ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

Rectifier

In electronics, Rectifier circuit is the most used circuit because almost

every electronic appliance operates on DC (Direct Current) but the
availability of the DC Sources are limited such as electrical outlets in
our homes provide AC (Alternating current). The rectifier is the
perfect candidate for this job in industries & Home to convert AC into
DC. Even our cell phone chargers use rectifiers to convert the AC from
our home outlets to DC. Different types of Rectifiers are used for
specific applications.

We mainly have two types of voltage types present that are widely
used these days. They are alternating and direct voltage types. These
voltage types can be converted from one type to another using special
circuits designed for that particular conversion. These conversions
happen everywhere.

Our main supply which we get from power grids are alternating in
nature and the appliances we use in our homes generally require a
small DC voltage. This process of converting alternating current into
direct current is given the name rectification. Converting AC to DC is
preceded by further process which can involve filtering, DC-DC
conversion and so on. One of the most common part of an electronic
power supply is a bridge rectifier.

Many electronic circuits require rectified DC power supply for powering

various electronic basic components from available AC mains supply.
The simple bridge rectifier is used in a variety of electronic AC based
power devices.

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Another way to look at the rectifier circuit is that, it can be said to

convert currents instead of voltages. This makes more intuitive sense,
because we are more accustomed to using current to define a
component’s nature. Concisely, a rectifier take a current which has
both negative and positive components and rectifies it such that only
the positive component of the current remains.

Bridge rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that provide

necessary DC voltage for the electronic component or devices. The
most efficient switching devices whose characteristics are known fully
are diodes. In theory any solid-state switch which can be controlled or
cannot be controlled can be used instead of the diodes.

Usually, the types of Rectifiers are classified based on their output.

 Single Phase Rectifiers

 Three Phase Rectifiers
 Controlled Rectifiers
 Uncontrolled Rectifiers
 Half Wave Rectifiers
 Full Wave Rectifiers
 Bridge Rectifiers
 Center-Tapped Rectifiers

What is Rectifier?

A Rectifier is an electrical device that is made of one or more than one

diodes that converts the alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). It is used for rectification where the process below shows
that how it convert AC into DC.

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Rectifiers can take a wide variety of physical forms, from vacuum tube
diodes and crystal radio receivers to modern silicon-based designs.

The simplest rectifiers, called half-wave rectifiers, work by eliminating

one side of the AC, thereby only allowing one direction of current to
pass through. Since half of the AC power input goes unused, half-wave
rectifiers produce a very inefficient conversion. A more efficient
conversion alternative is a full-wave rectifier, which uses both sides of
the AC waveform.

Use of a Rectifier

Rectifiers are fundamental to how many different devices operate.

Because the standard electrical distribution grid uses AC power, any
device that runs on DC power will require a rectifier to function
correctly. Virtually all modern electronics need the steady, constant
power of DC to operate correctly.

Additionally, we use rectifiers to change voltage in DC power systems.

Because it is relatively difficult to convert DC voltage directly in some
scenarios, the simplest solution may be the following process:

1. Convert DC to AC
2. Change the voltage using a transformer
3. Convert AC back to DC using a rectifier

In a few applications, the rectifier itself serves a direct function beyond

converting AC to DC. Take, for example, one of the earliest radio
designs: a crystal radio. This device employed a fine wire pressed
against a crystal (we would now refer to this component as a diode),
which rectified the alternating current radio signal directly, thus

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extracting the audio and producing sound in earphones. Precision

rectifiers are still in use in some types of radios today.

Flame rectification is another example of applying rectification

directly. In this application, a flame acts as a rectifier due to the
differential in mobility between electrons and positive ions present in a
flame. We use the rectifying effect of fire on AC in gas heating systems
to direct the flame’s presence.

What is Rectification?

Rectification is the process of conversion of the alternating current

(which periodically changes direction) into direct current (flow in a
single direction).

Types Of Rectifiers

There are mainly two types of rectifiers:

1. Uncontrolled Rectifier
2. Controlled Rectifier

Bridge rectifiers are of many types and the basis for the classification
can be many, to name a few, type of supply, bridge circuit’s
configurations, controlling capability etc. Bridge rectifiers can be
broadly classified into single and three phase rectifiers based on the
type of input they work on. Both of these types include these further
classifications which can be made into both single and three phase
rectifiers.

The further classification is based on the switching devices the rectifier

uses and the types are uncontrolled, half controlled and full controlled
rectifiers. Some of the types of rectifiers are discussed below.
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Based on the type of rectification circuit does, the rectifiers are

classified into two categories.

 Half wave rectifier

 Full wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier only converts half of the AC wave into DC signal
whereas Full wave rectifier converts complete AC signal into DC.

Bridge rectifier is the most commonly used rectifier in electronics and

this report will deal with the working and making of one. Simple bridge
rectifier circuit is the most popular method for full wave rectification.

Uncontrolled Rectifier:

The type of rectifier whose output voltage cannot be controlled is

called an uncontrolled rectifier.

A rectifier uses switches to work. The switches can be of various types,

broadly, controllable switches and uncontrollable switches. A diode is
unidirectional device that allows the current flow in only one direction.
The working of a diode is not controlled as it will conduct as long as it is
forward biased.

With a configuration of diodes in any given rectifier, the rectifier is not

fully in the operator’s control, so these types of rectifiers are called
uncontrolled rectifiers. It does not allow the power to vary depending
on the load requirement. So this type of rectifier is commonly used in
constant or fixed power supplies.

Uncontrolled rectifier uses only diodes and they give a fixed output
voltage depending only on the AC input.

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Types Of Uncontrolled Rectifier:

Uncontrolled Rectifiers are further divided into two types:

1. Half Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier:

A Type of rectifier that converts only the half cycle of the alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC) is known as halfwave rectifier.

For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient for

the task. The harmonic content of the rectifier’s output waveform is
very large and consequently difficult to filter. Furthermore, the AC
power source only supplies power to the load one half every full cycle,
meaning that half of its capacity is unused. Half-wave rectification is,
however, a very simple way to reduce power to a resistive load. Some
two-position lamp dimmer switches apply full AC power to the lamp
filament for “full” brightness and then half-wave rectify it for a lesser
light output. (figure below)

Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer.

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In the “Dim” switch position, the incandescent lamp receives

approximately one-half the power it would normally receive operating
on full-wave AC. Because the half-wave rectified power pulses far more
rapidly than the filament has time to heat up and cool down, the lamp
does not blink. Instead, its filament merely operates at a lesser
temperature than normal, providing less light output.

This principle of “pulsing” power rapidly to a slow-responding load

device to control the electrical power sent to it is common in the world
of industrial electronics. Since the controlling device (the diode, in this
case) is either fully conducting or fully non-conducting at any given
time, it dissipates little heat energy while controlling load power,
making this method of power control very energy-efficient. This circuit
is perhaps the crudest possible method of pulsing power to a load, but
it suffices as a proof-of-concept application.

 Positive Half Wave Rectifier:

A half wave rectifier that converts only the positive half cycle and
blocks the negative half cycle.

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 Negative Half Wave Rectifier:

A negative half wave rectifier converts only the negative half cycle of
the AC into DC.

In all types of rectifiers, a half-wave rectifier is the simplest of them all

as it is composed of only a single diode.

A diode allows the current flow in only one direction known

as forward bias. A load resistor RL is connected in series with the
diode.

Positive Half Cycle:

During the positive half cycle, the diode terminal anode will become
positive and the cathode will become negative known as forward bias.
And it will allow the positive cycle to flow through.

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Negative Half Cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the anode will become negative and
the cathode will become positive, which is known as reverse bias. So
the diode will block the negative cycle.

So when an AC source is connected to the half-wave rectifier, only half

cycle will flow through it as shown in the figure below.
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The output of this rectifier is taken across the load resistor RL. if we
look at the input-to-output graph, it shows a pulsating positive half
cycle of the input.

The output of the half wave rectifier has too many ripples & it is not
very practical to use this output as DC source. To smooth this pulsating
output, a capacitor is introduced across the resistor. The capacitor will
charge during the positive cycle and discharge during the negative
cycle to give out a smooth output signal.

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Such types of rectifiers waste the power of AC input’s half cycle.

Full Wave Rectifier:

A full wave rectifier converts both positive and negative half cycles of
the AC (alternating current) into DC (direct current). It provides double
output voltage compared to the halfwave rectifier

If we need to rectify AC power to obtain the full use of both half-cycles

of the sine wave, a different rectifier circuit configuration must be
used. Such a circuit is called a full-wave rectifier. One kind of full-wave
rectifier, called the center-tap design, uses a transformer with a center-
tapped secondary winding and two diodes, as in the figure below.

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Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design.

A full wave rectifier is made up of more than one diode.

There are two types of full wave rectifier.

1. Bridge Rectifier
2. Center-Tap Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier uses four diodes to convert both half cycle of the
input AC into DC output.

In this type of rectifier, the diodes are connected in a specific form as

given below.

Positive Half Cycle:

During input positive half cycle, the diode D1 & D2 becomes forward
bias while D3 & D4 becomes reverse bias. The diode D1 & D2 form a
closed loop that provides a positive output voltage across the load
resistor RL.
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Negative Half Cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the diode D3 & D4 becomes forward
bias while D1 & D2 becomes reverse bias. But the polarity across the
load resistor RL remains the same and provides a positive output
across the load.

The output of full wave rectifier has low ripples compared to half-wave
rectifier but still, it’s not smooth and steady.
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In order to make the output voltage smooth & steady, a capacitor is

placed at the output as shown in the figure below.

The capacitor charge & discharges which make smooth transitions

between the half cycles.

Working of Bridge Rectifier Circuit

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From the circuit diagram it is apparent that the diodes are connected in
a particular fashion. This unique arrangement gives the converter its
name. In bridge rectifier, voltage that is given as the input can be from
any source. It can be from a transformer that is used to step up or down
the voltage or it can be from the mains of our domestic power supply.
In this article, we are using a 6-0-6 centre tapped transformer for
providing AC voltage.

In the first phase of working of the rectifier, during the positive half
cycle, diodes D3-D2 get forward biased and conducts. Diodes D1-D4
gets reversed biased and do not conduct in this half cycle, acting as
open switches. Thus, we get a positive half cycle at the output.
Conversely, in the negative half cycle, diodes D1-D4 get forward
biased, and start conducting whereas diodes D3-D2 gets reversed
biased and do not conduct in this half cycle.

Again, we get a positive half cycle at the output. At the end of the
rectification process, the negative part of the AC current is converted
into a positive cycle. The output from the rectifier is two half-positive
pulses with the same frequency and magnitude as that of the input.

In contrast to the working of a half-wave rectifier, the full bridge

rectifier has another branch which allows it to conduct for the negative
half of the voltage waveform which the half-bridge rectifier had no
means of doing. So the average voltage at the output of the full bridge
rectifier is double than that of the half-bridge rectifier.

Although we use four individual power diodes to make a full wave

bridge rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available
“off-the-shelf” in a range of different voltage and current sizes that can
be used directly to make a working circuit.
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The output voltage waveform after the rectification is not a proper DC,
so we can try to make it more into a DC waveform using a capacitor for
filtering purpose. Smoothing or reservoir capacitors that are connected
in parallel with the load across the output of the full wave bridge
rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level to the required
average DC voltage at the output because the capacitor not only acts
as a filtering component, but it also periodically charges and
discharges effectively increasing the output voltage.

Capacitor charge till the waveform goes to its peak and discharges
uniformly into the load circuit when waveform starts going low. So
when the output is going low, capacitor maintains the proper voltage
supply into the load circuit, hence creating the DC.

Advantages of a Bridge Rectifier:

1. Low ripples in the output DC signal

2. High rectifier efficiency
3. Low power loss

Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier:

1. Bridge rectifier is more complex than a half-wave rectifier

2. More power loss compared to centre tapped full wave rectifier.

Center-Tap Rectifier

This type of full-wave rectifier uses a center-tap transformer & two

diodes.

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A center-tap transformer is a dual-voltage transformer that has two

inputs (I1 & I2) and three output terminals (T1, T2, T3).
The T2 terminal is connected to the center of the output coil which acts
as a reference ground (o volt reference). The T1 terminal
produces positive voltage and the T3 terminal produces negative
voltage with respect to the T2.

The design of the center-tap rectifier is given below:

Postive Half Cycle:

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During the input positive half cycle, the T1 will produce positive
and T2 will produce a negative voltage. The diode D1 will become
forward bias & diode D2 will become reverse bias. This makes a close
path from T1 to T2 through the load resistor RL as shown below.

Negative Half Cycle:

Now during the input negative half cycle, T1 will generate negative
cycle & T2 will generate a positive cycle. This will put the diode D1 into
reverse bias & diode D2 in forward bias. But the polarity across the load
resistor RL is still the same as the current takes the path from T3 to
T1 as shown in the figure below.

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The DC output of a center-tap rectifier also has ripples and it’s not
smooth & steady DC. A capacitor at the output will remove the ripple
and make a steady DC output.

Controlled Rectifier:

A type of rectifier whose output voltage can be varied or changed is

called controlled rectifier.

The need for a controlled rectifier is apparent when we look into the
shortcomings of an uncontrolled bridge rectifier. To make an
uncontrolled rectifier into a controlled one we use current-controlled
solid-state devices such as SCRs, MOSFETs, and IGBTs. We have the
full control when SCRs are switched ON or OFF based on the gate
pulses we apply to it. These are generally more preferred than their
uncontrolled counterparts.

It is composed of one or more than one SCR (Silicon Controlled

Rectifier).

An SCR, also known as thyristor is a three-terminal diode. These

terminals are Anode, Cathode & a control input known as Gate.
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Just like a simple diode an SCR conduct in forward bias and blocks
current in reverse bias but it only starts forward conduction when there
is a pulse at the gate input. So the output voltage can be controlled
using the gate input.

Types of controlled rectifier

There are two types of controlled rectifier.

Half Wave Controlled Rectifier

The half wave controlled rectifier is made up of a single SCR (Silicon

Controlled Rectifier).

Half wave controlled rectifier has the same design as the half wave
uncontrolled rectifier except we replace the diode with an SCR as
shown in figure down below.

An SCR does not conduct in reverse bias, so it will block the negative
half cycle.

During the positive half cycle, the SCR will conduct current on one
condition when a pulse is applied to the gate input. The gate input is, of

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course, a periodic pulse signal which is designed to activate the SCR at

each positive half cycle.

In this way, we can control the output voltage of this rectifier.

The output of the SCR is also a pulsating DC voltage/current. These

pulses are removed by using a capacitor parallel to the load
resistor RL.

Full Wave Controlled Rectifier

A type of rectifier that converts both positive and negative half cycle of
the AC into DC as well as controls the output amplitude is known as a
full wave controlled rectifier.

Just like uncontrolled rectifier, controlled full wave rectifier has two
types.

Controlled Bridge Rectifier

In this rectifier, the diode bridge is replaced by an SCR (Thyristor)

bridge with the same configuration as shown in the figure below.

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Positive Half Cycle:

During the positive cycle, the SCR (thyristor) T1 & T2 will conduct
when the gate pulse is applied. T3 & T4 will be reversed bias, so they
will block the current. The output voltage will be established across the
load resistor RL as shown below.

Negative Half Cycle:

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During the negative half cycle, the thyristor T3 & T4 will become
forward bias considering the gate input pulse & the T1 & T2 will
become reverse bias. The output voltage will appear across the load
resistor RL.

At the end of the output, a capacitor is used to remove the ripples and
makes the output steady & smooth.

Controlled Center-Tap Rectifier:

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Just like center-tap uncontrolled rectifier, this design uses

two SCR replacing the two diodes.

Both of these SCR switchings will be timed differently according to the

input AC frequency.

Its operation is the same as the uncontrolled rectifier & its schematic
design is given below.

Single Phase and Three Phase Rectifiers

This classification is based on the type of input a rectifier works on. The
naming is pretty straightforward. When the input is single phase, the
rectifier is called a single phase rectifier and when the input is three
phase, it is called a three phase rectifier.

The single phase bridge rectifier consists of four diodes, whereas a

three phase rectifier uses six diodes arranged in a particular fashion to
get the desired output. These can be controlled or uncontrolled
rectifiers depending on the switching components used in each
rectifier such as diodes, Thyristors, and so on.
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Comparison Of Rectifiers

The following table shows the compassion between different types of

rectifiers such as half wave rectifier, full wave rectifier and center
tapped rectifier.

Applications Of Rectifiers

Basically, almost all electronic circuits operated on DC voltages. The

main purpose of using rectifier is for rectification which means
converting AC voltages to DC Voltages. Its mean, rectifiers are used in
almost all power rectification and electronics appliances.

Below is the list of common applications and uses of different

Rectifiers.

 Rectification i.e. converting DC Voltages to AC Voltages.

 Rectifiers are used in electric welding to provide the polarized
voltage.

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 It is also used in traction, rolling stock and three phase traction

motors used for running trains.
 Half wave rectifiers are used in mosquito repellent and
soldering iron.
 Half wave rectifier also used in AM Radio as a detector and
signal peak detector.
 Rectifiers also used in modulation, demodulation and voltage
multipliers.

Voltage Regulators

The function of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant DC

voltage at the output irrespective of voltage fluctuations at the input
and (or) variations in the load current. In other words, voltage regulator
produces a regulated DC output voltage.

A voltage regulator is one of the most widely used electronic circuitry

in any device. A regulated voltage (without fluctuations & noise levels)
is very important for the smooth functioning of many digital electronic
devices. A common case is with micro controllers, where a smooth
regulated input voltage must be supplied for the micro controller to
function smoothly.

Voltage regulators are also available in Integrated Circuits (IC) forms.

These are called as voltage regulator ICs.

Types of Voltage Regulators

There are two types of voltage regulators −

 Fixed voltage regulator

 Adjustable voltage regulator

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This chapter discusses about these two types of voltage regulators one
by one.

Fixed voltage regulator

A fixed voltage regulator produces a fixed DC output voltage, which is

either positive or negative. In other words, some fixed voltage
regulators produce positive fixed DC voltage values, while others
produce negative fixed DC voltage values.

78xx voltage regulator ICs produce positive fixed DC voltage values,

whereas, 79xx voltage regulator ICs produce negative fixed DC voltage
values.

The following points are to be noted while working

with 78xx and 79xx voltage regulator ICs −

 “xx” corresponds to a two-digit number and represents the

amount (magnitude) of voltage that voltage regulator IC
produces.
 Both 78xx and 79xx voltage regulator ICs have 3 pins each and the
third pin is used for collecting the output from them.
 The purpose of the first and second pins of these two types of ICs
is different −
 The first and second pins of 78xx voltage regulator ICs are

used for connecting the input and ground respectively.

 The first and second pins of 79xx voltage regulator ICs are

used for connecting the ground and input respectively.

Examples

 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of +5 volts.

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 7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of -5 volts.

The following figure shows how to produce a fixed positive voltage at

the output by using a fixed positive voltage regulator with necessary
connections.

In the above figure that shows a fixed positive voltage regulator, the
input capacitor Ci is used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the
output capacitor, C0 acts as a line filter to improve transient response.

Note − an get a fixed negative voltage at the output by using a fixed

negative voltage regulator with suitable connections.

Adjustable voltage regulator

An adjustable voltage regulator produces a DC output voltage, which

can be adjusted to any other value of certain voltage range. Hence,
adjustable voltage regulator is also called as a variable voltage
regulator.

The DC output voltage value of an adjustable voltage regulator can be

either positive or negative.

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LM317 voltage regulator IC

LM317 voltage regulator IC can be used for producing a desired

positive fixed DC voltage value of the available voltage range.

LM317 voltage regulator IC has 3 pins. The first pin is used for adjusting
the output voltage, second pin is used for collecting the output and
third pin is used for connecting the input.

The adjustable pin (terminal) is provided with a variable resistor which

lets the output to vary between a wide range.

The above figure shows an unregulated power supply driving a LM 317

voltage regulator IC, which is commonly used. This IC can supply a load
current of 1.5A over an adjustable output range of 1.25 V to 37 V.

An example of IC based voltage regulator available in market is the

popular 7805 IC which regulates the output voltage at 5 volts. Now lets
come to the basic definition of an IC voltage regulator. It is an
integrated circuit whose basic purpose is to regulate the unregulated
input voltage (definitely over a predefined range) and provide with a
constant, regulated output voltage.

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Voltage Regulator ICs

An IC based voltage regulator can be classified in different ways. A

common type of classification is 3 terminal voltage regulator and 5 or
multi terminal voltage regulator. Another popular way of classifying IC
voltage regulators is by identifying them as linear voltage regulator &
switching voltage regulator.

There is a third set of classification as

1. Fixed voltage regulators (positive & negative)

2. Adjustable voltage regulators (positive & negative) and finally
3. Switching regulators. In the third classification, fixed & adjustable
regulators are basically versions of linear voltage regulators.

IC Voltage Regulator uses integrated circuits for voltage regulation.

One advantage of IC voltage regulator is that properties like thermal
compensation, short circuit protection and surge protection can be
built into the device. Most of the commonly used IC voltage regulators
are three-terminal devices.

Schematic Symbol for a Three-terminal IC Voltage Regulator

The figure below shows the schematic symbol for a three-terminal IC

voltage regulator .

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Block Diagram of 3 Terminal IC based Voltage Regulator

We have given below the block diagram of a 3 terminal IC based

voltage regulator.

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Fixed Voltage Regulators

These regulators provide a constant output voltage. A popular example

is the 7805 IC which provides a constant 5 volts output. A fixed voltage
regulator can be a positive voltage regulator or a negative voltage
regulator.

Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator

A positive voltage regulator provides with constant positive output

voltage. All those IC’s in the 78XX series are fixed positive voltage
regulators. In the IC nomenclature – 78XX ; the part XX denotes the
regulated output voltage the IC is designed for. Examples:- 7805, 7806,
7809 etc.

This IC regulator provides a fixed positive output voltage. Although

many types of IC regulators are available, the 7800 series of IC
regulators is the most popular. The last two digits in the part
number indicate the d.c. output voltage. For example [See Table
below], the 7812 is a + 12V regulator whereas the 7805 is a + 5V
regulator. Note that this series (7800 series) provides fixed regulated
voltages from + 5 V to + 24V.

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Circuit Diagram of Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator

The figure above shows the circuit diagram of fixed positive voltage
regulator . We can see how the 7812 IC is connected to provide a fixed
d.c. output of + 12V. The unregulated input voltage Vi is connected to
the IC’s IN terminal and the IC’s OUT terminal provides + 12V.
Capacitors, although not always necessary, are sometimes used on the

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input and output. The output capacitor (C2) acts basically as a line filter
to improve transient response. The input capacitor (C1) is used to
prevent unwanted oscillations.

Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator

A negative fixed voltage regulator is same as the positive fixed voltage

regulator in design, construction & operation. The only difference is in
the polarity of output voltages. These IC’s are designed to provide a
negative output voltage. Example:- 7905, 7906 and all those IC’s in the
79XX series.

This IC regulator provides a fixed negative ouput voltage. The 7900

series of IC regulators is commonly used for this purpose. This series
(7900) is the negative-voltage counterpart of the7800 series [See Table
below]. Note that 7900 series provides fixed regulated voltages from –
5V to – 24 V.

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Circuit Diagram of Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator

You can see the circuit diagram of fixed negative voltage regulator
below.

We can see how 7912 IC is connected to provide a fixed d.c. output of –

12 V. The unregulated negative input voltage Vi is connected to IC’s IN
terminal and the IC’s OUT terminal provides – 12 V. Capacitors used in
the circuit perform the same function as in a fixed positive regulator.

Adjustable Voltage Regulator

An adjustable voltage regulator is a kind of regulator whose regulated

output voltage can be varied over a range. There are two variations of
the same; known as positive adjustable voltage regulator and negative
adjustable regulator. LM317 is a classic example of positive adjustable
voltage regulator, whose output voltage can be varied over a range of
1.2 volts to 57 volts. LM337 is an example of negative adjustable
voltage regulator. LM337 is actually a complement of LM317 which are
similar in operation & design; with the only difference being polarity of
regulated output voltage.

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There may be certain conditions where a variable voltage may be

required. How an LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator IC is
connected. The connection diagram is shown below.

Adjustable Voltage Regulator using LM317

The resistors R1 and R2 determine the output voltage Vout. The

resistor R2 is adjusted to get the output voltage range between 1.2
volts to 57 volts. The output voltage that is required can be calculated
using the equation:

Vout = Vref (1+R2/R1) + Iadj R2

In this circuit, the value of Vref is the reference voltage between the
adjustment terminals and the output taken as 1.25 Volt.

The value of Iadj will be very small and will also have a constant value.
Thus the above equation can be rewritten as

Vout = 1.25 (1+R2/R1)

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In the above equation, due to the small value of Iadj, the drop due to
R2 is neglected.

The load regulation is 0.1 percent while the line regulation is 0.01
percent per volt. This means that the output voltage varies only 0.01
percent for each volt of input voltage. The ripple rejection is 80 db,
equivalent to 10,000.

The LM 337 series of adjustable voltage regulators is a complement to

the LM 317 series devices. The negative adjustable voltage regulators
are available in the same voltage and current options as the LM 317
devices.

More Circuits on Adjustable Voltage Regulators:

1. 13 volts adjustable voltage regulator using LM 338 IC

2. 25 volts adjustable regulator using LM 117 IC

LM340 Series Voltage Regulator

3 Terminal Voltage Regulator IC – Block Diagram – LM340

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The voltage regulator using LM340 IC is the most used voltage

regulator IC. As shown in the block diagram above, the built-in
reference voltage

Vref drives the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier. There

are many stages of voltage gain for the op-amp used here. This high
gain helps the op

-amp to make the error voltage between the inverting and non-
inverting terminals to be almost zero. Thus, the inverting input
terminal vaue will also be the

same as the non-inverting terminal, Vref. Thus, the current flowing

through the potential divider can be written as

I = Vref/R2

The resistor R2 shown in the figure is not an external component

connected to the IC, but an internal resistor that is built inside the IC
during manufacture. Due to the conditions above, the same current
flows through R1. Thus the output voltage can be written as

Vout = Vref/R2 (R1 + R2)

This shows that the output of the regulator can be controlled by

putting desired values for R1 and R2.

The IC has a series pass transistor that can handle more than 1.5 A of
load current provided that enough heat sinking is provided along with
it.

