solubility of the gas. The value of KH increases with
increase in the temperature. Thus, aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water [more
dissolved O2] rather than Warm water.
Applications
1. In manufacture of soft drinks and soda water, CO2 is passed at high pressure to increase its
solubility.

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 2. To minimise the painful effects (bends) accompanying the decompression of deep sea divers.
O2 diluted with less soluble He gas.
3. At high altitudes, the partial pressure of O2 is less then that at the ground level. This leads to
low concentrations of O2 in the blood of climbers which causes “anoxia”.
Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution is defined as the relative amount of solute present in a solution.
On the basis of concentration of solution there are two types of solutions.
(i) Dilute solution
(ii) Concentrated solution
4. Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
Various expression for the concentrations of solutions can be summarised as
(i) Percentage by weight (w / w %) It is defined as the amount of solute present in 100 g of
solution.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
w/w%= x100
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(ii) Percentage by volume (v/ v%) It is defined as the volume of solute present in 100 mL of
solution.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
V/ V % = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x100
(iii) Mass by Volume (or the mass of solute present in 100 mL of solution.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
m/ v % = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x100
(iv) Mole fraction (x) It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the
total number of moles of all the components. For a binary solution, if the number of
moles of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole fraction of A will be
nA
X𝐴 =
nA + n B
nB
XB =
nA + nB
5. Raoult’s Law(for mixture of volatile liquids)
For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component in the
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

Thus, for component 1

P1 ∝ x1

And p1= p10x1 where p10 is the vapour pressure of pure component 1 at the same
temperature.

Similarly, for component 2

P2 = p20x2 where p20 represents the vapour pressure of the pure component 2.

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure ( ptotal ) over the solution
phase in the container will be the sum of the partial pressures of the components of the
solution and is given as:

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 ptotal = p1 + p2

Substituting the values of p1 and p2 , we get

ptotal = x1p10 + x2p20

Following conclusions can be drawn from equation (2.16).

(i) Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the mole fraction of any one
component.
(ii) Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the mole fraction of
component 2.
(iii) Depending on the vapour pressures of the pure components 1 and 2, total vapour
pressure over the solution decreases or increases with the increase of the mole fraction of
component 1.

The composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is determined by the
partial pressures of the components. If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the components 1
and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then, using Dalton’s law of partial pressures:
p1 = y1 ptotal
p2 = y2 ptotal
In general
pi = yi ptotal
6. Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law:
If we compare the equations for Raoult’s law and Henry’s law, it can be seen that the partial pressure of
the volatile component or gas is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. Only the
proportionality constant KH differs from p10. Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law
in which KH becomes equal to p10.
7. Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions:

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 Ideal Solution: The solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration are known as ideal
solutions.
The ideal solutions have two other important properties.
The enthalpy of mixing of the pure components to form the solution is zero and the volume of mixing is also zero.
Non-ideal Solution: When a solution does not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration, then it is
called non-ideal solution.
Azeotropes: Those Binary mixtures which have the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a
constant temperature are called Azeotropes.
In such cases, it is not possible to separate the components by fractional distillation.
There are two types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling azeotrope.
MINIMUM BOILING AZEOTROPE: The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s
law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
e.g. ethanol-water mixture, solution containing approximately 95% by volume of ethanol.
MAXIMUM BOILING AZEOTROPE: The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law
form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. Nitric acid and water is an example of this class of
azeotrope. This azeotrope has the approximate composition, 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass, with a
boiling point of 393.5 K.
8. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES: The properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute
particles but not on the nature of solute are called colligative properties.
Types of colligative properties: There are four colligative properties namely,
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
2. Elevation of boiling point
3. Depression of freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
1. LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE: The difference in the vapour pressure of pure
solvent p10 and solution p1 represents lowering in vapour pressure (p10-p1).
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by vapour pressure of pure solvent is
p01 −p1
called relative lowering of vapour pressure .
p01
Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole fraction of solute. Hence it is a
p01 −p1
colligative property. = x2
p01

2. ELEVATION OF BOILING POINT:

Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure. As the vapour pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute is lower than that of the pure
solvent, it boiling point will be higher than that of the pure solvent as shown in figure. The increase in boiling
point is known as elevation in boiling point, ΔTb

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Kb is called Boiling Point Elevation Constant or Molal Elevation Constant (Ebullioscopic
Constant). The unit of Kb is K kg mol-1.
For a dilute solution elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to molal concentration of the solute in
solution. Hence it is a colligative property.
3. DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT:
Freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which vapour pressure of the solvent in its
liquid and solid phase become equal.
The lowering of vapour pressure of solution causes a lowering of freezing point compared to that of pure solvent.
0
The difference in freezing point of the pure solvent Tf and solutionTf is called the depression in freezing point.
Tf = Tf0 -Tf
For a dilute solution depression in freezing point is a colligative property because it is directly proportional to
molal concentration of solute.

Kf is called Freezing Point Depression Constant or Molal Depression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant. The
unit of Kf is K kg mol-1.
The values of Kf and Kb, which depend upon the nature of the solvent, can be ascertained from the following
relations.

OSMOSIS: The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a semi permeable membrane from pure
solvent to solution is called osmosis.
4.OSMOTIC PRESSURE: The excess pressure that must be applied to solution to prevent the passage of
solvent into solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute particles and not on their identity.
For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure ( 𝜋) is directly proportional to the molarity (C)
of the solution i.e. 𝜋 = CRT
Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of solute using the equation
w2 RT
M2 = .
πV
Isotonic solution: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic solution.
Hypertonic solution: If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is called hypertonic solution.
Hypotonic solution: If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is called hypotonic solution.

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Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semipermeable membrane from the solution to
the pure solvent by applying excess pressure on the solution side is called reverse osmosis.
Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes.
Abnormal molar mass: Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or normalmolar mass is called as
abnormal molar mass.
Van’t Hoff factor: Van’t Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or association.

Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:

Relative lowering of vapour pressure of solvent,

Elevation of Boiling point, ΔTb = = i Kb m

Depression of Freezing point, ΔTf = i Kf m

Osmotic pressure of solution 𝜋 = i n2 R T / V

Value of “i” is less than unity in case solute undergo association and the value of “i” is greater than unity in case
solute undergo dissociation.

THE END