Like other IC’s, this IC also has thermal shutdown and current limiting
options. Thermal shutdown is a feature that will turn off the IC as soon

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as the internal temperature of the IC rises above its preset value. This
rise in temperature may mostly be due to excessive external voltage,
ambient temperature, or even heat sinking. The preset cut-off
temperature value for LM340 IC is 175° C. Because of thermal
shutdown and current limiting, devices in the LM 340 series are almost
indestructible.

LM 340 – 15 Circuits

The figure above shows the application of LM340 IC as a voltage

regulator. Pins 1, 2, and 3 are the input, output and ground.

When there is quite a distance (in cms) from the IC to the filter
capacitor of the unregulated power supply, there may occur unwanted
oscillations within the IC due to lead inductances within the circuit. In
order to remove this unwanted oscillation, the capacitor C1 has to be
placed as shown in the circuit.

Capacitor C2 is sometimes used to improve the transient response of

the circuit.

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Any device in the LM 340 series needs a minimum input voltage at least
2 to 3 V greater than the regulated output voltage. Otherwise, it will
stop regulating. Furthermore, there is a maximum input voltage
because of excessive power dissipation.

Circuit Diagram of Adjustable Voltage Regulator

The LM 317 is a three-terminal positive adjustable voltage regulator

and can supply 1.5 A of load current over an adjustable output range of
1.25V to 37V. The figure above shows an unregulated power supply
driving an LM 317 circuit. The data sheet of an LM 317 gives the
following formula for the output voltage :

This formula is valid from 1.25 V to 37V.

Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator

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The dual-tracking regulator provides equal positive and negative

output voltages. This regulator is used when split-supply voltages are
needed.

Circuit Diagram of Dual Tracking Voltage Regulator

The RC 4195 IC provides d.c. outputs of + 15V and – 15V. The

device needs two unregulated input voltages. The positive input
may be from + 18V to + 30V and the negative input from – 18V to –30V.
As shown, the two outputs are ± 15V. The data sheet of an RC 4195 lists
a maximum output current of 150 mA for each supply and a load
regulation of 3mV. Adjustable dual-tracking regulators are also
available. These regulators have outputs that can be varied between
their two rated limits.

Switching Voltage Regulators

Switching regulators differ in design,construction & operation

compared to linear voltage regulators. In switching regulators the
output voltage is regulated by controlling the switching time of
feedback circuitry (which includes a reference voltage); that is by
adjusting the duty cycle.The regulators discussed above are all linear
voltage regulators which need a series pass transistor to regulate in the
active region. Though they are chosen for different purposes, they do
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have a disadvantage of high power dissipation of the series pass

transistor. The main reason is because the series pass transistor is used
as a Class A power amplifier which is known for its low efficiency and
power loss in the form of heat. The series pass resistor will have to
carry a heavy load when the load current increases. This causes the
series pass transistor to get bulky with a bulkier heat sink. This in turn
increases the overall cost as well. Such linear regulators will also need a
step-down transformer which again increases the size of the overall
circuit. The large ripples produced by the circuit should be eliminated
and this requires large sized filter capacitors.

All these problems can be solved by using a switching voltage

regulator. The whole operation is completely different when compared
to a linear voltage regulator. Here, the series pass transistor is not used
as an amplifier, but as a switch. That is, instead of the transistor
working in the active region, it is made to switch between the
saturation region or cut-off region. Thus, the power dissipation is
lessened and thus can carry heavy load currents at low voltages with
less bulky heat sinks. Thus, this regulator finds its extensive use in
personal computers.

The basic switching regulator is designed to work in three

configurations. Their circuit diagrams and explanation are given below.

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Switching Voltage Regulator – Types

Step-down Switching Regulator

As shown in the figure above, the rectangular pulses are given to the
base of the transistor. During each cycle of the pulse the transistor
changes between saturation and cut-off. This creates a rectangular
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voltage at the input to LC filter. The ac components of the input

voltage to the filter is blocked and the dc component is allowed to pass
through the filter. As the transistor keeps switching, the average value
will always be lesser than the input voltage. This is why we call it the
“step-down” switching regulator.

Step-up Switching Regulator

As shown in the figure above, the rectangular pulses are given to the
base of the transistor. During each cycle of the pulse the transistor
changes between saturation and cut-off.When the transistor is
saturated the current flows through the inductor. When the transistor
switches to cut-off a large voltage will be induced across the inductor
coil because of the sudden collapse of the magnetic field around it.
Thus the current keeps flowing in the same direction. The circuit is
called a “step-up” switching regulator because the voltage induced by
the inductor will be larger than the input voltage.

Polarity Inverting Switching Regulatory

As shown in the figure above, when the transistor is saturated, the

current flows through the inductor. When the transistor switches to
cut-off a large voltage will be induced across the inductor coil because
of the sudden collapse of the magnetic field around it. Thus the current
keeps flowing in the same direction.Since the transistor is cut-off, the
only path is through the capacitor. If the direction of charging current
through the capacitor is checked, output voltage is found to be
negative.

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Switching Regulator Circuit

A simple switching regulator is designed with the mix of circuits that

we already know. The working starts with the relaxation oscillator
which generates a square wave. The frequency of the square wave is
decided by the values of R5 and C3. The square wave is given as input
to the integrator and produces an output triangular wave. This is given
as input to the positive terminal of the triangle to pulse converter. The
output pulse will then drive the base of the pass transistor. The duty
cycle of these pulses will determine the output voltage.

The duty cycle D is the ratio of the ON time W to the time period T. By
controlling the duty cycle of the pulse generator, the duty cycle of the
input voltage to the LC filter is controlled. The output of the LC filter is
a dc voltage with only a small ripple. This output
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Vout = DVin

Since D can vary from 0 to 1, Vout can vary from 0 to Vin.

A simple voltage divider is used to sample the output of the LC filter.

This voltage is then fedback to the comparator circuit where a
reference voltage Vref is compared with the output voltage and passed
on to the negative input of the triangle to pulse converter.

When the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit produces a

higher output voltage and thus the inverting input of the triangle to
pulse converter will have high value. This will narrow down the pulses
at the base input of the pass transistor. Since the duty cycle is lower,
the filtered output voltage is less, which tends to cancel almost all the
original increase in the output voltage. It means that any attempted
increase in output voltage generates a negative feedback voltage that
almost eliminates the original increase. Reverse happens should the
output voltage fall.

There is enough open-loop gain in the system to ensure a well-

regulated output voltage. Since the error voltage to the comparator is
near zero, the voltage across R2 is approximately equal to Vref. So the
current through resistor R2 is:

I = Vref / R2

This current flows through R1 , which means the output voltage is

Vout = Vref (R1 + R2)

Switching regulators are available in different configurations like the

flyback configuration, feed-forward, push-pull, and non-isolated
single-ended or single-polarity types.
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Some of the common IC’s used as switching regulators in the above

said configurations are the LM 1577/LM 2577 IC’s.

Switching Voltage Regulator Using LM 2575 and LM 2577

These IC’s are designed by National Semiconductor. Both these IC’s are
known for their minimum component fabrication, and simple to use
facilities. These IC’s also have the advantage of internal frequency
compensation and fixed frequency oscillator.

Given below is the circuit diagram of switching voltage regulator using

LM 2575. This IC is known for its high efficiency and will clearly replace
all 3-terminal linear voltage regulators. The high efficiency of the IC can
be obtained even without a heat sink.

LM 2577 switching voltage regulator circuit diagram is given below.

Both the IC’s are available fo different voltage levels like 12 volts and 15
volts and are adjustable.

Switching Voltage Regulator Using LM 1578A IC

The LM 1578A IC was also developed by National Semiconductors and

is used as a switching regulator for applications like dc-dc voltage
converters, inverting configurations and buck-boost converters. The
functional block diagram of the IC as a switching regulator is shown
below.

From the functional diagram we can see that the IC has a comparator
circuit with an inverting and on-inverting input along with a 1 volt
internal reference to each input, which clearly simplifies the circuit
design and PCB layout. The IC is known for its flexibility in design by
providing output pins for the collector (Pin 6) and emitter (Pin 5). The

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output of the IC can switch to a maximum of 750 milliAmps. According

to the type of use of the IC, an external current limit terminal may be
referenced to either the Ground terminal(Pin 4) or the the Vin terminal
(Pin 8). The operating voltage f he IC can be varied from (2-40) volts.
The IC is also enabled with current limiting and thermal shutdown
capabilities. In addition, the LM 1578 A has an on board oscillator,
which sets the switching frequency with a single external capacitor
from < 1 Hz to 100 kHz (typical). Duty cycle up to 90 %.

Features

IC voltage regulators are available with a variety of features.

 Multiple outputs or channels

 Internal circuit to control the amount of current produced
 An error flag for monitoring outputs that drop below a nominal
value.
 Reverse voltage protection prevents damage in applications
where users can accidentally reverse battery polarity.
 Thermal shutdown protection turns off IC voltage regulators
when the temperature exceeds a predefined limit.
 Shutdown (inhibit) pins are used to disable regulator outputs.

Regulated Power Supply:

We know that there are different types of electrical & electronic

circuits which use a DC power supply. Universally, we cannot use the
DC batteries due to expensive as well as require replacement when
discharged. In this situation, we require a circuit which can change AC
supply to DC supply. A rectifier filter circuit includes a normal DC
power supply. The normal DC power supply o/p remains stable if the

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load is contrast. Although in several electronic circuits it is extremely

significant to maintain the DC power supply constant irrespective of
alternative AC supply. Otherwise, the circuit will get damage. To
overcome this problem, voltage regulating devices can be used. So the
blend of the voltage regulating devices by the normal dc power supply
is named as DC regulated power supply. This is an electrical device,
used to generate the steady DC supply irrespective of alternative AC
supply.

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What is Regulated Power Supply?

The IC Regulated power supply (RPS) is one kind of electronic circuit,

designed to provide the stable DC voltage of fixed value across load
terminals irrespective of load variations. The main function of the
regulated power supply is to convert an unregulated alternating
current (AC) to a steady direct current (DC). The RPS is used to confirm
that if the input changes then the output will be stable. This power
supply is also called a linear power supply, and this will allow an AC
input as well as provides steady DC output.

A regulated power supply converts unregulated AC (Alternating

Current) to a constant DC (Direct Current). A regulated power supply is
used to ensure that the output remains constant even if the input
changes.
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A regulated DC power supply is also known as a linear power supply, it

is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.

Regulated Power Supply Circuit

Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

The block diagram of a regulated power supply mainly includes

a step-down transformer, a rectifier, a DC filter, and a regulator.
The Construction & working of a regulated power supply is discussed
below.

Regulated Power Supply Block Diagram

The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant
DC output. The figure below shows the block diagram of a typical
regulated DC power supply.
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The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as

follows:

1. A step-down transformer
2. A rectifier
3. A DC filter
4. A regulator

Operation of Regulated Power Supply

Step Down Transformer

A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains
to the required voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so
adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage value. The output of
the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.

Rectification
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Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out

the rectification process. Rectification is the process of converting an
alternating voltage or current into corresponding direct (DC) quantity.
The input to a rectifier is AC whereas its output is unidirectional
pulsating DC.

Although a half wave rectifier could technically be used, its power

losses are significant compared to a full wave rectifier. As such, a full
wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles
of the ac supply (full wave rectification). The figure below shows a full
wave bridge rectifier.

A bridge rectifier consists of four p-n junction diodes connected in the

manner shown above. In the positive half cycle of the supply, the
voltage induced across the secondary of the electrical transformer i.e.
VMN is positive. Therefore point E is positive with respect to F. Hence,
diodes D3 and D2 are reversed biased and diodes D1 and D4 are forward
biased. The diode D3 and D2 will act as open switches (practically there

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is some voltage drop) and diodes D1 andD4 will act as closed switches
and will start conducting. Hence a rectified waveform appears at the
output of the rectifier as shown in the first figure. When voltage
induced in secondary i.e. VMN is negative than D3 and D2 are forward
biased with the other two reversed biased and a positive voltage
appears at the input of the filter.

DC Filtration

The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having

very high ripple content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple
free DC waveform. Hence a filter is used. Different types of filters are
used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter.
The figure below shows a capacitor filter connected along the output
of the rectifier and the resultant output waveform.

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As the instantaneous voltage starts increasing the capacitor charges, it

charges until the waveform reaches its peak value. When the
instantaneous value starts reducing the capacitor starts discharging
exponentially and slowly through the load (input of the regulator in this
case). Hence, an almost constant DC value having very less ripple
content is obtained.

Regulation

This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output

voltage or current will change or fluctuate when there is a change in
the input from ac mains or due to change in load current at the output
of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like temperature
changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A
regulator will maintain the output constant even when changes at the
input or any other changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and
variable IC regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener region can
be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX (such
as the IC 7805) are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the
output.

With IC’s like LM 317 and 723, we can adjust the output voltage to a
required constant value. The figure below shows the LM317 voltage
regulator. The output voltage can be adjusted by adjusting the values
of resistances R1 and R2. Usually, coupling capacitors of values about
0.01µF to 10µF need to be connected at the output and input to
address input noise and output transients. Ideally, the output voltage is
given by

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The figure above shows the complete circuit of a regulated +5V DC

power supply.

Regulated Power Supply Characteristics

The quality of the power supply can be decided by the several factors
namely load current, voltage, source and voltage regulation, ripple
rejection, o/p impedance, etc. Some of the factors are explained below.

Load Regulation

The load regulation is also known as a load effect. This can be defined
as whenever the load current alters from lowest to highest value then
the output of the regulated voltage will be changed. This can be
calculated by using the following equation.

Load regulation = Vno load – Vfull load

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From the above load regulation equation, we can conclude that

whenever no-load voltage happens then the load resistance will be
unlimited. Similarly, whenever full load voltage happens then the load
resistance will be the lowest value. So the voltage regulation will be
lost.

% of Load Regulation = (Vno load – Vfull load)/(Vfull-load) X 100

Lowest Load Resistance

The load-resistance on which a current supply supplies its full-load

charged current by rated voltage can be called as the lowest load
resistance.

Lowest Load Resistance = Voltage full load / Current full-load

Line or Source Regulation

In the power supply block diagram, the input voltage is 230 Volts
however in practice; there are significant differences within the AC
supply mains voltage. As this mains supply voltage is i/p to the normal
power supply, the bridge rectifier’s filtered o/p is approximately
directly proportional toward the AC mains voltage. The source
regulation can be defined as the modify in regulated o/p voltage for a
particular range of low voltage.

Output Impedance

The output resistance of the regulated power supply is very small.

Although the exterior load resistance can be changed, approximately
no change can be seen within the load voltage. The o/p impedance of a
perfect voltage source is zero.

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Ripple Rejection

The voltage regulators fix the o/p voltage against the input voltage
variations. Ripple is equal to a periodic difference within the i/p
voltage. Thus, a voltage regulator satisfies the ripple that approaches
with the unregulated i/p voltage. Because a voltage regulator utilizes -
ve feedback, the distortion can be decreased with a similar factor as
the gain.

Applications of Regulated Power Supply

The applications of the regulated power supply include the following.

A regulated power supply (RPS) is an embedded circuit, used to

convert unregulated alternating current into a stable direct current by
using a rectifier. The main function of this is to supply a constant
voltage to a circuit that should be functioned in a particular power
supply limit.

 Mobile phone chargers

 Regulated power supplies in different appliances
 Various oscillators & amplifiers

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

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A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is

a three-terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions
which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled
device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector and
the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and
holes as charge carriers.

A signal of small amplitude if applied to the base is available in the

amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the

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amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external

source of DC power supply to carry out the amplification process.

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors – NPN transistors

and PNP transistors. A diagram of these two types of bipolar junction
transistors is given below.

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts
named emitter, base and collector. JE and JC represent the junction of
emitter and junction of collector respectively. Now initially it is
sufficient for us to know that emitter based junction is forward biased
and collector-base junctions are reverse biased. The next topic will
describe the two types of these transistors.

NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor

In an n-p-n bipolar transistor (or npn-transistor) one p-type

semiconductor resides between two n-type semiconductors the
diagram below an n-p-n transistor is shown

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Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB
and VCB are emitter-base voltage and collector-base voltage
respectively. According to the convention if for the emitter, base and
collector current IE, IB and IC current goes into the transistor the sign of
the current is taken as positive and if current goes out from the
transistor then the sign is taken as negative. We can tabulate the
different currents and voltages inside the n-p-n transistor.

Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE

n-p-n – + + – + +

PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor

Similarly for p-n-p bipolar junction transistor (or pnp transistor), an n-

type semiconductor is sandwiched between two p-type
semiconductors. The diagram of a p-n-p transistor is shown below

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For p-n-p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the
emitter terminal. Like any bipolar junction transistor, the emitter-base
junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse
biased. We can tabulate the emitter, base and collector current, as well
as the emitter-base, collector base and collector-emitter voltage for p-
n-p transistors also.

Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE

p–n–p + – – + – –

Working Principle of BJT

The figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See
transistor biasing), the BE junction is forward biased whereas the CB
junction is reversed biased. The width of the depletion region of the BE
junction is small as compared to that of the CB junction.

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The forward bias at the BE junction reduces the barrier potential and
causes the electrons to flow from the emitter to the base. As the base
is thin and lightly doped it consists of very few holes so some of the
electrons from the emitter (about 2%) recombine with the holes
present in the base region and flow out of the base terminal.

This constitutes the base current, it flows due to recombination of

electrons and holes (Note that the direction of conventional current
flow is opposite to that of the flow of electrons). The remaining large
number of electrons will cross the reverse-biased collector junction to
constitute the collector current. Thus by KCL,

The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector

current.

Here, the majority of charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a

p-n-p transistor is same as of the n-p-n, the only difference is that the
majority charge carriers are holes instead of electrons. Only a small
part current flows due to majority carriers and most of the current
flows due to minority charge carriers in a BJT. Hence, they are called as
minority carrier devices.

Equivalent Circuit of BJT

A p-n junction is represented by a diode. As a transistor has two p-n

junctions, it is equivalent to two diodes connected back to back. This is
called as the two diode analogy of the BJT.

Bipolar Junction Transistors Characteristics

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The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base. Before
knowing about the bipolar junction transistor characteristics, we
have to know about the modes of operation for this type of transistors.
The modes are

1. Common Base (CB) mode

2. Common Emitter (CE) mode
3. Common Collector (CC) mode

All three types of modes are shown below

Now coming to the characteristics of BJT there are different

characteristics for different modes of operation. Characteristics is
nothing but the graphical forms of relationships among different
current and voltage variables of the transistor. The characteristics for
p-n-p transistors are given for different modes and different
parameters.

Common Base Characteristics

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Input Characteristics

For p-n-p transistor, the input current is the emitter current (IE) and the
input voltage is the collector base voltage (VCB).

As the emitter-base junction is forward biased, therefore the graph of

IE Vs VEB is similar to the forward characteristics of a p-n diode. IE
increases for fixed VEB when VCB increases.

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics show the relation between the output

voltage and output current IC is the output current and collector-base
voltage and the emitter current IE is the input current and works as the
parameters. The figure below shows the output characteristics for a p-
n-p transistor in CB mode.

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As we know for p-n-p transistors IE and VEB are positive and IC, IB, VCB
are negative. These are three regions in the curve, active region
saturation region and the cut off region. The active region is the region
where the transistor operates normally.

Here the emitter junction is reverse biased. Now the saturation region
is the region where both the emitter-collector junctions are forward
biased. And finally, the cut off region is the region where both emitter
and the collector junctions are reverse biased.

Common Emitter Characteristics

Input characteristics

IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base – Emitter Voltage) is the
input voltage for CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input
characteristics for CE mode will be the relation between IB and VBE with
VCE as a parameter. The characteristics are shown below
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The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward-

biased of p-n diode. But as VCB increases the base width decreases.

Output Characteristics

Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph between

collector current (IC) and collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the base
current IB is the parameter. The characteristics is shown below in the
figure.

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Like the output characteristics of common – base transistor CE mode

has also three regions named (i) Active region, (ii) cut-off regions, (iii)
saturation region. The active region has collector region reverse biased
and the emitter junction forward biased.

For cut-off region, the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased and
the collector current is not totally cut-off. And finally for the saturation
region both the collector and the emitter junction are forward biased.

History of BJTs

In 1947 J. Barden, W. Bratterin and W. Shockley invented the

transistor. The term transistor was given by John R. Pierce. Though
initially it was called the solid-state version of the vacuum triode, the
term transistor has survived. In this article, the transistor we are
concerned with is the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT).

The word transistor is derived from the words “Transfer” and “Resistor”
it describes the operation of a BJT i.e. the transfer of an input signal
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from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. This type of

transistor is made up of semiconductors.

Transistors are used in the construction of Integrated Circuits (ICs). The

number of transistors that we have been able to fit into an IC has
rapidly increased since their creation, doubling approximately every 2
years (known as Moores Law).

Now, why this is called junction transistor? The answer lies behind the
construction. We already know what is p-type and n-type
semiconductors.

Now, in this type of transistor, any one type of semiconductors is

sandwiched between the other type of semiconductor. For example,
an n-type can be sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors or
similarly one p-type can be sandwiched between two n-type
semiconductors.

These are called pnp transistors and npn transistors respectively, as

discussed above. Now as there are two junctions of different types of
semiconductors, this is called junction transistor. It’s called bipolar
because the conduction takes place due to both electrons as well as
holes.

Applications of BJT

BJT’s are used in a discrete circuit designed due to availability of many

types, and obviously because of its high transconductance and output
resistance which is better than MOSFET. BJT’s are suitable for the
high-frequency application also.

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That’s why they are used in radio frequency for wireless systems.
Another application of BJT can be stated as a small-signal amplifier,
metal proximity photocell, etc.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier

To understand the concept of Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier,

we should look through the diagram of a p-n-p transistor first.

Now as the input voltage is changed a little, say ΔVi of the emitter-base
voltage changes the barrier height and the emitter current by ΔIE. This
change in emitter current develops a voltage drop ΔVO across the load
resistance RL, where,

ΔVO gives the output voltage of the amplifier. There is a negative sign
because of the collector current gives a voltage drop across RL with
polarity opposite to the reference polarity. The voltage gain AV for the
amplifier is given the ratio between the output voltages ΔVO to the
input voltage ΔVi, so,
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is called the current gain ratio of the transistor. From the figure
diagram shown above, we can see that an increase in the emitter
voltage reduces the forward bias at the emitter junction thus decreases
the collector current.

It indicates that the output voltage and the input voltage are in phase.
Now, finally the power gain Ap of the transistor is the ratio between
the output power and the input power

Biasing

Bipolar transistors are biased to operate correctly. Biasing is the

application of dc voltage in a circuit to establish a fixed level of voltage
or current. The DC operating voltage or current conditions of a
transistor is set to get the correct level. Then only the AC input signal
can be amplified by the transistor correctly. To get the correct
operating point, the bias resistors, load resistors must be properly
selected which can provide the input current and collector voltage
conditions. The different types of biasing circuits are given below.

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Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the

functioning of the circuit. A transistor is based in order to make the
emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction
reverse biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an
amplifier.

In the previous chapter, we explained how a transistor acts as a good

amplifier, if both the input and output sections are biased.

Transistor Biasing

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of
proper collectoremitter voltage during the passage of signal is known
as Transistor Biasing. The circuit which provides transistor biasing is
called as Biasing Circuit.

Transistor Biasing

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Need for DC biasing

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be

amplified. Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have
to be met.

 The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor
to be ON.

 The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as

an amplifier.

If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by

external sources, so that BJT operates in active region and
superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then this problem can be
avoided. The given DC voltage and currents are so chosen that the
transistor remains in active region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC
biasing is needed.

The below figure shows a transistor amplifier that is provided with DC

biasing on both input and output circuits.

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For a transistor to be operated as a faithful amplifier, the operating

point should be stabilized. Let us have a look at the factors that affect
the stabilization of operating point.

Factors affecting the operating point

The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The
operating point shifts due to change in temperature.

As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.

 ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)

 VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)

So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature.

Hence operating point should be made independent of the
temperature so as to achieve stability. To achieve this, biasing circuits
are introduced.

Stabilization

The process of making the operating point independent of

temperature changes or variations in transistor parameters is known
as Stabilization.

Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become

independent of temperature variations or replacement of transistor. A
good biasing circuit helps in the stabilization of operating point.

Need for Stabilization

Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the

following reasons.

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 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway

Temperature Dependence of IC

As the expression for collector current IC is

The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature

variations. To come out of this, the biasing conditions are set so that
zero signal collector current IC = 1 mA. Therefore, the operating point
needs to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep IC constant.

Individual Variations

As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every transistor,
whenever a transistor is replaced, the operating point tends to change.
Hence it is necessary to stabilize the operating point.

Thermal Runaway

As the expression for collector current IC is

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The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current
causes heat dissipation. If the operating point is not stabilized, there
occurs a cumulative effect which increases this heat dissipation.

The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known

as Thermal run away.

In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it

is necessary to stabilize the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.

Stability Factor

It is understood that IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of

ICBO or ICO. The extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in
maintaining this is measured by Stability factor. It denoted by S.

By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC with respect to

the collector leakage current ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability
factor.

Differentiating above expression with respect to IC, we get

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Hence the stability factor S depends on β, IB and IC.

Methods of Transistor Biasing

The biasing in transistor circuits is done by using two DC sources

VBB and VCC. It is economical to minimize the DC source to one supply
instead of two which also makes the circuit simple.

The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are

 Base Resistor method

 Collector to Base bias
 Biasing with Collector feedback resistor
 Voltage-divider bias

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All of these methods have the same basic principle of obtaining the
required value of IB and IC from VCC in the zero signal conditions.

Base Resistor Method

In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, as

the name implies. The required zero signal base current is provided by
VCC which flows through RB. The base emitter junction is forward
biased, as base is positive with respect to emitter.

The required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector
current (as IC = βIB) can be made to flow by selecting the proper value
of base resistor RB. Hence the value of RB is to be known. The figure
below shows how a base resistor method of biasing circuit looks like.

Let IC be the required zero signal collector current. Therefore,

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Considering the closed circuit from VCC, base, emitter and ground,
while applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get,

Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the former can
be neglected with little error. Then,

We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some

suitable value. As RB can be found directly, this method is called
as fixed bias method.

Stability factor

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Thus the stability factor in a fixed bias is (β+1) which means that
IC changes (β+1) times as much as any change in ICO.

Advantages

 The circuit is simple.

 Only one resistor RE is required.
 Biasing conditions are set easily.
 No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter
junction.

Disadvantages

 The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be

stopped.
 The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of
thermal run away.

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Hence, this method is rarely employed.

Collector to Base Bias

The collector to base bias circuit is same as base bias circuit except that
the base resistor RB is returned to collector, rather than to VCC supply as
shown in the figure below.

This circuit helps in improving the stability considerably. If the value of

IC increases, the voltage across RL increases and hence the VCE also

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increases. This in turn reduces the base current IB. This action
somewhat compensates the original increase.

The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal collector

current IC can be calculated as follows.

Voltage drop across RL will be

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This value is smaller than (1+β) which is obtained for fixed bias circuit.
Thus there is an improvement in the stability.

This circuit provides a negative feedback which reduces the gain of the
amplifier. So the increased stability of the collector to base bias circuit
is obtained at the cost of AC voltage gain.

Biasing with Collector Feedback resistor

In this method, the base resistor RB has its one end connected to base
and the other to the collector as its name implies. In this circuit, the
zero signal base current is determined by VCB but not by VCC.

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It is clear that VCB forward biases the base-emitter junction and hence
base current IB flows through RB. This causes the zero signal collector
current to flow in the circuit. The below figure shows the biasing with
collector feedback resistor circuit.

The required value of RB needed to give the zero signal current IC can
be determined as follows.

Or,

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Therefore, this method provides better thermal stability than the fixed
bias.

The Q-point values for the circuit are shown as

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VCE=VCC−ICRC

Advantages

 The circuit is simple as it needs only one resistor.

 This circuit provides some stabilization, for lesser changes.

Disadvantages

 The circuit doesn’t provide good stabilization.

 The circuit provides negative feedback.

Voltage Divider Bias Method

Among all the methods of providing biasing and stabilization,

the voltage divider bias method is the most prominent one. Here, two
resistors R1 and R2 are employed, which are connected to VCC and
provide biasing. The resistor RE employed in the emitter provides
stabilization.

The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by
R1 and R2. The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter
junction. This causes the base current and hence collector current flow
in the zero signal conditions. The figure below shows the circuit of
voltage divider bias method.

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Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base

current IB is very small, therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable
accuracy that current flowing through R2 is also I1.

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Now let us try to derive the expressions for collector current and
collector voltage.

Collector Current, IC

From the circuit, it is evident that,

From the above expression, it is evident that IC doesn’t depend upon β.

VBE is very small that IC doesn’t get affected by VBE at all. Thus IC in this

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circuit is almost independent of transistor parameters and hence good

stabilization is achieved.

Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector side,

Suppose there is a rise in temperature, then the collector current

IC decreases, which causes the voltage drop across RE to increase. As
the voltage drop across R2 is V2, which is independent of IC, the value of
VBE decreases. The reduced value of IB tends to restore IC to the original
value.

Stability Factor

The equation for Stability factor of this circuit is obtained as

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If the ratio R0/RE is very small, then R0/RE can be neglected as

compared to 1 and the stability factor becomes
1
Stability Factor = S=(β+1)× =1
𝛽+1

This is the smallest possible value of S and leads to the maximum

possible thermal stability.

Biasing Techniques (BJT)

FET biasing

However, the wide differences in maximum and minimum transfer

characteristics make ID levels unpredictable with simple fixed-gate
bias voltage. To obtain reasonable limits on quiescent drain currents
ID and drain-source voltage VDS, source resistor and potential divider
bias techniques must be used. With few exceptions, MOSFET bias

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circuits are similar to those used for JFETs. Various FET biasing circuits
are discussed below:

Fixed Bias

Fixed bias-FET

DC bias of a FET device needs setting of gate-source voltage VGS to

give desired drain current ID . For a JFET drain current is limited by the
saturation current IDS. Since the FET has such a high input impedance
that no gate current flows and the dc voltage of the gate set by a
voltage divider or a fixed battery voltage is not affected or loaded by
the FET.

Fixed dc bias is obtained using a battery VQG. This battery ensures that
the gate is always negative with respect to source and no current flows
through resistor RG and gate terminal that is IG =0. The battery provides
a voltage VGS to bias the N-channel JFET, but no resulting current is

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drawn from the battery VGG. Resistor RG is included to allow any ac

signal applied through capacitor C to develop across RG. While any ac
signal will develop across RG, the dc voltage drop across RG is equal to
IG RG i.e. 0 volt.

The gate-source voltage VGS is then

VGS = – vG – vs = – vGG – 0 = – VGG

The drain -source current ID is then fixed by the gate-source voltage as

determined by equation.

This current then causes a voltage drop across the drain resistor R D and
is given as VRD = ID RD and output voltage, Vout = VDD – ID RD

Self-Bias.

FET-Self Bias circuit

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This is the most common method for biasing a JFET. Self-bias circuit
for N-channel JFET is shown in figure.

Since no gate current flows through the reverse-biased gate-source,

the gate current IG = 0 and, therefore,vG = iG RG = 0

With a drain current ID the voltage at the S is

Vs = ID Rs

The gate-source voltage is then

VGs = VG – Vs = 0 – ID Rs = – ID Rs

So voltage drop across resistance Rs provides the biasing voltage

VGg and no external source is required for biasing and this is the reason
that it is called self-biasing.

The operating point (that is zero signal ID and VDS) can easily be
determined from equation and equation given below :

VDS = VDD – ID (RD + RS)

Thus dc conditions of JFET amplifier are fully specified. Self biasing of a

JFET stabilizes its quiescent operating point against any change in its
parameters like transconductance. Let the given JFET be replaced by
another JFET having the double conductance then drain current will
also try to be double but since any increase in voltage drop across Rs,
therefore, gate-source voltage, VGS becomes more negative and thus
increase in drain current is reduced.

Potential-Divider Biasing.

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fet-potential-divider-biasing

A slightly modified form of dc bias is provided by the circuit shown in

figure. The resistors RGl and RG2 form a potential divider across drain
supply VDD. The voltage V2 across RG2 provides the necessary bias. The
additional gate resistor RGl from gate to supply voltage facilitates in
larger adjustment of the dc bias point and permits use of larger valued
RS .

The gate is reverse biased so that IG = 0 and gate voltage

VG =V2 = (VDD/R G1 + R G2 ) *RG2

And
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VGS = vG – vs = VG – ID Rs

The circuit is so designed that ID Rs is greater than VG so that VGS is

negative. This provides correct bias voltage.

The operating point can be determined as

ID = (V2 – VGS)/ RS

And

VDS = VDD – ID (RD + RS)

Operating Point

When a line is drawn joining the saturation and cut off points, such a
line can be called as Load line. This line, when drawn over the output
characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called as Operating
point.

This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-

point. There can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is
selected in such a way that irrespective of AC signal swing, the
transistor remains in the active region.

The following graph shows how to represent the operating point.

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The operating point should not get disturbed as it should remain stable
to achieve faithful amplification. Hence the quiescent point or Q-point
is the value where the Faithful Amplification is achieved.

Faithful Amplification

The process of increasing the signal strength is called as Amplification.

This amplification when done without any loss in the components of
the signal, is called as Faithful amplification.

Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of

input signal by increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC
signal is applied at its input.

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In the above graph, the input signal applied is completely amplified and
reproduced without any losses. This can be understood as Faithful
Amplification.

The operating point is so chosen such that it lies in the active

region and it helps in the reproduction of complete signal without any
loss.

If the operating point is considered near saturation point, then the

amplification will be as under.

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If the operation point is considered near cut off point, then the
amplification will be as under.

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Hence the placement of operating point is an important factor to

achieve faithful amplification. But for the transistor to function
properly as an amplifier, its input circuit (i.e., the base-emitter junction)
remains forward biased and its output circuit (i.e., collector-base
junction) remains reverse biased.

The amplified signal thus contains the same information as in the input
signal whereas the strength of the signal is increased.

Key factors for Faithful Amplification

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To ensure faithful amplification, the following basic conditions must be

satisfied.

 Proper zero signal collector current

 Minimum proper base-emitter voltage (VBE) at any instant.
 Minimum proper collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at any instant.

The fulfillment of these conditions ensures that the transistor works

over the active region having input forward biased and output reverse
biased.

Proper Zero Signal Collector Current

In order to understand this, let us consider a NPN transistor circuit as

shown in the figure below. The base-emitter junction is forward biased
and the collector-emitter junction is reverse biased. When a signal is
applied at the input, the base-emitter junction of the NPN transistor
gets forward biased for positive half cycle of the input and hence it
appears at the output.

For negative half cycle, the same junction gets reverse biased and
hence the circuit doesn’t conduct. This leads to unfaithful
amplification as shown in the figure below.

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Now introduce a battery VBB in the base circuit. The magnitude of this
voltage should be such that the base-emitter junction of the transistor
should remain in forward biased, even for negative half cycle of input
signal. When no input signal is applied, a DC current flows in the circuit,
due to VBB. This is known as zero signal collector current IC.

During the positive half cycle of the input, the base-emitter junction is
more forward biased and hence the collector current increases. During
the negative half cycle of the input, the input junction is less forward
biased and hence the collector current decreases. Hence both the
cycles of the input appear in the output and hence faithful
amplification results, as shown in the below figure.

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Hence for faithful amplification, proper zero signal collector current

must flow. The value of zero signal collector current should be at least
equal to the maximum collector current due to the signal alone.

Proper Minimum VBE at any instant

The minimum base to emitter voltage VBE should be greater than the
cut-in voltage for the junction to be forward biased. The minimum
voltage needed for a silicon transistor to conduct is 0.7v and for a
germanium transistor to conduct is 0.5v. If the base-emitter voltage
VBE is greater than this voltage, the potential barrier is overcome and
hence the base current and collector currents increase sharply.

Hence if VBE falls low for any part of the input signal, that part will be
amplified to a lesser extent due to the resultant small collector current,
which results in unfaithful amplification.

Proper Minimum VCE at any instant

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To achieve a faithful amplification, the collector emitter voltage

VCE should not fall below the cut-in voltage, which is called as Knee
Voltage. If VCE is lesser than the knee voltage, the collector base
junction will not be properly reverse biased. Then the collector cannot
attract the electrons which are emitted by the emitter and they will
flow towards base which increases the base current. Thus the value of
β falls.

Therefore, if VCE falls low for any part of the input signal, that part will
be multiplied to a lesser extent, resulting in unfaithful amplification. So
if VCE is greater than VKNEE the collector-base junction is properly
reverse biased and the value of β remains constant, resulting in faithful
amplification.

Stability

When a system is unstable, the output of the system may be infinite

even though the input to the system was finite. This causes a number
of practical problems. For instance, a robot arm controller that is
unstable may cause the robot to move dangerously. Also, systems that
are unstable often incur a certain amount of physical damage, which
can become costly. Nonetheless, many systems are inherently
unstable - a fighter jet, for instance, or a rocket at liftoff, are examples
of naturally unstable systems. Although we can design controllers that
stabilize the system, it is first important to understand what stability is,
how it is determined, and why it matters.

A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it

is said to be unstable. A stable system produces a bounded output for
a given bounded input.

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The following figure shows the response of a stable system.

This is the response of first order control system for unit step input.
This response has the values between 0 and 1. So, it is bounded output.
We know that the unit step signal has the value of one for all positive
values of t including zero. So, it is bounded input. Therefore, the first
order control system is stable since both the input and the output are
bounded.

The stability of a control system is defined as the ability of any system

to provide a bounded output when a bounded input is applied to it.
More specifically, we can say, that stability allows the system to reach
the steady-state and remain in that state for that particular input even
after variation in the parameters of the system.

Stability is considered to be an important property of a control system.

It is also referred as the system’s ability to reach the steady-state.

As it is an important characteristic thus the performance of the control

system shows a high dependency on stability.

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Stability of Control System

a stable system generates bounded output for bounded input (BIBO).

Bounded signal

Bounded value of a signal represents a finite value. More specifically,

we can say, the bounded signal holds a finite value of maxima and
minima. Thus, if maxima and minima of any signal are finite then this
means all the other values between maxima and minima will also be
finite.

Suppose we have a signal shown below:

As we can see that here the maxima and minima of the signal
represented above is having finite values. Thus such a signal is said to
be bounded and if such an output is provided by a system then it is said
to be a stable system.

Therefore, conversely, we can say that an unstable system provides an

unbounded output when the applied input is bounded in nature.

Unbounded Signals

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So, generally, the signals whose graph shows continuous rise thereby
showing infinite value such as ramp signal are known as unbounded
signals. The figure shown below represents the unbounded signal:

Sometimes we come across asymptotically stable systems which are

defined as the systems whose output progresses 0, when the input is
not present, even when the parameters of the system show variation.

It is to be noted here that poles of the transfer function, is a factor

defining the stability of the control system.

How poles can give information regarding the stability of the system?

 When the poles of the transfer function of the system are located
on the left side of the s-plane then it is said to be a stable system.
However, as the poles progress towards 0 or origin, then, in this
case, the stability of the system decreases.

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 Now there exist two conditions for the poles that are present in the
imaginary axis:

1. If for a system, the poles are present in the imaginary axis and are
non-repetitive in nature, then it is said to be a marginally stable
system.

2. However, if there exist repetitive poles in the imaginary axis of

the s-plane. Then it is called to be an unstable system.

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 If a system having poles in the right domain of the s-plane, then

such a system is called an unstable system. The presence of even
a single pole in the right half makes the system unstable.

 The poles that are present close to the origin are said to
be dominant poles. Thus if a stable system is having poles -
a1 and -a2 then, then -a1 is considered to the dominant pole of
that particular system.

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 A system is specifically considered to be an unstable system, if its

output does not approach 0, thereby representing some value
even in the absence of input.

Thus we can say that the position of the poles in the s-plane
corresponds to the stability of the system.

Types of Systems based on Stability

We can classify the systems based on stability as follows.

 Absolutely stable system

 Conditionally stable system
 Marginally stable system

Absolutely Stable System

If the system is stable for all the range of system component values,
then it is known as the absolutely stable system. The open loop
control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the open loop
transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed
loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed
loop transfer function present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane.

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An absolutely stable system is the one that provides bounded output

even for the variation in the parameters of the system. This means it is
such a system whose output after reaching a steady-state does not
show changes irrespective of the disturbances or variation in the
system parameter values.

The figure shown below represents the step response of an absolutely

stable system:

The nature of poles for the absolutely stable condition must be real and
negative.

The figure below represents an unstable system:

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Conditionally Stable System

If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values,

then it is known as conditionally stable system.

A conditionally stable system gives bounded output for the only

specific conditions of the system that is defined by the parameter of
the system.

Thus we can say here the system exhibits stability only under particular
conditions.

And if that particular condition is violated then the system generates

unbounded output.

Marginally Stable System

If the system is stable by producing an output signal with constant

amplitude and constant frequency of oscillations for bounded input,
then it is known as marginally stable system. The open loop control
system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop transfer
function is present on the imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop

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control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop
transfer function is present on the imaginary axis.

A marginally stable system is the one that generates a signal which is

oscillating with constant frequency and amplitude when a bounded
input is provided to it.

These oscillations are known as sustained oscillations. The figure here

represents the step response of a marginally stable system:

The nature of the closed-loop poles must be non-repetitive and located

on the imaginary axis.

Amplifiers

Introduction

In earlier days, before the invention of electronic amplifiers, the

coupled carbon microphones are used as crude amplifiers in telephone
repeaters. The first electronic device that practically amplifies was the
Audion vacuum tube, invented by the Lee De Forest in the year 1906.
The term amplifier and amplification are from Latin word amplificare
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to expand or enlarge. The vacuum tube is the only simplifying device

for 40 years and dominated electronics up to 1947. When the first
BJT was in the market it has created another revolution in the
electronics and it is a first portable electronic device like transistor
radio developed in the year 1954. This article discusses the classes and
classification of amplifiers.

Definition

Simply the amplifiers are called as an amp. The amplifier is an

electronic device used to increase the signal of current, voltage and
power. The function of the amplifier is by using the power from the
power supply and longer altitude, it controls the output signal with the
help of input signal. An amplifier modulates the out of the power
supply is based on the properties of the input signal. The amplifier is
quite opposite to an attenuator if the amplifier provides the gain,
hence the attenuator provides the loss. The amplifier is also a discrete
part of the electrical circuit which is continued with the other device.

Amplifier
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An amplifier is used in all the electronic equipments. The amplifiers can

be categorized in different types. The first one is by the frequency of
the electronic signal being improved. The next one is the audio
amplifier and amplifies the signal in the range of less than the 20 kHz
and the RF amplifier amplifies the radio frequency ranges from 20 kHz
to 300 KHz. The last one is current quality and voltage are being
amplified

An amplifier is used to increase the amplitude of a signal waveform,

without changing other parameters of the waveform such as frequency
or wave shape. They are one of the most commonly used circuits in
electronics and perform a variety of functions in a great many
electronic systems.

Fig 1.0.1 Amplifier general symbol, used in system diagrams

The general symbol for an amplifier is shown in Fig 1.0.1. The symbol
gives no detail of the type of amplifier described, but the direction of
signal flow can be assumed (as flowing from left to right of the
diagram). Amplifiers of different types are also often described in
system or block diagrams by name.

Amplifiers as Parts of Large Electronic Systems

For example look at the block diagram of an analogue TV receiver in

Fig 1.0.2 and see how many of the individual stages (shaded green)
that make up the TV are amplifiers. Also notice that the names indicate
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the type of amplifier used. In some cases the blocks shown are true
amplifiers and in others, the amplifier has extra components to modify
the basic amplifier design for a special purpose. This method of using
relatively simple, individual electronic circuits as "building blocks" to
create large complex circuits is common to all electronic systems; even
computers and microprocessors are made up of millions of logic gates,
which are simply specialised types of amplifiers. Therefore to recognise
and understand basic circuits such as amplifiers is an essential step in
learning about electronics.

Fig 1.0.2 Analogue colour TV receiver block diagram

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One way to describe an amplifier is by the type of signal it is designed

to amplify. This usually refers to a band of frequencies that the
amplifier will handle, or in some cases, the function that they perform
within an electronic system.

There are different types of amplifiers includes a current amplifier,

a voltage amplifier or the transconductance amplifier and trans-
resistance amplifier. Nowadays, most of the amplifiers used in the
market are transistors but, vacuum tubes are also using in some of the
applications.

Types of Amplifiers with their Workings

In the analog TV receiver, many of the individual stages that make up

the TV are amplifiers. the names indicate the type of amplifiers. Some
are true amplifiers and other amplifiers has extra components to
modify the basic amplifier design for a special purpose application.
Method of using relatively individual electronic circuits as building
blocks to create large, complex circuits is common to all electronic
systems.

Computers and microprocessors are made up of millions of logic

gates and other components, which are simply specialized types of
amplifiers. To recognize and understand basic circuits such as
amplifiers is an essential step in learning about electronic projects.
Different types of amplifiers are available for different applications. An
amplifier is classified by the type of signal it is designed to amplify.
Usually refers to a band of frequencies that the amplifier will handle
the function that they perform within an electronic system.

A.F. Amplifiers

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Audio frequency amplifiers are used to amplify signals in the range of

human hearing that approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Some Hi-Fi audio
amplifiers extend this range up to around 100 kHz ranges while other
audio amplifiers may restrict the high frequency limit to 15 kHz or less.

Audio Frequency Amplifier

Audio voltage amplifiers are used to amplify the low level signals from
microphones and disk pickups,. Etc.. By extra circuitry, amplifiers also
perform functions such as tone correction, equalization of signal levels
and mixing of different inputs. Amplifiers generally have a high voltage
gain and medium to high output resistance. These Audio power
amplifiers are used to receive the amplified input from a series of
voltage amplifiers and then provide sufficient power to drive
loudspeakers.

I.F. Amplifiers

Intermediate Frequency amplifiers are tuned amplifiers used in radio

devices, TV sets and radar devices. The Main purpose is to provide the

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majority of the voltage amplification of a TV or radar signals, before

the audio or video information carried by the signal is separated or
demodulated from the radio signal. Amplifiers operate at a frequency
lower than that of the received radio waves, but higher than the audio
or video signals eventually produced by the system. The frequency at
which Intermediate Frequency.

Intermediate Frequency Amplifier

These amplifiers operate and the bandwidth of the amplifier depends

on the type of equipment that used. The AM radio receivers and the I.F
amplifiers operate at around 470 kHz and their bandwidth is normally
10 kHz i.e. 465 kHz to 475 kHz, home TV commonly uses 6 MHz
bandwidth for the I.F Signal at around 30 to 40 MHz and in radar a
bandwidth of 10 MHz may be used.

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Fig. 1.0.3 FM Radio using AF, IF and RF amplifiers.

R.F. Amplifiers

Radio Frequency amplifiers are tuned amplifiers in which the frequency

of operation is governed by a tuned circuit. This circuit may or may not,
be adjustable depending on the purpose of the amplifier. Bandwidth
also depends on use and may be relatively wide, or narrow. Input
resistance is generally low, as is gain.

Some RF amplifiers have little or no gain at all but are primarily a buffer
between a receiving antenna and later circuitry to prevent any high
level unwanted signals from the receiver circuits reaching the antenna,
where it could be re-transmitted as interference.

A special feature of RF amplifiers where they are used in the earliest

stages of a receiver is low noise performance. It is important that
background noise generally produced by any electronic device, is kept
to a minimum because the amplifier will be handling very low

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amplitude signals from the antenna (µV or smaller). For this reason it is
common to see low noise FET transistors used in these stages.

R.F. Amplifier

Ultrasonic Amplifiers

Ultrasonic amplifiers are a type of audio amplifier handling frequencies

from around 20kHz up to about 100kHz; they are usually designed for
specific purposes such as ultrasonic cleaning, metal fatigue detection,
ultrasound scanning, remote control systems etc. Each type will
operate over a fairly narrow band of frequencies within the ultrasonic
range.

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Ultrasonic Amplifier

Wideband Amplifiers

Wideband amplifiers must have a constant gain from DC to several

tens of MHz. They are used in measuring equipment such as
oscilloscopes etc. where there is a need to accurately measure signals
over a wide range of frequencies. Because of their extremely wide
bandwidth, gain is low.

DC Amplifiers

DC amplifiers are used to amplify DC (0Hz) voltages or very low

frequency signals where the DC level of the signal is important. They
are common in many electrical control systems and measuring
instruments.

Video Amplifiers

Video amplifiers are a special type of wide band amplifier that also
preserve the DC level of the signal and are used specifically for signals
that are to be applied to CRTs or other video equipment. The video
signal carries all the picture information in TV, video and radar
systems. The bandwidth of video amplifiers depends on use. In TV
receivers it extends from 0Hz (DC) to 6MHz and is wider still in radar.
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Buffer Amplifiers

Buffer amplifiers are a commonly encountered, specialised amplifier

type that can be found within any of the above categories, they are
placed between two other circuits to prevent the operation of one
circuit affecting the operation of the other. (They ISOLATE the circuits
from each other). Often buffer amplifiers have a gain of one, i.e. they
do not actually amplify, so that their output is the same amplitude as
their input, but buffer amplifiers have a very high input impedance and
a low output impedance and can therefore be used as an impedance
matching device. This ensures that signals are not attenuated between
circuits, as happens when a circuit with a high output impedance feeds
a signal directly to another circuit having a low input impedance.

Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (Op−amps) have developed from circuits

designed for the early analogue computers where they were used for
mathematical operations such as adding and subtracting. Today they
are widely used in integrated circuit form where they are available in
single or multiple amplifier packages and often incorporated into
complex integrated circuits for specific applications.

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The design is based on a differential amplifier, which has two inputs

instead of one, and produces an output that is proportional to the
difference between the two inputs. Without negative feedback, op
amps have an extremely high gain, typically in the hundreds of
thousands. Applying negative feedback increases the op amp´s
bandwidth so they can operate as wideband amplifiers with a
bandwidth in the MHz range, but reduces their gain. A simple resistor
network can apply such feedback externally and other external
networks can vary the function of op−amps.

The Output Properties of Amplifiers

Amplifiers are used to increase the amplitude of a voltage or current, or

to increase the amount of power available usually from an AC signal.
Whatever the task, there are three categories of amplifier that relate to
the properties of their output;

1. Voltage amplifiers.
2. Current amplifiers.
3. Power amplifiers.

LM324N Low power Quad Op Amp.

The purpose of a voltage amplifier is to make the amplitude of the

output voltage waveform greater than that of the input voltage
waveform (although the amplitude of the output current may be
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greater or smaller than that of the input current, this change is less
important for the amplifier´s designed purpose).

The purpose of a current amplifier is to make the amplitude of the

output current waveform greater than that of the input current
waveform (although the amplitude of the output voltage may be
greater or smaller than that of the input voltage, this change is less
important for the amplifier´s designed purpose).

In a power amplifier, the product of voltage and current (i.e. power =

voltage x current) at the output is greater than the product of voltage x
current at the input. Note that either voltage or current may be less at
the output than at the input. It is the product of the two that is
significantly increased.

Classification of Amplifiers

The classification of amplifiers is shown in the following

 Input and output variable

 Common terminal
 Unilateral and bilateral
 Inverting and Non-inverting
 Interstage coupling method
 Frequency range
 Function

Input and Output Variable

The electronic amplifier uses only one variable i.e. current or voltage. It
may be current or voltage can be used in the input or either in the

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output. There are four types of amplifiers and which are dependent on
the source used as a linear analysis.

Gain
Input output Dependent source Amplifier type Units

Current Controlled Current

I I Current Source CCCS Amplifier Unitless

Current Controlled Trans resistance

I V Voltage Source CCVS Amplifier Ohm

Trans
Voltage Controlled Conductance
V I Current Source VCCS Amplifier Siemens

Voltage Controlled Voltage

V V Voltage Source VCVS Amplifier Unitless

Common Terminal

The classification of the amplifier is based on the device terminal which

is common to both input and output circuit. In the Bipolar Junction
Transistor, there are three classes namely. a common emitter,
common base, and common collector. In the case of Field Effect
Transistor, it has the corresponding configurations like common
source, common gate, and a common drain. The common emitter is
the most frequently to provide amplification of a voltage applied
between base and emitter. The input signal is in between collector and
emitter is inverted it is relative to the input. The common collector

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circuit is called as an emitter follower, source follower, and cathode

follower.

Unilateral and Bilateral

The amplifier whose output displays no feedback to the input side is

called as unilateral. The unilateral amplifier of the input impedance is
independent of load and the output impedance is independent signal
source impedance.

The amplifier which uses the feedback to connect part of the output
back to the input is called as a bilateral amplifier. The input impedance
of bilateral amplifier depends on the load and the output impedance of
source impedance. The linear unilateral and bilateral amplifiers are
denoted as two port networks.

Inverting and Non-Inverting

In this, the classification of an amplifier uses the phase relationship of

the input signal to the output signal. The inverting amplifier gives the
output of 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal.

The non-inverting amplifier continuous the phase of the input signal

waveforms and the emitter is a non-inverting amplifier. The voltage
follower is called as non-inverting amplifier and it has unity gain.

Interstage coupling Method

This type of amplifier is classified by using the coupling method of the

signal at the input, output and between the stages. There are different
types of methods in the interstage coupling amplifier.

 Resistive-capacitive coupling amplifier

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 Inductive-capacitive coupling amplifier

 Transformed coupling amplifier
 Direct coupling amplifier

Classes of Amplifiers

There are different types of classes of amplifiers mentioned in the

following

 Class A amplifier
 Class B amplifier
 Class C amplifier
 Class D amplifier
 Class AB amplifier
 Class F amplifier
 Class S amplifier
 Class R amplifier

Class A Amplifier

The class A amplifiers are simple designed amplifiers and this amplifier
is mostly commonly used amplifiers. Basically, the class A amplifiers
are the best class amplifiers because of their low distortion levels. This
amplifier is the best in the audio sound system and in most of the
sound system use the class A amplifier. The class A amplifiers are
formed by the output stage devices which are biased for the class A
operation. By comparing the other classes amplifiers to class A
amplifier has the highest linearity.

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Class A Amplifier

To obtain high linearity and gain in class A amplifier the output of the
class A amplifier should be biased ON for all times. Hence the amplifier
is said to be as a class A amplifier. The zero signal ideal current in the
output stage should be equal to or more than the maximum load
current is required to produce more amount of signal.

Advantages

 It eliminates Non-linear distortion

 It has low ripple voltage
 It does not require any frequency compensation
 There is no cross and switching distortions
 There is low harmonic distortion in the voltage and current
amplifier

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Disadvantages

 The transformers used in this amplifier are bulk and they are
high cost
 Its requirement of two identical transistors

Class B Amplifier

The class B amplifiers are the positive and negative halves of the
signals, that are allocated to the different parts of the circuits and the
output device switched ON and OFF continuously. The basic class B
amplifiers are used in two complementary transistors which are FET
and bipolar. These two transistors of each half of the waveform with its
output are configured in a push-pull type arrangement. Hence the each
amplifier only half of the output waveform.

Class B Amplifier

In the Class B amplifier, if the input signal is positive, then the

positively biased transistor conduct and the negative transistor is
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switched OFF. If the input signal is negative, then the positive

transistor switches OFF and negative biased transistor turn ON. Hence
the transistor conduct half of the time whatever it may be like positive
or negative half cycle of the input signal.

Advantages

 Some amount of distortion in the circuit gives the more output

per device because of there is no presence of the even
harmonics
 The use of push-pull system in the class B amplifier eliminates
the even harmonic

Disadvantages

 In the class B amplifier, there is high harmonic distortion

 In this amplifier, there is no need for self bias

Applications

 The class B amplifiers are used in low-cost design

 This amplifier is more significant than the class A amplifier
 The class B amplifier suffers from the bad distortion if the
signal level is low

Class AB Amplifier

The class AB is the combination of class A and class B amplifier. The

class AB amplifiers are using commonly in the audio power amplifiers.
From the diagram the two transistors have the small amount of
voltage which is 5 to 10% of the quiescent current and the bias the
transistor just above the cutoff point. Then the device may be FET or
bipolar will be ON for more than the one-half of the cycle, but it is less
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than the one full cycle of the input signal. Hence, in the class AB
amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting slightly
more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than
the full cycle of conduction of class A.

Class AB Amplifier

The conduction angle of Class AB amplifier is in between 1800 to 3600

which is depending on the bias point. The advantage of the small bias
voltage is to give in series resistance and diode.

Advantages

 The class AB has a linear behavior

 The design of this amplifier is very simple
 The distortion of this amplifier is less than 0.1%
 The sound quality of this sound is very high

Disadvantages

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 The power dissipation of this amplifier generates the heat and

requires large amount of heat sink
 This amplifier has low power efficiency and the average
efficiency is less than the 50%

Applications

The class AB amplifiers are used in hi-fi systems.

Class C Amplifier

The design of class C amplifier has a great efficiency and poor linearity.
In the previous amplifiers, we have discussed the class A, B and AB are
the linear amplifiers. The class C amplifier is a deeply biased hence the
output current is zero for more than the one-half of the input signal
and the transistor idling at the cut off point. Because of the serious
audio distortion, the class C amplifiers are high-frequency sine wave
oscillation.

Class C Amplifier

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Advantages

 The efficiency of Class C amplifier is high

 In class C amplifier the physical size is low for the given o/p
power

Disadvantages

 The linearity of Class C amplifier is low

 The class C amplifiers are not used in the audio amplifiers
 The dynamic range of the class c amplifier is decreased
 The class C amplifier will produce more RF interfaces

Applications

This amplifier is used in the RF amplifiers

Class D Amplifier

The class D amplifier is non-linear switching amplifiers or PWM

amplifiers. This amplifier can reach 100% efficiency in theoretically and
there is no period during the cycle. The voltage and the current
waveforms overlap current is drawn only with the help of transistor
which is in ON state. These amplifiers are also called as the digital
amplifiers.

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Class D Amplifier

Advantages

 The class D amplifier has more efficiency that is more than

90%
 In the class D amplifiers, there is a low power dissipation

Disadvantages

The design of the class D amplifier is more complex than the class AB
amplifier.

Applications

 This amplifier is used in the sound cards of the mobile devices

and personal computers
 These amplifiers are used in cars of audio subwoofer
amplifiers.

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 Nowadays, in most of the applications, these amplifiers are

using.

Class F Amplifier

The F amplifiers are used to increase the efficiency and output by the
harmonic resonators in the form of output network and to shape the
output waveform in a square wave. The class F amplifiers have more
than 90% of efficiency if the infinite harmonic tuning is used.

Class F Amplifier

Class S Amplifier

The class S amplifiers are similar operations to the class D amplifiers.

These amplifiers are Non-linear switching mode amplifiers. It converts
the analog input signals to the digital square wave pulses by using the
delta-sigma modulations. It amplifies them in to increase the output
power by the help of band pass filter. The digital signal of the switching
amplifier is fully in ON or OFF state and its efficiency can reach 100%.

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Class S Amplifier

Class T Amplifier

The class T amplifiers are designed with a type of digital switching

amplifiers. Nowadays these amplifiers became more popular as an
audio amplifier design because of the extension of the DSP chip and
multi-channel sound amplifier. This amplifier converts the signal from
analog signal to the digital pulse width modulation signal and the
amplification increase the efficiency of an amplifiers. The class T
amplifiers are the combination of low distortion signal of class AB
amplifier and the other one is the efficiency of class D amplifier.

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Class T Amplifier

Class G Amplifier

The enhancement of class G Amplifier is the basic of Class AB

Amplifier. The class G amplifier used in the multiple power supply rails
of different voltages. Automatically switches between the supply rails
as the input signal changes. The contact switching decreases the
average power consumption hence, the power loss is produced by the
wasted heat. The below circuit diagram shows the class G amplifier.

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Class G Amplifier

Concept of feedback

Feedback is an event that occurs when the output of a system is used

as input back into the system as part of a chain of cause and effect.
This alters variables in the system, therefore resulting in different
output and consequently different feedback as well, which can either
be good or bad. In the case of a system which requires knowledge of
the output in order to improve or deliver on a specific output, then
feedback is essential and good. But for a system that does not require
feedback, such as an audio system, then feedback is often bad. Take
for example a microphone and speaker system, when the sound from
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the speakers (output) is picked up by the microphone (input) it creates

a negative feedback that produces a very high pitched sound.

Feedback is basically the concept of taking output and using it as input,

either to further drive the system or produce a desired output. A good
example is feedback used in an assembly line, when an output does not
meet the minimum quality or quantity set by the system, it adjusts
itself either to ramp up the production speed or even automatically
stop if there are major deviations in the output.

In electronics, feedback is often used to get a desired result from a

circuit. The simplest example would be an operational amplifier which
uses feedback to vary the characteristic output of the op-amp, hence
changing its "operation." The output of the op-amp is basically fed
back into one of its two inputs, and depending on the configuration of
the feedback loop, the feedback can control the gain of the op-amp or
make it act as a kind of signal conditioner, filtering out signal
distortions from the system. In this case, feedback is used as a purely
quantitative element with predefined mathematical equations.

An amplifier circuit is simply used for increasing the strength of the

signal. Although while amplifying, the input signal strength can be
increased whether it includes information otherwise information with
some noise. This noise can be introduced in the amplifiers due to their
strong tendency otherwise stray magnetic as well as electric fields.
Thus, each high gain amplifier is liable in its output to provide noise
along with the signal, which is very required. In amplifier circuits, the
noise level will be significantly decreased with the help of negative
feedback by introducing an output fraction within phase opposition
toward the input signal.

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Feedback Amplifier

The feedback-amplifier can be defined as an amplifier which has

feedback lane that exists between o/p to input. In this type of
amplifier, feedback is the limitation which calculates the sum of
feedback given in the following amplifier. The feedback factor is the
ratio of the feedback signal and the input signal.

Feedback Amplifier

An amplifier circuit simply increases the signal strength. But while

amplifying, it just increases the strength of its input signal whether it
contains information or some noise along with information. This noise
or some disturbance is introduced in the amplifiers because of their
strong tendency to introduce hum due to sudden temperature changes
or stray electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain
amplifier tends to give noise along with signal in its output, which is
very undesirable.

The noise level in the amplifier circuits can be considerably reduced by

using negative feedback done by injecting a fraction of output in
phase opposition to the input signal.

Principle of Feedback Amplifier

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A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are

the amplifier and the feedback circuit. The feedback circuit usually
consists of resistors. The concept of feedback amplifier can be
understood from the following figure.

From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A.

the gain of the amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input
voltage Vi. the feedback network extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from the
output Vo of the amplifier.

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative
feedback, from the signal voltage Vs. Now,

The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.

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Let us consider the case of negative feedback. The output Vo must be

equal to the input voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the
amplifier.

Hence,

Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This
is defined as the ratio of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage
Vs, i.e.,

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So, from the above two equations, we can understand that,

The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with negative feedback

is given by

The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with positive feedback

is given by

These are the standard equations to calculate the gain of feedback

amplifiers.

Types of Feedback Amplifier

The procedure of introducing some device’s output energy fraction

from back to the i/p is termed as Feedback. This is mainly used to
reduce the noise as well as to make the operation of an amplifier is
constant. This amplifier can be classified into two types based on the
feedback signal helps such as positive & negative feedback amplifier.

The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device

back to the input is known as Feedback. It has been found that
feedback is very useful in reducing noise and making the amplifier
operation stable.

Depending upon whether the feedback signal aids or opposes the

input signal, there are two types of feedbacks used.
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Positive and Negative Amplifiers

1.) Positive Feedback Amplifier

The positive feedback can be defined as when the feedback current

otherwise voltage is applied for increasing the i/p voltage, then it is
named as positive feedback. Direct feedback is another name of this
positive feedback. Because positive feedback generates unnecessary
distortion; it is not often used in amplifiers. But, it amplifies the original
signal power and can be used in oscillator circuits.

The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or

current is in phase with the input signal and thus aids it is called
as Positive feedback.

Both the input signal and feedback signal introduces a phase shift of
180o thus making a 360o resultant phase shift around the loop, to be
finally in phase with the input signal.

Though the positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier, it

has the disadvantages such as

 Increasing distortion
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 Instability

It is because of these disadvantages the positive feedback is not

recommended for the amplifiers. If the positive feedback is sufficiently
large, it leads to oscillations, by which oscillator circuits are formed.
This concept will be discussed in OSCILLATORS tutorial.

2.) Negative Feedback Amplifier

The negative feedback can be defined as if the feedback current

otherwise voltage can be applied for reducing the amplifier i/p, then it
is called as negative feedback. Inverse feedback is another name of this
negative feedback. This kind of feedback is regularly used in amplifier
circuits.

The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or

current is out of phase with the input and thus opposes it, is called
as negative feedback.

In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180o into

the circuit while the feedback network is so designed that it produces
no phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus the resultant feedback voltage
Vf is 180o out of phase with the input signal Vin.

Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are

many advantages of negative feedback such as

 Stability of gain is improved

 Reduction in distortion
 Reduction in noise
 Increase in input impedance
 Decrease in output impedance

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 Increase in the range of uniform application

It is because of these advantages negative feedback is frequently

employed in amplifiers.

There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are −

 Negative Voltage Feedback

 Negative Current Feedback

Negative Voltage Feedback

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is

proportional to the output voltage. This is further classified into two
types −

 Voltage-series feedback
 Voltage-shunt feedback

Negative Current Feedback

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is

proportional to the output current. This is further classified into two
types.

 Current-series feedback
 Current-shunt feedback

Voltage-Series Feedback

In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is

applied in series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit.
This is also known as shunt-driven series-fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-
series circuit.

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The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series

feedback, by which it is evident that the feedback circuit is placed in
shunt with the output but in series with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the

output impedance is decreased and due to the series connection with
the input, the input impedance is increased.

Voltage-Shunt Feedback

In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is

applied in parallel with the input voltage through the feedback
network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-fed feedback i.e., a
parallel-parallel proto type.

The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback,
by which it is evident that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with
the output and also with the input.

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As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the
input as well, both the output impedance and the input impedance are
decreased.

Current-Series Feedback

In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is

applied in series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit.
This is also known as series-driven series-fed feedback i.e., a series-
series circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of current series

feedback, by which it is evident that the feedback circuit is placed in
series with the output and also with the input.

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As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the
input as well, both the output impedance and the input impedance are
increased.

Current-Shunt Feedback

In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is

applied in series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit.
This is also known as series-driven shunt-fed feedback i.e., a series-
parallel circuit.

The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback,
by which it is evident that the feedback circuit is placed in series with
the output but in parallel with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the

output impedance is increased and due to the parallel connection with
the input, the input impedance is decreased.

Now tabulate the amplifier characteristics that get affected by

different types of negative feedbacks.

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Types of Feedback

Characteristics
Voltage- Voltage- Current- Current-
Series Shunt Series Shunt

Voltage Gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases

Input Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

resistance

Output
Decreases Decreases Increases Increases
resistance

Harmonic
Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
distortion

Noise Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Feedback Amplifier Topologies

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There are four basic amplifier topologies for connecting the feedback
signal. Both the current as well as voltage can be feedback toward the
input in series otherwise in parallel.

Feedback Amplifier Topologies

 Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier

 Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier
 Current Series Feedback Amplifier
 Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier

a.) Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage can be applied to the
input voltage in series through the feedback circuit. The block diagram
of the voltage series feedback-amplifier is shown below, by which it is
apparent that the feedback circuit is located in shunt by means of the
output although in series by means of the input.
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When the feedback circuit is allied in shunt through the output, then
the o/p impedance will be reduced and the i/p impedance is enlarged
because of the series connection with the input.

b.) Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage can be applied to the
input voltage in parallel with through the feedback circuit. The block
diagram of the voltage shunt feedback-amplifier is shown below, by
which it is apparent that the feedback circuit is located in shunt by
means of the output as well as the input.

When the feedback circuit is allied in shunt through the o/p as well as
the input, then both the o/p impedance & the i/p impedance will be
decreased.

c.) Current Series Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage is applied to the i/p
voltage in series through the feedback circuit. The block diagram of
the current series feedback-amplifier is shown below, by which it is
apparent that the feedback circuit is located in series by means of the
output as well as the input.

When the feedback circuit is allied in series through the o/p as well as
the input, then both the o/p impedance & the i/p impedance will be
increased.

d.) Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier

In this type of circuit, a portion of the o/p voltage is applied to the i/p
voltage in shunt through the feedback circuit. The block diagram of
the current shunt feedback-amplifier is shown below, by which it is
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apparent that the feedback circuit is located in shunt by means of the

output as well as the input.

When the feedback circuit is allied in series through the o/p however in
parallel with the input, then the o/p impedance will be increased &
because of the parallel connection with the i/p, the i/p impedance will
be decreased.

Amplifier Characteristics

The amplifier characteristics which are affected by various negative

feedback are listed in the following table.

Feedback Topology Input Resistance Output Resistance

Increases Decreases

Voltage Series Rif = Ri*(1+A*β) Rof=Ro/(1+A*β)

Increases Increases

Current Series Rif = Ri*(1+A*β) Rof = Ro*(1+A*β)

Decreases Increases

Current Shunt Rif = Ri/(1+A*β) Rof = Ro*(1+A*β)

Decreases Decreases

Voltage Shunt Rif = Ri*(1+A*β) Rof=Ro/(1+A*β)

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of this amplifier include the following.

 The amplifier’s gain can be stabilized by the negative feedback

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 The particular feedback configurations can be increased by the

input resistance.
 Output resistance will be decreased for particular feedback
configurations.
 The operating point is stabilized.
 The disadvantage of this amplifier is a gain reduction.

Applications of Feedback Amplifier

The negative feedback amplifier applications include the following.

 Electronic Amplifiers
 RPS (regulated power supplies)
 A large bandwidth amplifiers

Thus, this is all about feedback amplifier, types, and topologies.

From the above information finally, we can conclude that, When the
positive feedback raises the amplifier’s gain, it has some drawbacks
like rising distortion as well as insecurity. Due to these drawbacks, this
kind of feedback is not suggested for the amplifiers. So, when the
positive feedback is adequately large, then it directs to oscillations.
Similarly, when the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced,
there will be several benefits of like Stability of gain will be improved,
noise and distortion reduction, i/p impedance increment, the
decrement of o/p impedance. Due to these benefits, this kind of
feedback is often used in amplifiers.

The Hartley Oscillator

Hartley Oscillator is a type of harmonic oscillator which was invented

by Ralph Hartley in 1915. These are the Tuned Circuit Oscillators which

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are used to produce the waves in the range of radio frequency and
hence are also referred to as RF Oscillators. Its frequency of oscillation
is decided by its tank circuit which has a capacitor connected in parallel
with the two serially connected inductors, as shown by Figure 1.

Here the RC is the collector resistor while the emitter resistor RE forms
the stabilizing network. Further the resistors R1 and R2 form the
voltage divider bias network for the transistor in common-emitter CE
configuration. Next, the capacitors Ci and Co are the input and output
decoupling capacitors while the emitter capacitor CE is the bypass
capacitor used to bypass the amplified AC signals. All these
components are identical to those present in the case of a common-
emitter amplifier which is biased using a voltage divider network.
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However, Figure 1 also shows one more set of components viz., the
inductors L1 and L2 and the capacitor C which form the tank circuit
(shown in red enclosure).

On switching ON the power supply, the transistor starts to conduct,

leading to an increase in the collector current, IC which charges the
capacitor C. On acquiring the maximum charge feasible, C starts to
discharge via the inductors L1 and L2. This charging and discharging
cycles result in the damped oscillations in the tank circuit. The
oscillation current in the tank circuit produces an AC voltage across the
inductors L1 and L2 which are out of phase by 180o as their point of
contact is grounded.

Further from the figure, it is evident that the output of the amplifier is
applied across the inductor L1 while the feedback voltage drawn across
L2 is applied to the base of the transistor. Thus one can conclude that
the output of the amplifier is in-phase with the tank circuit’s voltage
and supplies back the energy lost by it while the energy fed back to
amplifier circuit will be out-of-phase by 180o. The feedback voltage
which is already 180o out-of-phase with the transistor is provided by an
additional 180o phase-shift due to the transistor action. Hence the
signal which appears at the transistor’s output will be amplified and will
have a net phase-shift of 360o.

At this state, if one makes the gain of the circuit to be slightly greater
than the feedback ratio given by

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(if the coils are wound on the same core with M indicating the mutual
inductance)
then the circuit generates the oscillations which can be sustained by
maintaining the gain of the circuit to be equal to that of the feedback
ratio. This causes the circuit in Figure 1 to act as an oscillator as it
would then satisfy both the conditions of the Barkhausen criteria.
The frequency of such an oscillator is given as

Where,

Hartley oscillators are available in many different configurations

including series-or shunt-fed, common-emitter or common-base
configured, and BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) or FET (Field Effect
Transistor) amplifier based. Further it is to be noted that the transistor-
based amplifier section of Figure 1 can even be replaced by an amplifier
of any other kind like that of an inverting amplifier formed by an Op-
Amp as shown by Figure 2. The working of this kind of oscillator is
similar to that of the one shown earlier. However, here, the gain of the

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oscillator can be individually adjusted using the feedback resistor R f

due to the fact that the gain of the inverting amplifier is given as -Rf /
R1. From this, it can be noted that, in this case, the gain of the circuit is
less dependent on the circuit elements of the tank circuit. This
increases the stability of the oscillator in terms of its frequency.

Hartley Oscillators are advantageous as they are easy-tunable circuits

with a very few components including a capacitor and either two
inductors or a tapped coil. This results in a constant amplitude output
throughout its wide operational frequency range which typically ranges
from 20 KHz to 30 MHz. However, this kind of oscillator is not suitable
for low frequency as it would result in a large-sized inductor which
makes the circuit bulky. Further, the output of Hartley Oscillator has
high content of harmonics in it and hence does not suit for the
applications which require pure sine wave.
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Basic Hartley Oscillator Design

When the circuit is oscillating, the voltage at point X (collector),

relative to point Y (emitter), is 180o out-of-phase with the voltage at
point Z (base) relative to point Y. At the frequency of oscillation, the
impedance of the Collector load is resistive and an increase in Base
voltage causes a decrease in the Collector voltage.

Thus there is a 180o phase change in the voltage between the Base and
Collector and this along with the original 180o phase shift in the
feedback loop provides the correct phase relationship of positive
feedback for oscillations to be maintained.
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The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the “tapping

point” of the inductor. If this is moved nearer to the collector the
amount of feedback is increased, but the output taken between the
Collector and earth is reduced and vice versa.
Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the
transistor in the normal manner while the capacitors act as DC-
blocking capacitors.

In this Hartley Oscillator circuit, the DC Collector current flows

through part of the coil and for this reason the circuit is said to be
“Series-fed” with the frequency of oscillation of the Hartley Oscillator
being given as.

Note: LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance if two separate

coils are used including their mutual inductance, M.

The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the “tuning”

capacitor, C or by varying the position of the iron-dust core inside the
coil (inductive tuning) giving an output over a wide range of
frequencies making it very easy to tune. Also the Hartley
Oscillator produces an output amplitude which is constant over the
entire frequency range.

As well as the Series-fed Hartley Oscillator above, it is also possible to

connect the tuned tank circuit across the amplifier as a shunt-fed
oscillator as shown below.
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Shunt-fed Hartley Oscillator Circuit

In the shunt-fed Hartley oscillator circuit, both the AC and DC

components of the Collector current have separate paths around the
circuit. Since the DC component is blocked by the capacitor, C2 no DC
flows through the inductive coil, L and less power is wasted in the
tuned circuit.

The Radio Frequency Coil (RFC), L2 is an RF choke which has a high

reactance at the frequency of oscillations so that most of the RF
current is applied to the LC tuning tank circuit via capacitor, C2 as the
DC component passes through L2 to the power supply. A resistor could
be used in place of the RFC coil, L2 but the efficiency would be less.

Hartley Oscillator Example No1

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A Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 0.5mH

each, are designed to resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor that
can be adjusted between 100pF and 500pF. Determine the upper and
lower frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley oscillators
bandwidth.

From above we can calculate the frequency of oscillations for a Hartley

Oscillator as:

The circuit consists of two inductive coils in series, so the total

inductance is given as:

Hartley Oscillator Upper Frequency

Hartley Oscillator Lower Frequency

Hartley Oscillator Bandwidth

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Hartley Oscillator using an Op-amp

As well as using a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) as the amplifiers

active stage of the Hartley oscillator, we can also use either a field
effect transistor, (FET) or an operational amplifier, (op-amp). The
operation of an Op-amp Hartley Oscillator is exactly the same as for
the transistorised version with the frequency of operation calculated in
the same manner. Consider the circuit below.

Hartley Oscillator Op-amp Circuit

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The advantage of constructing a Hartley Oscillator using an

operational amplifier as its active stage is that the gain of the op-amp
can be very easily adjusted using the feedback resistors R1 and R2. As
with the transistorised oscillator above, the gain of the circuit must be
equal too or slightly greater than the ratio of L1/L2. If the two inductive
coils are wound onto a common core and mutual inductance M exists
then the ratio becomes (L1+M)/(L2+M).

The Hartley Oscillator Summary

Then to summarise, the Hartley Oscillator consists of a parallel LC

resonator tank circuit whose feedback is achieved by way of an
inductive divider. Like most oscillator circuits, the Hartley oscillator
exists in several forms, with the most common form being the
transistor circuit above.

This Hartley Oscillator configuration has a tuned tank circuit with its
resonant coil tapped to feed a fraction of the output signal back to the
emitter of the transistor. Since the output of the transistors emitter is
always “in-phase” with the output at the collector, this feedback signal
is positive. The oscillating frequency which is a sine-wave voltage is
determined by the resonance frequency of the tank circuit.

Colpitt’s Phase Shift oscillators

The electronic circuit that produces periodically oscillating electronic

signal such as sine wave, square wave or any other wave is termed as
Electronic Oscillator. Oscillators can be classified into different types
generally based on their output frequency. Electronic oscillators can be
termed as voltage controlled oscillators as their frequency of
oscillations can be controlled by their input voltage. Foremost

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electronic voltage controlled oscillators can be considered as two types

namely: Linear Oscillator and Nonlinear Oscillator.

Electronic Oscillator

Nonlinear oscillators are used to produce non-sinusoidal output

waveforms. Linear oscillators are used to produce sinusoidal output
waveforms and are further classified into many types, such as Feed
back oscillator, Negative resistance oscillator, Colpitts oscillator,
Hartley oscillator, Armstrong oscillator, Phase shift oscillator, Clapp
oscillator, Delay line oscillator, Pierce oscillator, Wien bridge oscillator,
Robinson oscillator, and so on. In this particular article, we are
discussing about one of the many types of linear oscillator circuits
namely Colpitts Oscillator.

Colpitts Oscillator

Oscillator is an amplifier with the positive feedback and it converts DC

input signal into AC output waveform with certain variable frequency
drive and certain shape of output waveform (like sine wave or square
wave, etc) by using the positive feedback instead of input signal.

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Oscillators which utilizes the inductor L and capacitor C in their circuit

are called as LC oscillator which is a type of linear oscillator.

Colpitts Oscillator

LC oscillators can be designed by using different methods. The well

known LC oscillators are Hartley oscillator and Colpitts oscillator.
Among these two, the frequently used design is Colpitts Oscillator
designed by and named after an American Engineer Edwin H Colpitts
in 1918.

Construction

Look at the circuit diagram of a Colpitts oscillator.

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The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the
circuit. The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any
signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an

a.c. path. The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high
impedance to high frequency currents which means it shorts for d.c.
and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps
a.c. currents out of d.c. supply source.

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Tank Circuit

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which

consists of variable capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The
junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The capacitor C1 has its one end
connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage
developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback required for
the sustained oscillations.

Operation

When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in

the oscillatory or tank circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit
produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are applied to the base emitter
junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit and
supply losses to the tank circuit.

If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any

instant, then terminal 2 will be at negative potential with respect to 3
at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded. Therefore, points 1 and
2 are out of phase by 180o.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes

360o phase shift between the input and output voltages. Hence,
feedback is properly phased to produce continuous Undamped
oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than
one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency

The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

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CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

Advantages

The advantages of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −

 Colpitts oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very high

frequencies.

 It can withstand high and low temperatures.

 The frequency stability is high.

 Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.

 Less number of components are sufficient.

 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed

frequency range.

The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of

Hartley oscillator and is known to have no specific disadvantages.
Hence there are many applications of a colpitts oscillator.

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Applications of Colpitts Oscillator

 It is used for generation of sinusoidal output signals with very

high frequencies.
 The Colpitts oscillator using SAW device can be used as the
different type of sensors such as temperature sensor. As the
device used in this circuit is highly sensitive to perturbations, it
senses directly from its surface.
 It is frequently used for the applications in which very wide
range of frequencies are involved.
 Used for applications in which undamped and continuous
oscillations are desired for functioning.
 This oscillator is preferred in situations where it is intended to
withstand high and low temperatures frequently.
 The combination of this oscillator with some devices (instead
of tank circuit) can be used to achieve great temperature
stability and high frequency.
 It is used for the development of mobile and radio
communications.
 It has many applications used for the commercial purposes.

Phase Shift Oscillators

One of the important features of an oscillator is that the feedback

energy applied should be in correct phase to the tank circuit. The
oscillator circuits discussed so far has employed inductor (L) and
capacitor (C) combination, in the tank circuit or frequency determining
circuit.

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We have observed that the LC combination in oscillators provide

180o phase shift and transistor in CE configuration provide 180° phase
shift to make a total of 360o phase shift so that it would make a zero
difference in phase.

Drawbacks of LC circuits

Though they have few applications, the LC circuits have

few drawbacks such as

 Frequency instability
 Waveform is poor
 Cannot be used for low frequencies
 Inductors are bulky and expensive

We have another type of oscillator circuits, which are made by

replacing the inductors with resistors. By doing so, the frequency
stability is improved and a good quality waveform is obtained. These
oscillators can also produce lower frequencies. As well, the circuit
becomes neither bulky nor expensive.

All the drawbacks of LC oscillator circuits are thus eliminated

in RC oscillator circuits. Hence the need for RC oscillator circuits arise.
These are also called as Phase–shift Oscillators.

Principle of Phase-shift oscillators

We know that the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave input

leads the input voltage. The phase angle by which it leads is
determined by the value of RC components used in the circuit. The
following circuit diagram shows a single section of an RC network.

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The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage
applied input V1 by some phase angle ɸo. If R were reduced to zero, V1’
will lead the V1 by 90o i.e., ɸo = 90o.

However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would

lead to no voltage across R. Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a
value that makes V1’ to lead V1 by 60o. The following circuit diagram
shows the three sections of the RC network.

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Each section produces a phase shift of 60o. Consequently, a total phase

shift of 180o is produced, i.e., voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180o.

Phase-shift Oscillator Circuit

The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a phase-shift

network is called as a Phase-shift oscillator circuit. The constructional
details and operation of a phase-shift oscillator circuit are as given
below.

Construction

The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier

section and a RC phase-shift network. The phase shift network in this
circuit, consists of three RC sections. At the resonant frequency fo, the
phase shift in each RC section is 60o so that the total phase shift
produced by RC network is 180o.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of an RC phase-

shift oscillator.

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The frequency of oscillations is given by

1
F0=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6

Where

R1=R2=R3=R

C1=C2=C3=C

Operation

The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency fo.

The output Eo of the amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This

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network produces a phase shift of 180o and a voltage Ei appears at its

output. This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.

The feedback applied will be

The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier,

which is in CE configuration, produces a 180o phase shift. The phase
shift produced by network and the transistor add to form a phase shift
around the entire loop which is 360o.

Advantages

The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

 It does not require transformers or inductors.

 It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
 The circuit provides good frequency stability.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

 Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is small.

 The output produced is small.

Operational amplifiers (OPAMP)

An operational amplifier or op amp is a DC coupled voltage amplifier

with a very high voltage gain.

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Op amp is basically a multistage amplifier in which a number of

amplifier stages are interconnected to each other in a very complicated
manner. Its internal circuit consists of many transistors, FETs and
resistors. All this occupies a very little space.

So, it is packed in a small package and is available in the Integrated

Circuit (IC) form. The term Op Amp is used to denote an amplifier
which can be configured to perform various operations like
amplification, subtraction, differentiation, addition, integration etc. An
example is the very popular IC 741.

The symbol and its actual appearance in the IC form is shown below.
The symbol appears as an arrowhead which signifies that the signal is
flowing from output to input

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Input and Output Terminals of an Operational Amplifier

An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The op-
amp also has two voltage supply terminals as seen above. Two input
terminals form the differential input. We call the terminal, marked with
negative (-) sign as the inverting terminal and the terminal marked
with positive (+) sign as the non-inverting terminal of the operational
amplifier. If we apply an input signal at the inverting terminal (-) than
the amplified output signal is 180o out of phase concerning the applied
input signal. If we apply an input signal to the non-inverting terminal
(+) then the output signal obtained will be in phase, i.e. it will have no
phase shift concerning the input signal.

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Power Supply for an Operational Amplifier

As seen from the circuit symbol above it has two input power supply
terminals +VCC and –VCC. For the operation of an op-amp a dual polarity
DC supply is essential. In the dual polarity supply, we connect the +VCC
to the positive DC supply and the –VCC terminal to the negative DC
supply. However few op-amps can also operate on a single polarity
supply. Note that there is no common ground terminal in the op-amps
hence the ground has to be established externally.

Working Principle of Op-Amp

Open Loop Operation of an Operational Amplifier

As said above an op-amp has a differential input and single ended

output. So, if we apply two signals one at the inverting and another at
the non-inverting terminal, an ideal op-amp will amplify the difference
between the two applied input signals. We call this difference between
two input signals as the differential input voltage. The equation below

gives the output of an operational amplifier.

Where, VOUT is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp. AOL is
the open-loop gain for the given op-amp and is constant (ideally). For
the IC 741 AOL is 2 x 105.

V1 is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal.

V2 is the voltage at the inverting terminal.
(V1 – V2) is the differential input voltage.
It is clear from the above equation that the output will be non-zero if
and only if the differential input voltage is non-zero (V1 and V2 are not
equal), and will be zero if both V1 and V2 are equal. Note that this is an

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ideal condition, practically there are small imbalances in the op-amp.

The open-loop gain of an op-amp is very high. Hence, an open loop
operational amplifier amplifies a small applied differential input
voltage to a huge value.

Also, it is true that if we apply small differential input voltage, the

operational amplifier amplifies it to a considerable value but this
significant value at the output cannot go beyond the supply voltage of
the op-amp. Hence it does not violate the law of conservation of
energy.

Closed Loop Operation

The above-explained operation of the op-amp was for open-loop i.e.

without a feedback. We introduce feedback in the closed loop
configuration. This feedback path feeds the output signal to the input.
Hence, at the inputs, two signals are simultaneously present. One of
them is the original applied signal, and the other is the feedback signal.
The equation below shows the output of a closed loop op-amp.

Where VOUT is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp. ACL is
the closed loop gain. The feedback circuit connected to the op-amp
determines the closed loop gain ACL. VD = (V1 – V2) is the differential
input voltage. We say the feedback as positive if the feedback path
feeds the signal from the output terminal back to the non-inverting (+)
terminal. Positive feedback is used in oscillators. The feedback is
negative if the feedback path feeds the part of the signal from the
output terminal back to the inverting (-) terminal. We use negative

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feedback to the op-amps used as amplifiers. Each type of feedback,

negative or positive has its advantages and disadvantages.

Positive Feedback ⇒ Oscillator

Negative Feedback ⇒ Amplifier

The above explanation is the most basic working principle of

operational amplifiers.

Characters of an Op Amp:

Operational amplifier or op amps as they are usually referred are linear

devices that can give ideal DC amplification. They are fundamentally
voltage amplifying devices used with external feedback components
like resistors or capacitors. An op amp is a three terminal device, with
one terminal called the inverting input, other the non-inverting input
and the last one is the output. Below is a diagram of a typical op amp:

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Op amp has three terminals for input and output and 2 for power
supply.

1. Open Loop gain

The open loop voltage gain without any feedback for an ideal op amp is
infinite. But typical values of open loop voltage gain for a real op amp
ranges from 20,000 to 2, 00,000. Let the input voltage be Vin. Let A be
the open loop voltage gain. Then the output voltage is Vout = AVin. The
value of a typically is in the range specified above but for an ideal op
amp, it is infinite.

Input Impedance(Zin)

Input Impedance is defined as the input voltage by the input current.

The input impedance of an ideal op amp is infinite. That is there no
current flowing in the input circuit. However, an ideal op amp has
certain current flowing in the input circuit of the magnitude of few
pico-amps to a few milli-amps.

Output Impedance (Zout)

Output impedance is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the

input current. The output impedance of an ideal op amp is zero,
however, real op amps have an output impedance of 10-20 kΩ. An
ideal op amp behaves like a perfect voltage source delivering current
without any internal losses. The internal resistance reduce the voltage
available to the load.

Bandwidth(BW)

An ideal op amp has an infinite bandwidth that is it can amplify any

signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies without any losses. So
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therefore, an ideal op amp is said to have infinite frequency response.

In real op amps, the bandwidth is generally limited. The limit depends
on the gain bandwidth (GB) product. GB is defined as the frequency
where the amplifier gain becomes unity.

Offset Voltage(Vio)

The offset voltage of an ideal op amp is zero, which means that the
output voltage will be zero if the difference between the inverting and
non-inverting terminal is zero. If both the terminals are grounded, the
output voltage will be zero. But real op amps have an offset voltage.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR)

Common mode refers to the situation when the same voltage is

applied to both the inverting and non-inverting terminal of the op amp.
The common mode rejection refers to the ability of the op amp to
reject the common mode signal. Now we are in a position to
understand the term common mode rejection ratio.
The common mode rejection ratio refers to the measure of the ability
of the op amp to reject the common mode signal. Mathematically it is
defined as

Where, AD is the differential gain of the op amp, ∞ for an ideal op amp .

ACM refers to the common mode gain of the op-amp.

The CMRR of an ideal op amp is ∞. That means it is able to reject all
common mode signal. Also from the formula, we can see the AD is
infinite for an ideal op amp and ACM is zero. Therefore the CMRR of an

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ideal op-amp is infinite. Therefore it will reject any signal which is

common to both.

However, real omp have finite CMRR, and does not reject all common
mode signals.

OPAMP Pin Configuration:

In a typical Op Amp there will be 8 pins. These are

Pin1 – Offset Null

Pin2 – Inverting input INV
Pin3 – Non inverting input Non-INV
Pin4 – Ground- Negative supply
Pin5 – Offset Null
Pin6 – Output
Pin7 – Positive supply
Pin8 – Strobe
4 types of gain in OPAMPs:

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Voltage gain – Voltage in and voltage out

Current gain – Current in and Current out
Transconductance – Voltage in and Current out
Trans resistance – Current in and voltage out=
Practical Operational Amplifier

None of the above-given parameters can be practically realized. A

practical or real op-amp has some unavoidable imperfections and
hence its characteristics differ from the ideal one. A real op-amp will
have non-zero and non-infinite parameters.

Applications of Operational Amplifier

A linear amplifier like an op amp has many different applications. It has

a high open loop gain, high input impedance and low output
impedance. It has high common mode rejection ratio. Due to these
favourable characteristics, it is used for different application. In this
article, we are discussing some of the most prominent uses of an Op
amp. This is not an exhaustive list but covers the important
applications of op amp within the scope.

Op Amp applications as Inverting Amplifiers

Op-Amp can be used as an inverting amplifier.

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 The inverting circuits, implemented with an Op-Amp, are more

constant, distortion is comparatively lower, provide a better
transitory response.

 When Op-Amp is applied in a closed loop, there is a linear

relationship between input and output.

 The inverting amplifier can be applied for unity gain if Rf =

Ri (where, Rf is the feedback resistor and Ri is input resistor)

Op Amp Applications as Non Inverting Amplifiers

The input signal when applied to the non-inverting input (+), the output
is applied back to the input via the feedback circuit created by Rf and Ri
(where, Rf is the feedback resistor and Ri is input resistance).

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 Voltage gain without any kind of phase inversion. In transistor

equivalent, there are minimum 2 transistor stages needed to do
this.

 High input impedance compared to Inverting input.

 Easily adaptable voltage gain.

 The total remoteness of the signal supply from the output.

Op Amp application as a Phase Shifter

Op-Amp is used for direct coupling procedure and so DC voltage level

at the emitter terminal increases from phase to phase. This rapidly
increasing DC level is likely to shift the operating point of the upcoming
stages. Thus to move down the increasing voltage swing, this phase
shifter is applied.The phase shifter performs by adding a DC voltage
level to the output of fall stage to pass the output to a ground level.

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Op Amp as Scale Changer

Op-Amp functions as a scale changer through small signals with

constant-gain in both inverting and non-inverting amplifiers.

Non-inverting terminal is grounded whereas R1 links the input signal v1

to the inverting input. A feedback resistor Rf is then connected from
output to the inverting input. The closed loop gain of the inverting
amplifier works based on the ratio of the two external resistors R1 and
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Rf and Op-Amp acts as a negative scaler when it multiplies the input by

a negative constant factor.

While in need for an output that is equal to input for getting multiplied
by a positive constant the positive scaler circuit is used by applying
negative feedback.

Op Amp Applications as Adder or Summing Amplifier

Op-amp can be used to sum the input voltage of two or more sources
into a single output voltage. Below is a circuit diagram depicting the
application of an op-amp as an adder or summing amplifier. The input
voltages are applied to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. The
inverting terminal is grounded. The output voltage is proportional to
the sum of the input voltages.

Op Amp Applications as a Differential Amplifier

Differential Amplifier is a useful blend of both the inverting amplifier

and non-inverting amplifier. It is mostly used to amplify the diversity
amid two input signals.

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Major applications of Differential Amplifiers are

 Signal Amplification
 Input stage emitter coupled logic
 Switch
 Controlling of Motors and Servo Motors

Example: it is useful while eliminating the noise in ambience as through

differential amplifier, you can eliminate the connected protected cable
or twisted pair cable mostly used to eradicate the transitory noise.

Op Amp application as a Differentiator

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Op-amp can be used as a differentiator where the output is the first

derivative of the input signal. The following equation gives the relation
between the input signal and the output signal.

As we can see the output voltage is a first derivative of the input

voltage. We are not going into how the equation is derived but only
learning about the use of an op amp as a differentiator.

Op Amp Applications as Integrator

Op-amp is used as an integrator also. The integrator op-amp produces

an output that is proportional to the amplitude of the input signal as
well as the duration of the input signal. Instead of a resistor in the
feedback loop, we have a capacitor. It is able to perform the
mathematical operation of integration as the output varies with the
input and duration of the signal.

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Op Amp Applications as Voltage to Current Converter

An op-amp with a negative feedback is generally used for voltage to

current conversions. Below you can see the circuit diagram. The
voltage is applied to the non-inverting terminal and the output is
feedback to the inverting terminal. It is also grounded using a resistor.

Op Amp Applications as Current to Voltage Converter

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Op-amp can be used as a current to voltage converter using a very

simple circuit as shown above. All we need is a feedback resistance
connected to the output of the op-amp. The current source is fed into
the inverting terminal and the non-inverting terminal is grounded.
Here the output voltage is proportional to the input current. As an ideal
op-amp has infinite resistance, the current cannot flow through the op-
amp. The current flows through the feedback resistance and the
voltage across it depends on the current source.

Op Amp Applications as Logarithmic Amplifier

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The logarithmic amplifier using op-amp is made by using a diode

instead of a resistance in the feedback loop. The non-inverting
terminal is grounded and the input voltage is fed to the inverting
terminal. The output voltage is proportional to the logarithm of the
input voltage and hence can be used as a logarithmic amplifier.

Op Amp Applications as Half Wave Rectifier

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The circuit diagram above shows the usage of an op-amp as a half

wave rectifier. During the positive cycle of voltage, diode D2 is reversed
biased as the positive signal is inverted by the op-amp. So there will be
no output. However, during the negative cycle of the input voltage, the
diode D2 is forward biased and conducts. Therefore the above circuit
works as a half wave rectifier.

Op Amp Applications as Peak Detector

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The circuit above shows the use of op-amp as a peak detector. The
circuit uses a diode and a capacitor. When Vout is more than Vin, the
output is positive and the diode conducts. Whereas when Vout is less
than Vin, the diode is reversed biased and does not conduct. The
capacitor charges to the most positive value.

Op Amp Applications as Voltage Comparator

This is perhaps the easiest to comprehend. Two voltage sources are

applied to the two terminals of the op-amp. Let the reference voltage
be applied to the inverting terminal and the voltage to be measured is
applied to the non-inverting terminal. If the voltage applied is greater
than the reference voltage, we will get a positive output, else we will
get a negative output.

Comparator

A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs

that are applied to it and produces an output. The output value of the

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comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater or lesser. Please

note that comparator falls under non-linear applications of ICs.

An op-amp consists of two input terminals and hence an op-amp based

comparator compares the two inputs that are applied to it and
produces the result of comparison as the output.

Generally, in electronics, the comparator is used to compare two

voltages or currents which are given at the two inputs of the
comparator. That means it takes two input voltages, then compares
them and gives a differential output voltage either high or low-level
signal. The comparator is used to sense when an arbitrary varying input
signal reaches the reference level or a defined threshold level. The
comparator can be designed by using various components like diodes,
transistors, op-amps. The comparators find in many electronic
applications that may be used to drive logic circuits.

Comparator Symbol

Types of Comparators

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Comparators are of two types: Inverting and Non-inverting. This

section discusses about these two types in detail.

Inverting Comparator

An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a

reference voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal and the input
voltage is applied to its inverting terminal. This comparator is called
as inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be
compared is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp.

The circuit diagram of an inverting comparator is shown in the

following figure.

The operation of an inverting comparator is very simple. It produces

one of the two values, +Vsat and − Vsat at the output based on the values
of its input voltage Vi and the reference voltage Vref.

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 The output value of an inverting comparator will be − Vsat, for

which the input Vi voltage is greater than the reference
voltage Vref.

 The output value of an inverting comparator will be + Vsat, for

which the input Vi is less than the reference voltage Vref.

Example

Drawing the output wave form of an inverting comparator, when a

sinusoidal input signal and a reference voltage of zero volts are applied
to its inverting and non-inverting terminals respectively.

The operation of the inverting comparator shown above is discussed

below −

 During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the
voltage present at the inverting terminal of op-amp is greater
than zero volts. Hence, the output value of the inverting

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comparator will be equal to − Vsat during positive half cycle of the

sinusoidal input signal.

 Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input

signal, the voltage present at the inverting terminal of the op-
amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output value of the
inverting comparator will be equal to + Vsat during negative half
cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of an

inverting comparator, when the reference voltage is zero volts.

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In the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions
either from −Vsat to +Vsat or from +Vsat to −Vsat whenever the sinusoidal
input signal is crossing zero volts. In other words, output changes its
value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the above circuit is
also called as inverting zero crossing detector.

Non-Inverting Comparator

A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which

a reference voltage is applied to its inverting terminal and the input
voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal. This op-amp based
comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input
voltage, which has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp.

The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the

following figure

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The operation of a non-inverting comparator is very simple. It

produces one of the two values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on
the values of input voltage Vt and the reference voltage + Vref.

 The output value of a non-inverting comparator will be +Vsat, for

which the input voltage Vi is greater than the reference voltage +
Vref.

 The output value of a non-inverting comparator will bee −Vsat, for

which the input voltage Vi is less than the reference voltage +Vref.

Example

Drawing the output wave form of a non-inverting comparator, when a

sinusoidal input signal and reference voltage of zero volts are applied
to the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the op-amp
respectively.

The operation of a non-inverting comparator is explained below −

 During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the
voltage present at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is
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greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of a non-

inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during the positive half
cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

 Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input

signal, the voltage present at the non-inverting terminal of op-
amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output value of non-
inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during the negative
half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.

The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of a non-
inverting comparator, when the reference voltage is zero volts.

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From the figure shown above, we can observe that the output
transitions either from +Vsat to −Vsat or from −Vsat to +Vsat whenever the
sinusoidal input signal crosses zero volts. That means, the output
changes its value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the
above circuit is also called as non-inverting zero crossing detector.

Schmitt Trigger

A Schmitt trigger is form of comparator circuit that has hysteresis or

different input switching levels to change the output between the two
states.

The comparator has a differential amplifier at its core and the

comparator action means that the analogue input is effectively
changed to a digital output dependent upon the voltages at the input.

By using the hysteresis, the effect of noise at the input which might
cause several switches at the output as the input voltage nears the
switching voltage is significantly reduced.

The essence of the Schmitt trigger is a differential amplifier:

operational amplifiers are often used in this role, but it is far better to
use a specific comparator chip in this role.

What is hysteresis

Hysteresis occurs in many instances throughout science, but in the

case of the Schmitt trigger hysteresis means that the circuit triggers at
different voltages to switch the output from one state to the other.

To explain this in more detail, take the example where the reference
voltage is, say 5 volts. As the voltage rises, dependent upon the circuit

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is for example 5.5 volts. Then to switch in the other direction, the input
voltage must fall to, for example 4.5 volts.

In this way, there is a 1 volt difference between the switching in either

direction, and this provides some significant noise immunity.

Concept of hysteresis used in Schmitt trigger circuit

The problem of not using hysteresis with a comparator is that if the

input signal rises slowly, then noise on the waveform will cause
multiple switches of state of the output of the comparator. By using
hysteresis, this issue is overcome, unless the noise levels are very high.
The Schmitt trigger circuit is ideal for many applications in overcoming
this issue. Fortunately a straight comparator can be converted into a
Schmitt trigger by the addition of a single electronic component in
most cases

Multiple switches of the output due to noise can give rise to many
issues with the following digital circuits, and in very many instances,
electronic circuit design engineers have spent many hours debugging
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circuits with this type of issue as they can be difficult to track down
sometimes.

Schmitt trigger basics

The Schmitt trigger circuit has been widely used for many years. It was
invented by an American scientist named Otto Schmitt. The Schmitt
trigger switches at different voltages depending upon whether it is
moving from low to high or high to low, employing what is termed
hysteresis.

In terms of the fact that the Schmitt trigger has hysteresis, the circuit
symbol for one of these circuits incorporates the hysteresis symbol into
it. Accordingly all Schmitt triggers use this symbol.

Schmitt Trigger Circuit Symbol

Schmitt trigger circuit

A standard comparator circuit can normally converted into a Schmitt

trigger at the electronic design stage by introducing positive feedback
by the addition of an additional electronic component. In the circuit
below this is provided by the addition of a resistor R3.

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Operational amplifier Schmitt trigger circuit

The effect of the new resistor, R3 is to give the circuit different

switching thresholds dependent upon the output state of the
comparator or operational amplifier. When the output of the
comparator is high, this voltage is fed back to the non-inverting input
of the operational amplifier of comparator. As a result the switching
threshold becomes higher. When the output is switched in the
opposite sense, the switching threshold is lowered. This gives the
circuit what is termed hysteresis.

The fact that the positive feedback applied within the circuit ensures
that there is effectively a higher gain and hence the switching is faster.
This is particularly useful when the input waveform may be slow.
However a speed up capacitor can be applied within the Schmitt
trigger circuit to increase the switching speed still further.

By placing a capacitor across the positive feedback resistor R3, the gain
can be increased during the changeover, making the switching even

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faster. This capacitor , known as a speed up capacitor may be

anywhere between 10 and 100 pF dependent upon the circuit.

It is quite easy to calculate the resistors needed in the Schmitt trigger

circuit. The centre voltage about which the circuit should switch is
determined by the potential divider chain consisting of resistors R1 and
R2. This should be chosen first. Then the feedback resistor R3 can be
calculated. This will provide a level of hysteresis that is equal to the
output swing of the circuit reduced by the potential divide formed as a
result of R3 and the parallel combination of the resistors R1 and R2.

Schmitt trigger applications

A Schmitt trigger is used in a host of applications where a level needs

to be sensed. Even if only a small amount of hysteresis is used, it
reduces the multiple transitions that can occur around the point of
switching.

As such the Schmitt trigger applications include many different areas

of electronics circuit design.

 Digital to analogue conversion: The Schmitt trigger is

effectively a one bit analogue to digital converter. When the
signal reaches a given level it switches from one state to the
other. This can then be used to drive other digital circuits.

 Level detection: The Schmitt trigger circuit is able to provide

level detection. When undertaking this application, it is necessary
that the hysteresis voltage is taken into account during the
electronic circuit design so that the circuit switches on the
required voltage.

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 Line reception: When running a data line that may have picked
up noise into a logic gate it is necessary to ensure that a logic
output level is only changed as the data changed and not as a
result of spurious noise that may have been picked up. Using a
Schmitt trigger broadly enables the peak to peak noise to reach
the level of the hysteresis before spurious triggering may occur.

Schmitt trigger precautions

When using an op amp as a comparator, care must be taken. The op

amp chip itself is optimised for closed loop operation with negative
feedback. As a result, op amp manufacturers do not guarantee their op
amps for use in circuits with no feedback, or with positive feedback as
in the case of the Schmitt trigger.

One of the issues is that when an op-amp is used instead of a

comparator, the switching speed will not be nearly as high, and it is
also unlikely to hit the rails as hard.

Typically comparators are designed for open loop circuit conditions or

even use with positive feedback in the case of the Schmitt trigger.
They also have an open collector style circuit configuration that is
intended for switching hard to the voltages rails as required for logic
circuits. For this and many other reasons, comparators will provide
much better switching characteristics than an op amp ever could.

Further problems that can arise on some occasions are that when an op
amp is driven hard into the rails, it will consume more power than it
normally would. An additional problem that can arise is in the form of
latching, where the op amp will latch to the voltage rail and remain
there not switching regardless of the input levels.

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The Schmitt trigger is used in a host of different electronic circuits

where analogue signals need to be detected and converted to a digital
format. The circuit has ben around for many years and provides a very
useful function in many of todays electronic circuit designs.

Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Comparator Circuit

A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator

circuit. The circuit is designed with a positive feedback and hence will
have a regenerative action which will make the output switch levels.
Also, the use of positive voltage feedback instead of a negative
feedback, aids the feedback voltage to the input voltage, instead of
opposing it. The use of a regenerative circuit is to remove the
difficulties in a zero-crossing detector circuit due to low frequency
signals and input noise voltages.

Shown below is the circuit diagram of a Schmitt trigger. It is basically

an inverting comparator circuit with a positive feedback. The purpose
of the Schmitt trigger is to convert any regular or irregular shaped
input waveform into a square wave output voltage or pulse. Thus, it
can also be called a squaring circuit.

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Schmitt Trigger Circuit Using Op-Amp uA741 IC

As shown in the circuit diagram, a voltage divider with resistors Rdiv1

and Rdiv2 is set in the positive feedback of the 741 IC op-amp. The
same values of Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 are used to get the resistance value
Rpar = Rdiv1||Rdiv2 which is connected in series with the input voltage.
Rpar is used to minimize the offset problems. The voltage across R1 is
fedback to the non-inverting input. The input voltage Vi triggers or
changes the state of output Vout every time it exceeds its voltage
levels above a certain threshold value called Upper Threshold Voltage
(Vupt) and Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt).

Assume that the inverting input voltage has a slight positive value. This
will cause a negative value in the output. This negative voltage is
fedback to the non-inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp through the
voltage divider. Thus, the value of the negative voltage that is fedback

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to the positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the negative

voltage becomes again higher until the circuit is driven into negative
saturation (-Vsat). Now, let us assume that the inverting input voltage
has a slight negative value. This will cause a positive value in the
output. This positive voltage is fedback to the non-inverting terminal
(+) of the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus, the value of the
positive voltage that is fedback to the positive terminal becomes
higher. The value of the positive voltage becomes again higher until
the circuit is driven into positive saturation (+Vsat). This is why the
circuit is also named a regenerative comparator circuit.

Schmitt Trigger Input and Output Waveform

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When Vout = +Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Upper Threshold
Voltage (Vupt). The input voltage, Vin must be slightly more positive
than Vupt inorder to cause the output Vo to switch from +Vsat to -
Vsat. When the input voltage is less than Vupt, the output voltage Vout
is at +Vsat.

Upper Threshold Voltage, Vupt = +Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])

When Vout = -Vsat, the voltage across Rdiv1 is called Lower Threshold
Voltage (Vlpt). The input voltage, Vin must be slightly more negaitive
than Vlpt inorder to cause the output Vo to switch from -Vsat to +Vsat.
When the input voltage is less than Vlpt, the output voltage Vout is at -
Vsat.

Lower Threshold Voltage, Vlpt = -Vsat (Rdiv1/[Rdiv1+Rdiv2])

If the value of Vupt and Vlpt are higher than the input noise voltage,
the positive feedback will eliminate the false output transitions. With
the help of positive feedback and its regenerative behaviour, the
output voltage will switch fast between the positive and negative
saturation voltages.

Hysteresis Characteristics
Since a comparator circuit with a positive feedback is used, a dead
band condition hysteresis can occur in the output. When the input of
the comparator has a value higher than Vupt, its output switches from
+Vsat to -Vsat and reverts back to its original state, +Vsat, when the
input value goes below Vlpt. This is shown in the figure below. The
hysteresis voltage can be calculated as the difference between the
upper and lower threshold voltages.

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Vhysteresis = Vupt – Vlpt

Subsituting the values of Vupt and Vlpt from the above equations:

Vhysteresis = +Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) – {-Vsat (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2)}

Vhysteresis = (Rdiv1/Rdiv1+Rdiv2) {+Vsat – (-Vsat)}

Schmitt-Trigger-Hysteresis Characteristics

Instrumentation Amplifier

An instrumentation amplifier is one kind of IC (integrated circuit),

mainly used for amplifying a signal. This amplifier comes under the
family of the differential amplifier because it increases the disparity
among two inputs. The main function of this amplifier is to diminish
surplus noise that is chosen by the circuit. The capacity to refuse noise
is familiar to every IC pins which are known as the CMRR (common-
mode rejection ratio). The instrumentation amplifier IC is an
essential component in the designing of the circuit due to its

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characteristics like high CMRR, open-loop gain is high, low drift as well
as low DC offset, etc.

Definition

An instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify very low-level signals,

rejecting noise and interference signals. Examples can be heartbeats,
blood pressure, temperature, earthquakes and so on. Therefore, the
essential characteristics of a good instrumentation amplifier are as
follows.

 Inputs to the instrumentation amplifiers will have very low

signal energy. Therefore the instrumentation amplifier should
have high gain and should be accurate.
 The gain should be easily adjustable using a single control.
 It must have High Input Impedance and Low Output
Impedance to prevent loading.
 The Instrumentation amplifier should have High CMRR
since the transducer output will usually contain common mode
signals such as noise when transmitted over long wires.
 It must also have a High Slew Rate to handle sharp rise times
of events and provide a maximum undistorted output voltage
swing.

An instrumentation amplifier allows an engineer to adjust the gain of

an amplifier circuit without having to change more than one resistor
value. Compare this to the differential amplifier, which we covered
previously, which requires the adjustment of multiple resistor values.

The so-called instrumentation amplifier builds on the last version of the

differential amplifier to give us that capability:

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Instrumentation Amplifier using Op Amp

The instrumentation amplifier using op-amp circuit is shown below.

The op-amps 1 & 2 are non-inverting amplifiers and op-amp 3 is
a difference amplifier. These three op-amps together, form an
instrumentation amplifier. Instrumentation amplifier’s final output
Vout is the amplified difference of the input signals applied to the input
terminals of op-amp 3.Let the outputs of op-amp 1 and op-amp 2 be
Vo1 and Vo2 respectively.

Instrumentation Amplifier using Op Amp

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Then, Vout = (R3/R2)(Vo1-Vo2)

Look at the input stage of the instrumentation amplifier as shown in

the figure below. The instrumentation amplifier derivation is discussed
below.

The potential at node A is the input voltage V1. Hence the potential at
node B is also V1, from the virtual short concept. Thus, the potential at
node G is also V1.

The potential at node D is the input voltage V2. Hence the potential at
node C is also V2, from the virtual short. Thus, the potential at node H
is also V2.

Input Stage of the Instrumentation Amplifier

The working of the instrumentation amplifier is, Ideally the current to

the input stage op-amps is zero. Therefore the current I through the
resistors R1, Rgain, and R1 remain the same.

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Applying Ohm’s law between nodes E and F,

I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(R1+Rgain+R1) ……………………….(1)

I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain)

Since no current is flowing to the input of the op-amps 1 & 2, the

current I between the nodes G and H can be given as,

I = (VG-VH) / Rgain = (V1-V2) / Rgain……………………….(2)

Equating equations 1 and 2,

(Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain) = (V1-V2)/Rgain

(Vo1-Vo2) = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain ……………………….(3)

The output of the difference amplifier is given as,

Vout = (R3/R2) (Vo1-Vo2)

Therefore, (Vo1 – Vo2) = (R2/R3)Vout

Substituting (Vo1 – Vo2) value in equation 3, we get

(R2/R3)Vout = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain

i.e. Vout = (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}(V1-V2)

This above equation gives the output voltage of an instrumentation

amplifier.

The overall gain of the amplifier is given by the

term (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}.

The overall voltage gain of an instrumentation amplifier can be

controlled by adjusting the value of resistor Rgain.

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The common mode signal attenuation for the instrumentation

amplifier is provided by the difference amplifier.

Understanding the Instrumentation Amplifier Circuit

This intimidating circuit is constructed from a buffered differential

amplifier stage with three new resistors linking the two buffer circuits
together. Consider all resistors to be of equal value except for Rgain.

The negative feedback of the upper-left op-amp causes the voltage at

point 1 (top of Rgain) to be equal to V1. Likewise, the voltage at point 2
(bottom of Rgain) is held to a value equal to V2. This establishes a
voltage drop across Rgain equal to the voltage difference between
V1 and V2. That voltage drop causes a current through Rgain, and since
the feedback loops of the two input op-amps draw no current, that
same amount of current through Rgain must be going through the two
“R” resistors above and below it.

This produces a voltage drop between points 3 and 4 equal to:

The regular differential amplifier on the right-hand side of the circuit

then takes this voltage drop between points 3 and 4 and amplifies it by
a gain of 1 (assuming again that all “R” resistors are of equal value).

Advantages of the Instrumentation Amplifier

Though this looks like a cumbersome way to build a differential

amplifier, it has the distinct advantages of possessing extremely high
input impedances on the V1 and V2 inputs (because they connect
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straight into the non-inverting inputs of their respective op-amps), and

adjustable gain that can be set by a single resistor.

Manipulating the above formula a bit, we have a general expression for

overall voltage gain in the instrumentation amplifier:

Though it may not be obvious by looking at the schematic, we can

change the differential gain of the instrumentation amplifier simply by
changing the value of one resistor: Rgain.

Yes, we could still change the overall gain by changing the values of
some of the other resistors, but this would
necessitate balanced resistor value changes for the circuit to remain
symmetrical. Please note that the lowest gain possible with the above
circuit is obtained with Rgain completely open (infinite resistance), and
that gain value is 1.

Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier

The advantages of the instrumentation amplifier include the

following.

 The gain of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier

circuit can be easily varied by adjusting the value of only one
resistor Rgain.
 The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external
resistors used.
 The input impedance is very high due to the emitter follower
configurations of amplifiers 1 and 2
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 The output impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is very

low due to the difference amplifier3.
 The CMRR of the op-amp 3 is very high and almost all of the
common mode signal will be rejected.

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

The applications of the instrumentation amplifier include the

following.

 These amplifiers mainly involve where the accuracy of high

differential gain is required, strength must be preserved in
noisy surroundings, as well as where huge common-mode
signals are there. Some of the applications are
 Instrumentation amplifiers are used in data acquisition from
small o/p transducers like thermocouples, strain gauges,
measurements of Wheatstone bridge, etc.
 These amplifiers are used in navigation, medical, radar, etc.
 These amplifiers are used to enhance the S/N ratio (signal to
noise) in audio applications like audio signals with low
amplitude.
 These amplifiers are used for imaging as well as video data
acquisition in the conditioning of high-speed signal.
 These amplifiers are used in RF cable systems for amplification
of the high-frequency signal.

The instrumentation amplifier, along with a transducer bridge can be

used in a wide variety of applications. These applications are generally
known as data acquisition systems.

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At the input stage, there is a transducer device that converts the

change in the physical quantity to an electrical signal.

The electrical signal is fed to an instrumentation amplifier. The

amplified signal is then fed to a display device, which is calibrated to
detect the change in the quantity being measured.

Temperature Controller

A simple temperature controller system can be constructed using a

thermistor as the transducer device, in the resistive bridge, as shown in
the figure above.

The resistive bridge is kept balanced for some reference temperature.

For any change in this reference temperature, the instrumentation
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amplifier will produce an output voltage, which drives the Relay which
in turn turns ON/OFF the heating unit, thereby controlling the
temperature.

Temperature Indicator

The circuit shown for temperature controller can also be used as a

temperature indicator. The resistive bridge is kept balanced for a
particular reference temperature when Vo = 0V.

The temperature indicating meter is calibrated to reference

temperature, corresponding to this reference condition.

As temperature changes, the amplifier output also changes. The gain

of the amplifier can be appropriately set to indicate the desired range
of temperature.

Light Intensity Meter

The same circuit can be used to detect variations in the intensity of

light, by replacing the thermistor by a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).
The bridge is set to a balanced condition in darkness.

When light falls on the LDR, its resistance changes and unbalances the
bridge. This causes the amplifier to produce a finite output, which in
turn drives the meter.

Difference between Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation

Amplifier

The key differences between the operational amplifier and

instrumentation amplifier include the following.

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 An operational amplifier (op-amp) is one kind of an

integrated circuit
 The instrumentation amplifier is one type of differential
amplifier
 Instrumentation amplifier can be built with three operational
amplifiers.
 The differential amplifier can be built with a single operational
amplifier.
 The output voltage of difference amplifier gets affected
because of the mismatch resistors
 Instrumentation amplifier offers gain with a single resistor of
its primary phase which does not need a resistor matching.

Requirements of a Good Instrumentation Amplifier

An instrumentation amplifier is usually employed to amplify low-level

signals, rejecting noise and interference signals. Therefore, a good
instrumentation amplifier has to meet the following specifications:

Finite, Accurate and Stable Gain: Since the instrumentation

amplifiers are required to amplify very low-level signals from the
transducer device, high and finite gain is the basic requirement. The
gain also needs to be accurate and the closed-loop gain must be stable.

Easier Gain Adjustment: Apart from a finite and stable gain, variation
in the gain factor over a prescribed range of values is also necessary.
The gain adjustment must be easier and precise.

High Input Impedance: To avoid the loading of input sources, the

input impedance of the instrumentation amplifier must be very high
(ideally infinite).
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Low Output Impedance: The output impedance of a good

instrumentation amplifier must be very low (ideally zero), to avoid
loading effect on the immediate next stage.

High CMRR: The output from the transducer usually contains common
mode signals, when transmitted over long wires. A good
instrumentation amplifier must amplify only the differential input,
completely rejecting common mode inputs. Thus, the CMRR of the
instrumentation amplifier must be ideally infinite.

High Slew Rate: The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier must
be as high as possible to provide maximum undistorted output voltage
swing.

Wave Shaping Circuits

A Signal can also be called as a Wave. Every wave has a certain shape
when it is represented in a graph. This shape can be of different types
such as sinusoidal, square, triangular, etc. which vary with respect to
time period or they may have some random shapes disregard of the
time period.

A wave shaping circuit is the one which can be used to change the
shape of a waveform from alternating current or direct current.

For example, a clipper circuit is used to prevent the waveform voltage

from exceeding the predetermined voltage without affecting the
remaining part of the waveform. This is nothing but waveshaping.

A clamper circuit fixes either the positive or the negative peak

excursions of a signal to a defined value by shifting its DC value.

Types of Wave Shaping

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There are two main types of wave shaping. They are −

 Linear wave shaping

 Non-linear wave shaping

Linear Wave Shaping

Linear elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors are

employed to shape a signal in this linear wave shaping. A Sine wave
input has a sine wave output and hence the non-sinusoidal inputs are
more prominently used to understand the linear wave shaping.

Filtering is the process of attenuating the unwanted signal or to

reproduce the selected portions of the frequency components of a
particular signal.

Filters

In the process of shaping a signal, if some portions of the signal are felt
unwanted, they can be cut off using a Filter Circuit. A Filter is a circuit
that can remove unwanted portions of a signal at its input. The
process of reduction in the strength of the signal is also termed
as Attenuation.

We have few components which help us in filtering techniques.

 A Capacitor has the property to allow AC and to block DC

 An Inductor has the property to allow DC but blocks AC.

Using these properties, these two components are especially used to

block or allow AC or DC. The Filters can be designed depending upon
these properties.

We have four main types of filters −

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 Low pass filter

 High pass filter
 Band pass filter
 Band stop filter

Low Pass Filter

A Filter circuit which allows a set of frequencies that are below a

specified value can be termed as a Low pass filter. This filter passes
the lower frequencies. The circuit diagram of a low pass filter using RC
and RL are as shown below.

The capacitor filter or RC filter and the inductor filter or RL filter both
act as low pass filters.

 The RC filter − As the capacitor is placed in shunt, the AC it allows

is grounded. This by passes all the high frequency components
while allows DC at the output.
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 The RL filter − As the inductor is placed in series, the DC is

allowed to the output. The inductor blocks AC which is not
allowed at the output.

The symbol for a low pass filter LPF is as given below.

Frequency Response

The frequency response of a practical filter is as shown here under and

the frequency response of an ideal LPF when the practical
considerations of electronic components are not considered will be as
follows.

The cut off frequency for any filter is the critical frequency fcfc for
which the filter is intended to attenuate cutcut the signal. An ideal filter
has a perfect cut-off whereas a practical one has few limitations.

The RLC Filter

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After knowing about the RC and RL filters, one may have an idea that it
would be good to add these two circuits in order to have a better
response. The following figure shows how the RLC circuit looks like.

The signal at the input goes through the inductor which blocks AC and
allows DC. Now, that output is again passed through the capacitor in
shunt, which grounds the remaining AC component if any, present in
the signal, allowing DC at the output. Thus we have a pure DC at the
output. This is a better low pass circuit than both of them.

High Pass Filter

A Filter circuit which allows a set of frequencies that are above a

specified value can be termed as a High pass filter. This filter passes
the higher frequencies. The circuit diagram of a high pass filter using
RC and RL are as shown below.

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The capacitor filter or RC filter and the inductor filter or RL filter both
act as high pass filters.

The RC Filter

As the capacitor is placed in series, it blocks the DC components and

allows the AC components to the output. Hence the high frequency
components appear at the output across the resistor.

The RL Filter

As the inductor is placed in shunt, the DC is allowed to be grounded.

The remaining AC component, appears at the output. The symbol for a
high pass filter HPF is as given below.

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Frequency Response

The frequency response of a practical filter is as shown here under and

the frequency response of an ideal HPF when the practical
considerations of electronic components are not considered will be as
follows.

The cut-off frequency for any filter is the critical frequency fc for which
the filter is intended to attenuate cut the signal. An ideal filter has a
perfect cut-off whereas a practical one has few limitations.

The RLC Filter

After knowing about the RC and RL filters, one may have an idea that it
would be good to add these two circuits in order to have a better
response. The following figure shows how the RLC circuit looks like.

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The signal at the input goes through the capacitor which blocks DC and
allows AC. Now, that output is again passed through the inductor in
shunt, which grounds the remaining DC component if any, present in
the signal, allowing AC at the output. Thus we have a pure AC at the
output. This is a better high pass circuit than both of them.

Band Pass Filter

A Filter circuit which allows a set of frequencies that are between two
specified values can be termed as a Band pass filter. This filter passes
a band of frequencies.

As we need to eliminate few of the low and high frequencies, to select

a set of specified frequencies, we need to cascade a HPF and a LPF to
get a BPF. This can be understood easily even by observing the
frequency response curves.

The circuit diagram of a band pass filter is as shown below.

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The above circuit can also be constructed using RL circuits or RLC

circuits. The above one is a RC circuit chosen for simple understanding.

The symbol for a band pass filter BPF is as given below.

Frequency Response

The frequency response of a practical filter is as shown here under and

the frequency response of an ideal BPF when the practical
considerations of electronic components are not considered will be as
follows.

The cut-off frequency for any filter is the critical frequency fc for which
the filter is intended to attenuate cut the signal. An ideal filter has a
perfect cut-off whereas a practical one has few limitations.

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Band Stop Filter

A Filter circuit which blocks or attenuates a set of frequencies that

are between two specified values can be termed as a Band Stop
filter. This filter rejects a band of frequencies and hence can also be
called as Band Reject Filter.

As we need to eliminate few of the low and high frequencies, to select

a set of specified frequencies, we need to cascade a LPF and a HPF to
get a BSF. This can be understood easily even by observing the
frequency response curves.

The circuit diagram of a band stop filter is as shown below.

The above circuit can also be constructed using RL circuits or RLC

circuits. The above one is a RC circuit chosen for simple understanding.

The symbol for a band stop filter BSF is as given below.

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Frequency Response

The frequency response of a practical filter is as shown here under and

the frequency response of an ideal BSF when the practical
considerations of electronic components are not considered will be as
follows.

The cut-off frequency for any filter is the critical frequency fc for which
the filter is intended to attenuate cut the signal. An ideal filter has a
perfect cut-off whereas a practical one has few limitations.

Low-pass and high-pass filter circuits are used as special circuits in

many applications. Low-pass filter LPF can work as an Integrator,
whereas the high-pass filter HPF can work as a Differentiator. These

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two mathematical functions are possible only with these circuits which
reduce the efforts of an electronics engineer in many applications.

Low Pass Filter as Integrator

At low frequencies, the capacitive reactance tends to become infinite

and at high frequencies the reactance becomes zero. Hence at low
frequencies, the LPF has finite output and at high frequencies the
output is nil, which is same for an integrator circuit. Hence low pass
filter can be said to be worked as an integrator.

For the LPF to behave as an integrator

τ≫T

Where τ=RC the time constant of the circuit

Then the voltage variation in C is very small.

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Hence a LPF with large time constant produces an output that is

proportional to the integral of an input.

Frequency Response

The Frequency response of a practical low pass filter, when it works as

an Integrator is as shown below.

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Output Waveform

If the integrator circuit is given a sinewave input, the output will be a

cosine wave. If the input is a square wave, the output wave form
changes its shape and appears as in the figure below.

High Pass Filter as Differentiator

At low frequencies, the output of a differentiator is zero whereas at

high frequencies, its output is of some finite value. This is same as for a

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differentiator. Hence the high pass filter is said to be behaved as a

differentiator.

If time constant of the RC HPF is very much smaller than time period of
the input signal, then circuit behaves as a differentiator. Then the
voltage drop across R is very small when compared to the drop across
C.

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The output is proportional to the differential of the input signal.

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Frequency Response

The Frequency response of a practical high pass filter, when it works as

a Differentiator is as shown below.

Output Wave form

If the differentiator circuit is given a sinewave input, the output will be

a cosine wave. If the input is a square wave, the output wave form
changes its shape and appears as in the figure below.

These two circuits are mostly used in various electronic applications. A

differentiator circuit produces a constant output voltage when the

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input applied tends to change steadily. An integrator circuit produces a

steadily changing output voltage when the input voltage applied is
constant.

Nonlinear Wave Shapping

Along with resistors, the non-linear elements like diodes are used in
nonlinear wave shaping circuits to get required altered outputs. Either
the shape of the wave is attenuated or the dc level of the wave is
altered in the Non-linear wave shaping.

The process of producing non-sinusoidal output wave forms from

sinusoidal input, using non-linear elements is called as nonlinear wave
shaping.

Clipper Circuits

A Clipper circuit is a circuit that rejects the part of the input wave
specified while allowing the remaining portion. The portion of the
wave above or below the cut off voltage determined is clipped off or
cut off.

The clipping circuits consist of linear and non-linear elements like

resistors and diodes but not energy storage elements like capacitors.
These clipping circuits have many applications as they are
advantageous.

 The main advantage of clipping circuits is to eliminate the

unwanted noise present in the amplitudes.
 These can work as square wave converters, as they can convert
sine waves into square waves by clipping.

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 The amplitude of the desired wave can be maintained at a

constant level.

Among the Diode Clippers, the two main types

are positive and negative clippers.

Positive Clipper Circuits

The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate positive portions of the

input signal can be termed as a Positive Clipper. Among the positive
diode clipper circuits, we have the following types −

 Positive Series Clipper

 Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr reference voltage
 Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr
 Positive Shunt Clipper
 Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr
 Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

Positive Series Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input

signal and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is
termed as Positive Series Clipper. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for positive series clipper.

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Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the
positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit positive with
respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and hence
it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor
becomes zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes
the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the point B. This
makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts like a closed
switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be equal to the
applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0.

Waveforms

In the above figures, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand

that only a portion of the positive peak was clipped. This is because of
the voltage across V0. But the ideal output was not meant to be so. Let
us have a look at the following figures.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the positive cycle is present in
the practical output due to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v.
Hence there will be a difference in the practical and ideal output
waveforms.

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Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input

signal and biased with positive reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive
Series Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for positive series clipper when the reference voltage
applied is positive.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and
the reference voltage appears at the output. During its negative cycle,
the diode gets forward biased and conducts like a closed switch. Hence
the output waveform appears as shown in the above figure.

Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input

signal and biased with negative reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive
Series Clipper with negative Vr. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for positive series clipper, when the reference voltage
applied is negative.

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During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and
the reference voltage appears at the output. As the reference voltage
is negative, the same voltage with constant amplitude is shown. During
its negative cycle, the diode gets forward biased and conducts like a
closed switch. Hence the input signal that is greater than the reference
voltage, appears at the output.

Positive Shunt Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input

signal and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is
termed as Positive Shunt Clipper. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper.

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Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the
positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit positive with
respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and hence
it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load
resistor becomes zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will
be zero.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes
the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the point B. This
makes the diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open
switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be equal to the
applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0.

Waveforms

In the above figures, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand

that only a portion of the positive peak was clipped. This is because of
the voltage across V0V0. But the ideal output was not meant to be so.
Let us have a look at the following figures.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the positive cycle is present in
the practical output due to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v.

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Hence there will be a difference in the practical and ideal output

waveforms.

Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input

signal and biased with positive reference voltage VrVr and that
attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive
Shunt Clipper with positive VrVr. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper when the reference voltage
applied is positive.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased
and nothing but the reference voltage appears at the output. During its
negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open
switch. The whole of the input appears at the output. Hence the output
waveform appears as shown in the above figure.

Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input

signal and biased with negative reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive
Shunt Clipper with negative Vr.
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The following figure represents the circuit diagram for positive shunt
clipper, when the reference voltage applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input, the diode gets forward biased
and the reference voltage appears at the output. As the reference
voltage is negative, the same voltage with constant amplitude is
shown. During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and
behaves as an open switch. Hence the input signal that is greater than
the reference voltage, appears at the output.

Negative Clipper Circuits

The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate negative portions of

the input signal can be termed as a Negative Clipper. Among the
negative diode clipper circuits, we have the following types.

 Negative Series Clipper

 Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr reference voltage
 Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr
 Negative Shunt Clipper
 Negative Shunt Clipper with positive VrVr
 Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

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Negative Series Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input

signal and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Series Clipper. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for negative series clipper.

Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the
positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit positive with
respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and hence
it acts like a closed switch. Thus the input voltage completely appears
across the load resistor to produce the output V0.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes
the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the point B. This
makes the diode reverse biased and hence it acts like an open switch.
Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be zero making V0 zero.

Waveforms

In the above figures, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand

that only a portion of the negative peak was clipped. This is because of
the voltage across V0. But the ideal output was not meant to be so.
look at the following figures.
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Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the negative cycle is present in
the practical output due to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v.
Hence there will be a difference in the practical and ideal output
waveforms.

Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input

signal and biased with positive reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper when the
reference voltage applied is positive.

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During the positive cycle of the input, the diode starts conducting only
when the anode voltage value exceeds the cathode voltage value of
the diode. As the cathode voltage equals the reference voltage applied,
the output will be as shown.

Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input

signal and biased with negative reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper, when the
reference voltage applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased
and the input signal appears at the output. During its negative cycle,
the diode gets reverse biased and hence will not conduct. But the
negative reference voltage being applied, appears at the output. Hence
the negative cycle of the output waveform gets clipped after this
reference level.

Negative Shunt Clipper

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A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input

signal and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Shunt Clipper. The following figure represents the
circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper.

Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the
positive cycle of the input makes the point A in the circuit positive with
respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and hence
it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor
equals the applied input voltage as it completely appears at the
output V0.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes
the point A in the circuit negative with respect to the point B. This
makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts like a closed
switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes zero as no
current flows through it.

Waveforms

In the above figures, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand

that just a portion of the negative peak was clipped. This is because of

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the voltage across V0. But the ideal output was not meant to be so. Let
us have a look at the following figures.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the negative cycle is present in
the practical output due to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v.
Hence there will be a difference in the practical and ideal output
waveforms.

Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input

signal and biased with positive reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper when the
reference voltage applied is positive.

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During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and
behaves as an open switch. So whole of the input voltage, which is
greater than the reference voltage applied, appears at the output. The
signal below reference voltage level gets clipped off.

During the negative half cycle, as the diode gets forward biased and
the loop gets completed, no output is present.

Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input

signal and biased with negative reference voltage Vr and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed
as Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper, when the
reference voltage applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and
behaves as an open switch. So whole of the input voltage, appears at
the output Vo. During the negative half cycle, the diode gets forward
biased. The negative voltage up to the reference voltage, gets at the
output and the remaining signal gets clipped off.

Two-way Clipper
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This is a positive and negative clipper with a reference voltage VrVr.

The input voltage is clipped two-way both positive and negative
portions of the input waveform with two reference voltages. For this,
two diodes D1 and D2 along with two reference
voltages Vr1 and Vr2 are connected in the circuit.

This circuit is also called as a Combinational Clipper circuit. The figure

below shows the circuit arrangement for a two-way or a combinational
clipper circuit along with its output waveform.

During the positive half of the input signal, the diode D1 conducts
making the reference voltage Vr1 appear at the output. During the
negative half of the input signal, the diode D2 conducts making the
reference voltage Vr1 appear at the output. Hence both the diodes
conduct alternatively to clip the output during both the cycles. The
output is taken across the load resistor.

Clamper Circuits

A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal.

Actually, the positive and negative peaks of the signals can be placed
at desired levels using the clamping circuits. As the DC level gets
shifted, a clamper circuit is called as a Level Shifter.

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Clamper circuits consist of energy storage elements like capacitors. A

simple clamper circuit comprises of a capacitor, a diode, a resistor and
a dc battery if required.

Clamper Circuit

A Clamper circuit can be defined as the circuit that consists of a diode,

a resistor and a capacitor that shifts the waveform to a desired DC level
without changing the actual appearance of the applied signal.

In order to maintain the time period of the wave form, the tau (τ) must
be greater than, half the time period discharging time of the capacitor
should be slow.

τ=Rc

Where

 R is the resistance of the resistor employed

 C is the capacitance of the capacitor used

The time constant of charge and discharge of the capacitor determines

the output of a clamper circuit.

 In a clamper circuit, a vertical shift of upward or downward

takes place in the output waveform with respect to the input
signal.
 The load resistor and the capacitor affect the waveform. So,
the discharging time of the capacitor should be large enough.

The DC component present in the input is rejected when a capacitor

coupled network is used asacapacitorblocksdcasacapacitorblocksdc.
Hence when dc needs to be restored, clamping circuit is used.

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Types of Clampers

There are few types of clamper circuits, such as

 Positive Clamper
 Positive clamper with positive Vr
 Positive clamper with negative Vr
 Negative Clamper
 Negative clamper with positive Vr
 Negative clamper with negative Vr

Positive Clamper Circuit

A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the

signal is raised above to the zero level, then the signal is said to
be positively clamped.

A Positive Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and

a capacitor and that shifts the output signal to the positive portion of
the input signal. The figure below explains the construction of a
positive clamper circuit.

Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and
the diode is reverse biased. The output is not considered at this point

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of time. During the negative half cycle, at the peak value, the capacitor
gets charged with negative on one plate and positive on the other. The
capacitor is now charged to its peak value Vm. The diode is forward
biased and conducts heavily.

During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive
Vm while the diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited. The
output of the circuit at this moment will be

V0=Vi+Vm

Hence the signal is positively clamped as shown in the above figure.

The output signal changes according to the changes in the input, but
shifts the level according to the charge on the capacitor, as it adds the
input voltage.

Positive Clamper with Positive Vr

A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference

voltage, that voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped
level. Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper with positive
reference voltage is constructed as below.

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During the positive half cycle, the reference voltage is applied through
the diode at the output and as the input voltage increases, the cathode
voltage of the diode increase with respect to the anode voltage and
hence it stops conducting. During the negative half cycle, the diode
gets forward biased and starts conducting. The voltage across the
capacitor and the reference voltage together maintain the output
voltage level.

Positive Clamper with Negative Vr

A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference

voltage, that voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped
level. Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper with positive
reference voltage is constructed as below.

During the positive half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor and the
reference voltage together maintain the output voltage level. During
the negative half-cycle, the diode conducts when the cathode voltage
gets less than the anode voltage. These changes make the output
voltage as shown in the above figure.

Negative Clamper

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A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor

and a capacitor and that shifts the output signal to the negative
portion of the input signal. The figure below explains the construction
of a negative clamper circuit.

During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak
value vm. The diode is forward biased and conducts. During the
negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and gets open
circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be

V0=Vi+Vm

Hence the signal is negatively clamped as shown in the above figure.

The output signal changes according to the changes in the input, but
shifts the level according to the charge on the capacitor, as it adds the
input voltage.

Negative clamper with positive Vr

A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference

voltage, that voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped
level. Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper with positive
reference voltage is constructed as below.

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Though the output voltage is negatively clamped, a portion of the

output waveform is raised to the positive level, as the applied reference
voltage is positive. During the positive half-cycle, the diode conducts,
but the output equals the positive reference voltage applied. During
the negative half cycle, the diode acts as open circuited and the
voltage across the capacitor forms the output.

Negative Clamper with Negative Vr

A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference

voltage, that voltage will be added to the output to raise the clamped
level. Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper with negative
reference voltage is constructed as below.

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The cathode of the diode is connected with a negative reference

voltage, which is less than that of zero and the anode voltage. Hence
the diode starts conducting during positive half cycle, before the zero
voltage level. During the negative half cycle, the voltage across the
capacitor appears at the output. Thus the waveform is clamped
towards the negative portion.

Applications

There are many applications for both Clippers and Clampers such as

Clippers

 Used for the generation and shaping of waveforms

 Used for the protection of circuits from spikes
 Used for amplitude restorers
 Used as voltage limiters
 Used in television circuits
 Used in FM transmitters

Clampers

 Used as direct current restorers

 Used to remove distortions
 Used as voltage multipliers
 Used for the protection of amplifiers
 Used as test equipment
 Used as base-line stabilizer

Limiter and Voltage Multiplier

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Along with the wave shaping circuits such as clippers and clampers,
diodes are used to construct other circuits such as limiters and voltage
multipliers.

Limiters

Another name which we often come across while going through these
clippers and clampers is the limiter circuit. A limiter circuit can be
understood as the one which limits the output voltage from exceeding
a pre-determined value.

This is more or less a clipper circuit which does not allow the specified
value of the signal to exceed. Actually clipping can be termed as an
extreme extent of limiting. Hence limiting can be understood as a
smooth clipping.

The following image shows some examples of limiter circuits −

The performance of a limiter circuit can be understood from its transfer

characteristic curve. An example for such a curve is as follows.
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The lower and upper limits are specified in the graph which indicate the
limiter characteristics. The output voltage for such a graph can be
understood as

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Types of Limiters

There are few types of limiters such as

 Unipolar Limiter − This circuit limits the signal in one way.

 Bipolar Limiter − This circuit limits the signal in two way.
 Soft Limiter − The output may change in this circuit for even a
slight change in the input.
 Hard Limiter − The output will not easily change with the
change in input signal.
 Single Limiter − This circuit employs one diode for limiting.
 Double Limiter − This circuit employs two diodes for limiting.

Voltage Multipliers

There are applications where the voltage needs to be multiplied in

some cases. This can be done easily with the help of a simple circuit
using diodes and capacitors. The voltage if doubled, such a circuit is
called as a Voltage Doubler. This can be extended to make a Voltage
Tripler or a Voltage Quadrupler or so on to obtain high DC voltages.

To get a better understanding, let us consider a circuit that multiplies

the voltage by a factor of 2. This circuit can be called as a Voltage
Doubler. The following figure shows the circuit of a voltage doubler.

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The input voltage applied will be an AC signal which is in the form of a

sine wave as shown in the figure below.

Voltage Divider

While diodes are used to multiply the voltage, a set of series resistors
can be made into a small network to divide the voltage. Such networks
are called as Voltage Divider networks.

Voltage divider is a circuit which turns a larger voltage into a smaller

one. This is done using resistors connected in series. The output will be
a fraction of the input. The output voltage depends upon the resistance
of the load it drives.

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If we try to draw an expression for output voltage,

This is the expression to obtain the value of output voltage. Hence the
output voltage is divided depending upon the resistance values of the
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resistors in the network. More resistors are added to have different

fractions of different output voltages.

An example problem to understand more about voltage dividers.

Example

Calculate the output voltage of a network having an input voltage of

10v with two series resistors 2kΩ and 5kΩ.

The output voltage V0 is given by

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Phase Locked Loops (PLL)

Introduction to PLL

The concept of Phase Locked Loops (PLL) first emerged in the early
1930’s.But the technology was not developed as it now, the cost factor
for developing this technology was very high. Since the advancement
in the field of integrated circuits, PLL has become one of the main
building blocks in the electronics technology. In present, the PLL is
available as a single IC in the SE/NE560 series (560, 561, 562, 564, 565
and 567) to further reduce the buying cost ,the discrete IC’s are used to
construct a PLL.

Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is one of the vital blocks in linear systems. It
is useful in communication systems such as radars, satellites, FMs, etc.
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PLL Applications

 Frequency Modulation (FM) stereo decoders, FM

Demodulation networks for FM operation.
 Frequency synthesis that provides multiple of a reference
signal frequency.
 Used in motorspeed controls, tracking filters.
 Used in frequency shift keying (FSK) decodes for
demodulation carrier frequencies.

PLL Block Diagram

The block diagram of a basic PLL is shown in the figure below. It is

basically a flip flop consisting of a phase detector, a low pass filter
(LPF),and a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).

Block Diagram – Phase Locked Loops

The input signal Vi with an input frequency fi is passed through a phase

detector. A phase detector basically a comparator which compares the
input frequency fiwith the feedback frequency fo .The phase detector
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provides an output error voltage Ver (=fi+fo),which is a DC voltage.

This DC voltage is then passed on to an LPF. The LPF removes the high
frequency noise and produces a steady DC level, Vf (=Fi-Fo). Vf also
represents the dynamic characteristics of the PLL.

The DC level is then passed on to a VCO. The output frequency of the

VCO (fo) is directly proportional to the input signal. Both the input
frequency and output frequency are compared and adjusted through
feedback loops until the output frequency equals the input frequency.
Thus the PLL works in these stages – free-running, capture and phase
lock.

As the name suggests, the free running stage refer to the stage when
there is no input voltage applied. As soon as the input frequency is
applied the VCO starts to change and begin producing an output
frequency for comparison this stage is called the capture stage. The
frequency comparison stops as soon as the output frequency is
adjusted to become equal to the input frequency. This stage is called
the phase locked state.

1. Phase Detector

This comparator circuit compares the input frequency and the VCO
output frequency and produces a dc voltage that is proportional to the
phase difference between the two frequencies. The phase detector
used in PLL may be of analog or digital type. Even though most of the
monolithic PLL integrated circuits use analog phase detectors, the
majority of discrete phase detectors are of the digital type. One of the
most commonly used analog phase detector is the double balanced
mixer circuit. Some of the common digital type phase detectors are

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1.1 Exclusive OR Phase Detector

An exclusive OR phase detector is shown in the figure below.

Exclusive-OR Phase Detector

It is obtained as a CMOS IC of type 4070. Both the frequencies are

provided as an input to the EX OR phase detector. Obeying the EX-OR
concept the output becomes HIGH only if either of the inputs fi or fo
becomes HIGH. All other conditions will produce a LOW output. Let us
consider a waveform where the input frequency leads the output
frequency by θ degrees. That is, fi and fo has a phase difference of θ
degrees. The dc output voltage of the comparator will be a function of
the phase difference between its two inputs.

The figure shows the graph of DC output voltage as a function of the

phase difference between fi and fo. The output DC voltage is maximum
when the phase detector is 180°.This type of phase detector is used
when both fi and fo are square waves.

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Exclusive-OR Phase Detector-Waveform

1.2 Edge Triggered Phase Detector

Edge triggered phase detector is used when fi and fo are pulse

waveforms with less than 50% duty cycles. The figure of such a phase
detector using an R-S Flip Flop is shown below. Two NOR Gate
(CD4001) are cross-coupled to form an R-S Flip Flop. The output of the
phase detector changes it’s logic state by triggering of the R-S Flip
Flop. That is, the output of the phase detector changes its logic state
on the positive edge of the input fi and fo. The advantage of such a
detector can be understood from the graph below. It is clear that the
DC output voltage is linear over 360°.

1.3 Monolithic Phase Detectors

The monolithic type phase detector uses a CMOS type 4044 IC ,Which
is highly advantages as the harmonic sensitivity and duty cycle
problems are neglected and the circuit will be respond only to the
transition in the input signals. This is the most preferred phase
detector in the critical applications as the phase error and the output

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error voltage are independent of variations in the amplitude and duty

cycles of the input waveforms.

2. Low Pass Filter (LPF)

A Low Pass Filter (LPF) is used in Phase Locked Loops (PLL) to get rid
of the high frequency components in the output of the phase detector.
It also removes the high frequency noise. All these features make the
LPF a critical part in PLL and helps control the dynamic characteristics
of the whole circuit. The dynamic characteristics include capture and
lock ranges, bandwidth, and transient response. The lock range is the
tracking range where the range of frequencies of the PLL system
follows the changes in the input frequency. The capture range is the
range in which the Phase Locker Loops attains the Phase Lock.

When the filter bandwidth is reduced, the response time increases .But
this reduces the capture range. But it also helps in reducing noise and
in maintaining the locked loop through momentary losses of signal.
Two types of passive filter are used for the LPF circuit in a PLL. An
amplifier is used also with LPF to obtain gain. The active filter used in
PLL is shown below.

3. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

The main function of the VCO is to generate an output frequency that

is directly proportional to the input voltage. The connection diagram of
a SE/NE 566 VCO is shown in the figure below. The macimum
frequency of the VCO is 500 KHz.

This VCO provides simultaneous square wave and triangular wave

outputs as a function of the input voltage. The frequency of oscillation

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is determined by the resistor R and capacitor C along with the voltage

Vc applied to the control terminal.

Monolithic Phase Locked Loop

PLL is now readily available as IC’s which were developed in the SE/NE
560 series. Some of the commonly used ones are the SE/NE
560,561,562,564,565 and 567.The difference between each one of
them is in the different parameters like operating frequency range,
power supply requirements, and frequency and bandwidth ranges. Out
of all the series the SE/NE 565 is the most famous. It is available as a
14-pin DIP and also as a 10-pin metal can package. The 14-pin DIP and
its characteristics are given below.

Monolithic PLL Characteristics

 Operating frequency range: 0.001 Hz to 500 kHz.

 Operating voltage range: ± 6 to ± 12 V.
 Input impedance: 10 k Q typically.
 Output sink current: 1mA typically.
 Output source current: 10 m A typically.
 Drift in VCO centre frequency with temperature: 300 ppm/ °C
typically.
 Drift in VCO centre frequency with supply voltage: 1.5 %/V
maximum.
 Input level required for tracking: 10 mVrms minimum to 3 V
peak-to-peak maximum.
 Bandwidth adjustment range: < ± 1 to > ± 60 %.

The block diagram and connection diagrams are shown in the figure
below.
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The block diagram consist of a phase detector which acts as a phase

comparator, an amplifier, and a low pass filter with the combination of
the resistor (3.6 kilo ohm) and capacitor C2. The output of the amplifier
is fed back to the VCO. The different pins representing that of the IC
are also shown in the block diagram. Pins 1 and 10 are the positive and
negative supply pins. The pins 2 and 3 are the input to the phase
detector. The input signals are fed through these pins in differential
mode. Pin 4 is the VCO output and pin 5 is the phase comparator VCO
input. If both these pins are shorted the output of the VCO is supplied
back to the phase comparator. The output of the phase comparator is
given to the amplifier. The amplifier has two outputs that goes to the
external pins as the demodulator output (pin 7) and the reference
output (pin 6). An LPF circuit is formed by connecting the capacitor C2
between pin 7 and 10 with a resistor of value 3.6 kilo ohms. The value of
C2 must be large enough to eliminate the variations in demodulated
output and stabilize the VCO frequency.

Pins 8 and 9 are used to connect the external resistor (R1) and external
capacitor (C1). The values of R1 and C1 help to adjust the free running
frequency (fr) of the PLL. Though the value of C1 can be anything, the
value of resistor R1 must have a value between 2 to 20 kilo ohms. All
these factors can be used to determine the center frequency of the
PLL.

The free running frequency of the PLL is given as fr = (1.2)/(4R1C1)

Hertz

The lock range of the PLL is given as fLock = (+/-){(8fr)/V} Hertz

The capture range of PLL is given as fc = (fLock/[2* 10^3*C2])^1/2

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The lock range usually increases with an increase in input voltage but
falls with an increase in supply voltage.

Phase Locked Loop (PLL) – Working

Let us consider the free running frequency to be fr. Let fr be the

frequency at which the Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is running
without input signal. Let the input signal fi that is increasing from zero
be applied to the phase comparator.

A graph between the error voltage and input frequency is shown

below. It can be seen that when the input frequency is lesser than
fi1,the error voltage Ver is reduced to zero. At this time the VCO will
operate at the free running frequency, fr. When the input frequency, fi
increases and reaches fi1, the error voltage jumps from zero to a
negative voltage. This value will be equal to the difference between the
input frequency and actual VCO output frequency (fi – fo).This
resulting error voltage is then processed by filtering, amplifying, and
applying the amplified voltage Vd to the control terminals of the VCO.

The instantaneous frequency of VCO decreases because fo falls for

negative values of Vd and increases for positive values of Vrf. At some
instant of time, the decreasing frequency of the VCO equals fin1 (lower
edge of the capture range), then lock results-in, and the output signal
frequency of the

VCO may be equal to the input signal frequency (that is, fo = fi). The
VCO frequency locks with input signal frequency up to fi2 (the upper
end of the lock range). If the input signal frequency exceeds fi2 then
error voltage Vg will fall to zero and the VCO will operate at the free
running frequency fr, as illustrated in figure. If the input signal

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frequency is now slowly swept back and it attains the value of fd1 then
the loop (VCO frequency) locks with the input signal frequency,
causing a positive jump of the error voltage Ver. So the VCO output
frequency increases from fr continuously till fo becomes equal to fi.
The VCO frequency fo locks with the input signal frequency fi upto fd2
(the lower edge of the lock range) as shown in figure by dotted lines.
Now if the frequency of the input signal falls below fd2, then the error
voltage Ver will fall to zero and the VCO will operate at the free
running frequency.

IC 565

IC 565 is the most commonly used phase locked loop IC. It is a 14 pin
Dual-Inline Package (DIP). The pin diagram of IC 565 is shown in the
following figure −

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The purpose of each pin is self-explanatory from the above diagram.

Out of 14 pins, only 10 pins (pin number 1 to 10) are utilized for the
operation of PLL. So, the remaining 4 pins (pin number 11 to 14) are
labelled with NC (No Connection).

The VCO produces an output at pin number 4 of IC 565, when the pin
numbers 2 and 3 are grounded. Mathematically, we can write the
output frequency, foutfout of the VCO as.

where,

RV is the external resistor that is connected to the pin number 8

CV is the external capacitor that is connected to the pin number 9

 By choosing proper values of RV and CV, we can fix (determine)

the output frequency, fout of VCO.
 Pin numbers 4 and 5are to be shorted with an external wire so
that the output of VCO can be applied as one of the inputs of
phase detector.
 IC 565 has an internal resistance of 3.6KΩ. A capacitor, C has to
be connected between pin numbers 7 and 10 in order to make
a low pass filter with that internal resistance.

Note that as per the requirement, we have to properly configure the

pins of IC 565.

Active Filters

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As the time moves forward and the study on the filters has increased,
active filters have been a matter of discussion. Active filters are
a group of electronic filters that utilizes active components like an
amplifier for its functioning. Amplifiers are used in filters for designing
to enhance the predictability and performance. This is all finished while
keeping away from the need of the inductors. Usually, the filter
characteristics can be determined by using an amplifier. This article
presents a detailed study and usage of active filters in modern
technology. In future, the various types of active filters will have a
much wider capacity and will signify the future technology than it has
at the present.

Definition

The filter is an electric n/w in any circuit theory, that used to change
either phase or amplitude of signal characteristics with respect to its
frequency. Ideally, this will not include any new frequency to the i/p nor
it will alter the frequency component of that signal. An Active Filter
utilizes an operational amplifiers along with various electronic
components like resistors, capacitors for the filtering. Op-Amps are
used to allow easily to make many types of active filters.

An Amplifier stops the load impedance from affecting the filter

characteristics. The form of the response, duality factor and tuned
frequency and can often set with inexpensive variable resistors. In
these filter circuits we can alter one parameter without damaging the
other. Since their basic return principles were projected around 1970, a
lot of research has been done with these filters and their realistic
applications.

Classification of Active Filters

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Active Low Pass Filter

Before going to know about active low pass filter, get an idea about
basics of filters, passive low pass filter and frequency response by
reading the post: Passive Low Pass Filter Design.

Active Low Pass Filter Circuit Diagram

The frequency response of Active low pass filter is same as that of the
passive low pass filter, except that the amplitude of the output signals.
The voltage gain of the non-inverting operational amplifier is given as

AF = 1+ (R2/R1)

The gain of active low pass filter is given as

Av = Vout / Vin = AF/ [√(1+(f/fc)²) ]

Where

 AF is the pass band gain (1+ R2/R1)

 f is the frequency of input signal
 fc is the cut-off frequency

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Note:

 At very low frequencies, f < fc : Av = Vout / Vin ≅ AF

 At cut-off frequency, f = fc : Av = Vout / Vin = AF/ = 0.707 AF
 At very high frequency, f > fc: Av = Vout / Vin < AF

Active High Pass Filter

Before going to study about Active high pass filter, read the
post: Passive High Pass Filter Design and Frequency Response.

Active High Pass Filter Circuit Diagram

The simple Active high pass filter can be obtained by connecting a non-
inverting or inverting operational amplifier to the passive high pass RC
circuit. The frequency response of active high pass filter is same as that
of passive low pass filter, except that the magnitude of the signal is
increased by the gain of operational amplifier.

In active high pass filter pass band is limited due to the open loop
characteristics of operational amplifier.

The gain of active high pass filter is given as

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Av = Vout / Vin = (AF (f / fc)) / (√[√(1+(f/fc)²) ]

Where

 AF is the pass band gain (1+ R2/R1)

 f is the frequency of input signal
 fc is the cut-off frequency

Voltage gain in dB is given as

Av (dB) = 20log10 (Vout/Vin)

-3dB = 20log10 (0.707 x Vout/Vin)

For a first order Active high pass filter the frequency response curve
increases at a rate of 20dB/decade or 6dB/octave until it reaches the
cut-off frequency point. Same as like passive filter here also cut-off
frequency can be calculated using the formula
𝟏
fc =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪

In this filter the phase shift or phase angle of the output

signal leads that of the input signal. At cut-off frequency phase angle
value is equal to the +45°. This value can be calculated using the below
formula.
𝟏
Phase angle Ø = tan-1 ( )
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪

We can design a single stage active high pass filter using inverting
amplifier configuration also. The applications of active high pass filters
also same as that of passive high pass filter.

Active Band Pass Filter

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Band pass filter is frequency selective filter used in electronic systems

to allow a particular band or certain range of frequencies. This range of
frequencies is set between two cut-off frequency points (fL, fH).

Simple Active pass band filer can be easily designed by combining or

cascading a low pass filter with a high pass filter as shown below.

Active Band Pass Filter Circuit Diagram

The cascade connection of low pass filter and high pass filter produces
a low “Quality factor” type filter which has wide pass band. The first
stage of the circuit (high pass filter stage) blocks the very low
frequency signals and low pass filter stage blocks the very high
frequency signals.

It produces the relatively flat pass band frequency response in which

one half represents high pass filter response and other half represents
the low pass filter response as shown below.

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Frequency response of band pass filter

The higher cut-off frequency fH and lower cut-off frequency fL are

calculated using the first order low pass and high pass filter cut-off
frequency equations. The amplifier circuit provides isolation between
two stages and increases overall gain of the circuit.

Active Band Stop or Band Reject Filter

Band stop filter attenuates only for a particular band of frequencies

and allows all other frequencies. This filter is also called as band
elimination filter. These are classified as

1. Wide band reject filters

2. Narrow band reject filters (Notch filters).

Wide band reject filter bandwidth is very high as compare to narrow

band filters.

Narrow Band Filter (Notch Filter)

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Active Notch Filter Circuit Diagram

This filter is commonly used to attenuate single frequency. The main

part in this circuit is Twin – T network. It consists of two T networks.
First T – network is made with 2 capacitors and a resistor. Other T
network is made with 2 resistors and a capacitor.

Narrow band or notch filters are commonly used in biomedical

instruments and communications to remove the unwanted
frequencies.

Types of Active Filters

Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and Elliptic filters.

There are basically 4 types of active filters. They are butterworth,

Chebyshev, Bessel and Elliptic filters.

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Types of Active Filters

Butterworth Filter:

This filter is also called as maximally flat or flat flat filter. This class
of filters approximates the ideal filter well in the pass band. Frequency
response curves of different types of filters are shown in figure. The
Butterworth filter has an essentially flat amplitude-frequency response
upto the cutoff frequency. The sharpness of the cut-off can be seen in
the figure. It is to be noted that all the three filters reach a roll-off slope
of -40 db/decade at frequencies much larger than cut-off. Although
Butterworth filters achieve the sharpest attenuation, their phase-shift
as a function of frequency is non-linear. It has a monotonic drop in gain
with frequency in the cut-off region and a maximally flat response

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below cut-off frequency, as illustrated in figure. The Butterworth filter

has characteristic somewhere between those of Chebyshev and Bessel
filters. It has a moderate roll-off of the skirt and a slightly nonlinear
phase responses.

Butterworth Filter

The roughness of the cutoff can be seen in the diagram. It is to be

famous that all the three filters achieve a roll-off angle of -40db/decade
at frequencies much superior than cutoff. This filter has a characteristic
somewhere b/n Chebyshev and Bessel filters. It has a sensible roll-off of
the skirt &a slightly non¬linear phase responses. This kind of filter is a
good, very easy to understand and is excellent for audio processing
applications.

Chebyshev Filter

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It is also called a equal ripple filter. It gives a sharper cut-off than

Butterworth filter in the passband. Both Butterworth and Chebyshev
filters exhibit large phase shifts near the cut-off frequency. A drawback
of the Chebyshev filter is the appearance of gain maxima and minima
below the cut-off frequency. This gain ripple, expressed in db, is an
adjustable parameter in filter design.

Chebyshev Filter

The faster the roll-off, the greater the peak-to-peak ripples in the
passband. The phase response is highly non-linear in the skirt region.
Such unequal delays of data frequency in the passband causes severe
pulse distortion and thus increased errors at modern demodulators.
This can be overcome somewhat by increasing the BW of the filter so
that the phase region is extended. A Chebyshev filter is used where
very sharp roll-off is required. However, this is achieved at the expense
of a gain ripple in the lower frequency passband.

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The implementation of these filters gives a a lot steeper roll- off, but
has ripple in the pass-band, so it is not used in audio systems. Though it
is far better in some applications where there is only one frequency
available in the pass band, but numerous other frequencies are
required to eliminate.

Bessel Filter

The Bessel filter provides ideal phase characteristics with an

approximately linear phase response upto nearly cut-off frequency.
Though it has a very linear phase response but a fairly gentle skirt
slope, as shown in figure. For applications where the phase
characteristic is important, the Bessel filter is used. It is a minimal
phase shift filter even though its cut-off characteristics are not very
sharp. It is well suited for pulse applications.

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The Bessel filter exhibits a stable propagation delay across the i/p
frequency spectrum. So applying a square wave to the input of a filter
will give a square wave on the o/p with no exceed Further, any filter will
wait various frequencies by various amounts. This will evident itself as
exceed on the o/p waveform.

Elliptic Filter

This filter has the sharpest roll-off of all filters in the transition
region but has ripples in both the pass band and stop band regions, as
illustrated in figure. The elliptic filter can be designed to have very high
attenuation for certain frequencies in the stop band, which reduces the
attenuation for other frequencies in the stop band.

The Elliptical Filter is a much more complicated filter like the

Chebyshev. It includes a ripple in the pass band & severe roll-off at the
cost of ripple in the stop band. This filter has the roll off of every filter
in the conversion region, but it has both the regions of stop band and
pass band. This filter can be designed to have high attention of
particular frequencies in the stop band, which decreases the
attenuation of further frequencies in the stop band.

Elliptical Filter
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Advantages of Active filters

The advantages of an active filters include the following

 These filters are more reasonable than passive filters.

 The apparatus used in these filters is smaller than the
components used in passive filters.
 Active filter doesn’t show any insertion loss.
 It also permits the interstage isolation for controlling of i/p and
o/p impedance.

Applications of Active filters

 Active filters are used in communication systems for

suppressing noise, to isolate a communication of signal from
various channels to improve the unique message signal from a
modulated signal.
 These filters are used in instrumentation systems by the
designers to choose a required frequency apparatus and
detach unwanted ones.
 These filters can be used to limit the analog signal’s bandwidth
before altering them to digital signals.
 Analog filters are used in audio systems by engineers to send
various frequencies to various speakers. For example, in the
music industry, record & playback applications are needed to
control the frequency components.
 Active filters are used in biomedical instruments to interface
psychological Sensors with diagnostic equipments & data
logging.

Multivibrator
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Definition: An electronic device that produces a non-sinusoidal

waveform as its output is known as a Multivibrator. The generated
non-sinusoidal waveforms are basically a square wave, rectangular
wave, a triangular wave, sawtooth wave, or ramp wave etc.

A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled amplifier with

positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of the
other.

A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It generates

non-sinusoidal waves such as Square waves, Rectangular waves and
Saw tooth waves etc. Multivibrators are used as frequency generators,
frequency dividers and generators of time delays and also as memory
elements in computers etc.

A Transistor basically functions as an amplifier in its linear region. If a

transistor amplifier output stage is joined with the previous amplifier
stage, such a connection is said to be coupled. If a resistor is used in
coupling two stages of such an amplifier circuit, it is called as
Resistance coupled amplifier.

It is a 2 stage RC coupled amplifier that operates in two modes. The

modes are basically termed as states of the multivibrator.

Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the

state of the other. Hence the ON and OFF states of the whole circuit,
and the time periods for which the transistors are driven into saturation
or cut off are controlled by the conditions of the circuit.

The following figure shows the block diagram of a Multivibrator.

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Basics of Multivibrator

The multivibrator is a switching circuit and its basic configuration is

shown below:

Here, two amplifiers are employed in which the output from the
1st stage acts as input to the 2nd stage. The output of the 2nd stage is
then through a feedback path is provided to the input of the 1st stage.

Here, the operation of the circuit is controlled by two conditions on and

off of the circuit. It performs oscillations between high and low state
i.e., 0 and 1 thereby generating a continuous output.

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A multivibrator has the ability to store binary number, count pulses and
at the same time synchronization between the arithmetic operations is
also maintained by the multivibrator in a digital system.

Types of Multivibrators

The various types of coupling network are basically categorized by the

type of coupling network that is employed in the circuit of the
multivibrator. These are as follows:

1. Astable multivibrator

It is a type of multivibrator also termed as a free running

multivibrator. It is called so because here the state changes on its own
after some predetermined time interval and thus does not require a
triggering pulse.

Here, the output of the circuit simply oscillates between high and low
state freely. Hence is just an oscillator.

The figure below shows the configuration of an astable multivibrator:

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The coupling network employed in astable multivibrator with the help

of a coupling capacitor provides ac coupling to the amplifier.

A phase shift of 180° is provided by each amplifier stage in the mid-

band, thereby generating a total phase shift of 0° or 360°. Hence
providing positive feedback.

Thus, the circuit has no stable state, and the two states are merely
temporary ones termed as quasi-state.

So, a continuous output is generated by performing successive

transitions from one state to another after a fixed time duration. It is to
be noted here that the time duration of switching between one quasi-
state to the other depends on the time constant and other parameters
of the circuit.

An astable multivibrator has no stable states. Once the Multivibrator

is ON, it just changes its states on its own after a certain time period
which is determined by the RC time constants. A dc power supply or
Vcc is given to the circuit for its operation.

Construction of Astable Multivibrator

Two transistors named Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one

another. The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of
transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1 and vice versa. The emitters of
both the transistors are connected to the ground. The collector load
resistors R1 and R4 and the biasing resistors R2 and R3 are of equal
values. The capacitors C1 and C2 are of equal values.

The following figure shows the circuit diagram for Astable

Multivibrator.

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Operation of Astable Multivibrator

When Vcc is applied, the collector current of the transistors increase. As

the collector current depends upon the base current,

IC=βIB

As no transistor characteristics are alike, one of the two transistors say

Q1 has its collector current increase and thus conducts. The collector of
Q1 is applied to the base of Q2 through C1. This connection lets the
increased negative voltage at the collector of Q1 to get applied at the
base of Q2 and its collector current decreases. This continuous action
makes the collector current of Q2 to decrease further. This current
when applied to the base of Q1 makes it more negative and with the
cumulative actions Q1 gets into saturation and Q2 to cut off. Thus the
output voltage of Q1 will be VCE (sat) and Q2 will be equal to VCC.

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The capacitor C1 charges through R1 and when the voltage across

C1 reaches 0.7v, this is enough to turn the transistor Q2 to saturation.
As this voltage is applied to the base of Q2, it gets into saturation,
decreasing its collector current. This reduction of voltage at point B is
applied to the base of transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the
Q1 reverse bias. A series of these actions turn the transistor Q1 to cut
off and transistor Q2 to saturation. Now point A has the potential VCC.
The capacitor C2 charges through R2. The voltage across this capacitor
C2 when gets to 0.7v, turns on the transistor Q1 to saturation.

Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the
alternate switching of the transistors Q1 and Q2. The time period of
these ON/OFF states depends upon the values of biasing resistors and
capacitors used, i.e., on the RC values used. As both the transistors are
operated alternately, the output is a square waveform, with the peak
amplitude of VCC.

Waveforms

The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the

following figures.

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Frequency of Oscillations

The ON time of transistor Q1 or the OFF time of transistor Q2 is given

by

t1 = 0.69R1C1

Similarly, the OFF time of transistor Q1 or ON time of transistor Q2 is

given by

t2 = 0.69R2C2

Hence, total time period of square wave

t = t1 + t2 = 0.69(R1C1 + R2C2)

As R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the frequency of square wave will be

1 1 0.7
f= = =
𝑡 1.38𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶

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Advantages

The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 No external triggering required.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
 Can function continuously

Disadvantages

The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 Energy absorption is more within the circuit.

 Output signal is of low energy.
 Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.

Applications

Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as amateur

radio equipment, Morse code generators, timer circuits, analog
circuits, and TV systems.

2. Monostable Multivibrator

As the name here itself is indicating that it has a single stable state and
a quasi-state.

Here, out of the two coupling networks, one provides ac coupling and
the other provides dc coupling. Thus, providing one stable and one
quasi-state.

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Unlike the astable multivibrator, here, a triggering pulse is required in

order to have transition from the stable state to the quasi-state.
However, in order to have transition again from quasi-state to a stable
state no any triggering pulse is provided.

So, to have a stable state again, a predetermined timing interval is

provided as given in case of the astable multivibrator.

Thus, after a certain time period decided by the time constant, the
circuit comes back to its initial state i.e., the stable state without the
need of external signal.

A monostable multivibrator, as the name implies, has only one stable

state. When the transistor conducts, the other remains in non-
conducting state. A stable state is such a state where the transistor
remains without being altered, unless disturbed by some external
trigger pulse. As Monostable works on the same principle, it has
another name called as One-shot Multivibrator.

Construction of Monostable Multivibrator

Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another.

The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor
Q2 through the capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected to the collector
of Q2 through the resistor R2 and capacitor C. Another dc supply
voltage –VBB is given to the base of transistor Q1 through the resistor
R3. The trigger pulse is given to the base of Q1 through the capacitor
C2 to change its state. RL1 and RL2 are the load resistors of Q1 and Q2.

One of the transistors, when gets into a stable state, an external trigger
pulse is given to change its state. After changing its state, the
transistor remains in this quasi-stable state or Meta-stable state for a
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specific time period, which is determined by the values of RC time

constants and gets back to the previous stable state.

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a Monostable

Multivibrator.

Operation of Monostable Multivibrator

Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in OFF

state and Q2 will be in ON state. This is the stable state. As Q1 is OFF,
the collector voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets charged.
A positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q1 turns
the transistor ON. This decreases the collector voltage, which turns
OFF the transistor Q2. The capacitor C1 starts discharging at this point
of time. As the positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q2 gets
applied to transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is the quasi-stable
state or Meta-stable state.

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The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor

C1 discharges completely. After this, the transistor Q2 turns ON with
the voltage applied through the capacitor discharge. This turn ON the
transistor Q1, which is the previous stable state.

Output Waveforms

The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the

trigger input given at the base of Q1 are shown in the following figures.

The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant.
Hence it depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given
by

T=0.69R1C1

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The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the
action. This triggers the circuit to change its state from Stable state to
Quasi-stable or Meta-stable or Semi-stable state, in which the circuit
remains for a short duration. There will be one output pulse for one
trigger pulse.

Advantages

The advantages of Monostable Multivibrator are as follows −

 One trigger pulse is enough.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive

Disadvantages

The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the

time between the applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than
the RC time constant of the circuit.

Applications

Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as television

circuits and control system circuits.

3. Bistable multivibrator

A bistable multivibrator has 2 stable states. Here, a separate trigger

pulse is required in order to have transition from one stable state to
another stable state.

Here, only dc coupling is provided by the coupling networks and hence

the energy storing element is not required.

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Look at the pictorial configuration of a bistable multivibrator.

When the trigger pulse is first applied, the transistor in the circuit gets
cut-off thus showing an off stable state. However, as another
triggering pulse is applied, the transistor again starts its conduction.
Thereby changing its state from one state to another.

As the overall operation depends on two triggers, these circuits are

also termed as flip-flops or trigger circuits. For the purpose of
counting and storing binary elements, bistable multivibrators are used.

A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states. The circuit stays in any
one of the two stable states. It continues in that state, unless an
external trigger pulse is given. This Multivibrator is also known as Flip-
flop. This circuit is simply called as Binary.

There are few types in Bistable Multivibrators. They are as shown in the
following figure.

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Construction of Bistable Multivibrator

Two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with load resistors RL1 and RL2 are
connected in feedback to one another. The base resistors R3 and R4 are
joined to a common source –VBB. The feedback resistors R1 and R2 are
shunted by capacitors C1 and C2 known as Commutating Capacitors.
The transistor Q1 is given a trigger input at the base through the
capacitor C3 and the transistor Q2 is given a trigger input at its base
through the capacitor C4.

The capacitors C1 and C2 are also known as Speed-up Capacitors, as

they reduce the transition time, which means the time taken for the
transfer of conduction from one transistor to the other.

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a self-biased Bistable

Multivibrator.

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Operation of Bistable Multivibrator

When the circuit is switched ON, due to some circuit imbalances as in

Astable, one of the transistors, say Q1 gets switched ON, while the
transistor Q2 gets switched OFF. This is a stable state of the Bistable
Multivibrator.

By applying a negative trigger at the base of transistor Q1 or by

applying a positive trigger pulse at the base of transistor Q2, this stable
state is unaltered. So, let us understand this by considering a negative
pulse at the base of transistor Q1. As a result, the collector voltage
increases, which forward biases the transistor Q2. The collector current
of Q2 as applied at the base of Q1, reverse biases Q1 and this cumulative
action, makes the transistor Q1 OFF and transistor Q2 ON. This is
another stable state of the Multivibrator.

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Now, if this stable state has to be changed again, then either a

negative trigger pulse at transistor Q2 or a positive trigger pulse at
transistor Q1 is applied.

Output Waveforms

The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the

trigger inputs given at the bases of QW and Q2 are shown in the
following figures.

Advantages

The advantages of using a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −

 Stores the previous output unless disturbed.

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 Circuit design is simple

Disadvantages

The drawbacks of a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −

 Two kinds of trigger pulses are required.

 A bit costlier than other Multivibrators.

Applications

Bistable Multivibrators are used in applications such as pulse

generation and digital operations like counting and storing of binary
information.

Fixed-bias Binary

A fixed-bias binary circuit is similar to an Astable Multivibrator but with

a simple SPDT switch. Two transistors are connected in feedback with
two resistors, having one collector connected to the base of the other.
The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a fixed-bias binary.

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To understand the operation, consider the switch to be in position 1.

Now the transistor Q1 will be OFF as the base is grounded. The
collector voltage at the output terminal VO1 will be equal to VCC which
turns the transistor Q2 ON. The output at the terminal VO2 goes LOW.
This is a stable state which can be altered only by an external trigger.
The change of switch to position 2, works as a trigger.

When the switch is altered, the base of transistor Q2 is grounded

turning it to OFF state. The collector voltage at VO2 will be equal to
VCC which is applied to transistor Q1 to turn it ON. This is the other
stable state. The triggering is achieved in this circuit with the help of a
SPDT Switch.

There are two main types of triggering given to the binary circuits.
They are

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 Symmetrical Triggering

 Asymmetrical Triggering

Schmitt Trigger

Another type of binary circuit which is ought to be discussed is

the Emitter Coupled Binary Circuit. This circuit is also called
as Schmitt Trigger circuit. This circuit is considered as a special type of
its kind for its applications.

The main difference in the construction of this circuit is that the

coupling from the output C2 of the second transistor to the base B1 of
the first transistor is missing and that feedback is obtained now
through the resistor Re. This circuit is called as the Regenerative
circuit for this has a positive feedback and no Phase inversion. The
circuit of Schmitt trigger using BJT is as shown below.

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Initially we have Q1 OFF and Q2 ON. The voltage applied at the base of
Q2 is VCC through RC1 and R1. So the output voltage will be

V0=Vcc−(Ic2Rc2)

As Q2 is ON, there will be a voltage drop across RE, which will be (IC2 +
IB2) RE. Now this voltage gets applied at the emitter of Q1. The input
voltage is increased and until Q1 reaches cut-in voltage to turn ON, the
output remains LOW. With Q1 ON, the output will increase as Q2 is also
ON. As the input voltage continues to rise, the voltage at the points
C1 and B2 continue to fall and E2 continues to rise. At certain value of
the input voltage, Q2 turns OFF. The output voltage at this point will be
VCC and remains constant though the input voltage is further increased.
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As the input voltage rises, the output remains LOW until the input
voltage reaches V1 where

V1=[Vcc−(Ic2Rc2)]

The value where the input voltage equals V1, lets the transistor Q1 to
enter into saturation, is called UTP (Upper Trigger Point). If the voltage
is already greater than V1, then it remains there until the input voltage
reaches V2, which is a low level transition. Hence the value for which
input voltage will be V2 at which Q2 gets into ON condition, is termed
as LTP (Lower Trigger Point).

Output Waveforms

The output waveforms are obtained as shown below.

The Schmitt trigger circuit works as a Comparator and hence

compares the input voltage with two different voltage levels called
as UTP (Upper Trigger Point) and LTP (Lower Trigger Point). If the
input crosses this UTP, it is considered as a HIGH and if it gets below
this LTP, it is taken as a LOW. The output will be a binary signal
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indicating 1 for HIGH and 0 for LOW. Hence an analog signal is

converted into a digital signal. If the input is at intermediate value
(between HIGH and LOW) then the previous value will be the output.

This concept depends upon the phenomenon called as Hysteresis. The

transfer characteristics of electronic circuits exhibit a loop called
as Hysteresis. It explains that the output values depends upon both
the present and the past values of the input. This prevents unwanted
frequency switching in Schmitt trigger circuits

Advantages

The advantages of Schmitt trigger circuit are

 Perfect logic levels are maintained.

 It helps avoiding Meta-stability.
 Preferred over normal comparators for its pulse conditioning.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantages of a Schmitt trigger are

 If the input is slow, the output will be slower.

 If the input is noisy, the output will be noisier.

Applications of Schmitt trigger

Schmitt trigger circuits are used as Amplitude Comparator and

Squaring Circuit. They are also used in Pulse conditioning and
sharpening circuits.

These are the Multivibrator circuits using transistors. The same

Multivibrators are designed using operational amplifiers and also IC
555 timer circuits, which are discussed in further tutorials.
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Applications of Multivibrators

Astable Multivibrators finds its applications in delay and timing

circuits and in transmission and reception of radio signals.

Monostable multivibrators are majorly used in analog systems in

order to control the frequency of the signal at the output. These are
also used for regenerating a distorted pulsed signal.

Bistable multivibrators are also used as a frequency divider, counters,

latches and in memory storage units.

So, we can conclude that a multivibrator generates rectangular,

triangular, ramp or square waveform as its output. At the same time, it
has the ability to store binary information and synchronizing multiple
operations of a digital system.

Voltage to Frequency Converter using AD654

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Voltage to Frequency Converter Circuit

A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is an oscillator that outputs a

square-wave, whose frequency is linearly proportional to its input
voltage. The output square wave can be directly fed to a digital pin of a
microcontroller to accurately measure the DC input voltage, which
means the input voltage can be measured using 8051 or any other
microcontroller which does not have any built-in ADC.

VFC is often mistaken with voltage-controlled-oscillator (VCO), but

VFCs have many advantages and enhanced performance specifications
which a (VCO) doesn’t have, like dynamic range, low linearity error,
stability with temperature and supply voltage and many more. The vice

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versa of VFC is also possible means frequency to voltage conversion,

which we already demonstrated in the previous tutorial.

Here IC AD654 is used in this circuit to demonstrate the operation,

which is a monolithic voltage to a frequency converter.
An oscilloscope is also used to show the output square wave.

IC AD654

AD654 is a voltage to frequency converter IC and comes in an 8-pin

DIP package. It is made out of an input amplifier, a very precise built-in
oscillator and a high current open collector output driver which allows
the IC to drive up to 12 TTL loads, optocouplers, long cables, or similar
loads, and can be operated in between (5-30) Volts. Another thing to
mention is that, unlike other IC’s, AD654 IC outputs a square wave, so
it's easy for a microcontroller to measure the readings. Some of the
most interesting features of this chip listed below.

Features:

 Wide Input Voltage ± 30 V

 Full-scale frequency up to 500 kHz

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 High Input Impedance of 125MΩ,

 Low drift (4 µV/°C)
 mA Quiescent Current
 Low offset 1 mV
 A minimal requirement for external components

Components Required

Sl.No Parts Type Quantity

1 AD654 IC 1

2 LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC 1

3 1000pF Capacitor 1

4 0.1uF Capacitor 1

5 470uF,25V Capacitor 1

6 10K,1% Resistor 4

7 Potentiometer, 10K Variable Resistor 1

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8 Power Supply Unit 12V, DC 1

9 Single Gauge Wire Generic 6

10 Breadboard Generic 1

Schematic Diagram

The schematic for this Voltage to Frequency converter circuit is taken

from the datasheet and some external components were added to
modify the circuit for this demonstration

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This circuit is constructed on a solderless breadboard with the

components shown in the schematic, for demonstration purposes a
potentiometer is added in the input section of the amplifier to vary the
input voltage and with that, we can observe the change in output.

How the Device Functions?

The internal operational amplifier is used as the input, and it's there to
convert the input voltage to drive current for the NPN follower when a
1mA drive current is provided to the current to a frequency converter.
It charges the external timing capacitor and this scheme allows the
oscillator to provide nonlinearity over the total voltage range of 100 nA
to 2mA. This output also goes to an output driver which is just an NPN
power transistor with an open collector from which we can get the
output

Calculations

To calculate the output frequency of the circuit theoretically, the

following formula can be used

Fout = Vin / 10*Rt*Ct

Where,

 Fout is the output frequency

 Vin is the input voltage of the circuit,

 Rt is the resistor for the RC oscillator

 Ct is the capacitor for the Rc oscillator

For example,

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 Vin be 0.1V or 100mV

 Rt is 10000K or 10K

 Ct be 0.001uF or 1000pF

Fout = 0.1 / (10 * 10 * 0.001)

Fout = 1 KHz

So, if 0.1V is applied to the input of the circuit we will get 1kHz in the
output

Voltage to Frequency Converter Testing

To test the circuit, the following tools are used

1. 12V Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

2. Meco 108B+ Multimeter
3. Hantech 600BE USB PC Oscilloscope

To construct the circuit, 1% Metal Film Resistors are used and the
tolerance of the capacitors is not taken into account. The room
temperature was 22 degree Celsius during testing.

Applications

This is a very useful IC and can be used for many applications, some of
them listed below

 AD654 VFC as an ADC

 Frequency Doubler
 Temperature sensor with thermocouple
 Strain gauge
 Function Generator
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 Self-Biasing Precision Clock

Frequency to Voltage Converter (F to V) Circuit using LM555 Timer

Usually, frequency to voltage converts (F to V converters) are

commonly allied with digital tachometers. Digital tachometers are
used to measure the rate of rotation of a wheel. These devices are
currently available in a different types of forms which uses frequency to
voltage converter. Most of the tachometers include reflective strip
which is placed on the object to be measured. The frequency to voltage
converter is used in many applications where repeating event
measurement requires like a wheel making a complete rotation. This F
to V converter is also used in place of the current encoders for the
robots to measure velocity.

F to V Converter

F to V Converter Circuit using LM555 Timer

LM555 Timer

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LM555 IC

The LM555 IC is a highly stable integrating circuit, that is used to

produce precise oscillation or time delays. Extra terminals are provided
for resetting or activating if desired. During time delay mode
operation, the time is controlled by one external resistor or capacitor.
The circuit may be activated & reset on falling waveforms, and the o/p
circuit can source or drive TTL circuits.

LM555 Timer Pin Configuration

The LM555 timer comprises of 8-pins and function of the each pin are
discussed below

555 Timer IC Pin Configuration

 Pin1 is a GND pin

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 Pin2 is a trigger pin, which is liable for conversion of the flip

flop from set to reset. The timer’s o/p depending on the
external trigger pulse amplitude which is applied to this trigger
pin.
 Pin3 is the output pin.
 Pin4 is the reset pin. When the negative pulse is applied to this
pin to reset the timer or disable, and false triggering can be
avoided by connecting this pin to VCC.
 Pin5 is the control voltage pin, this pin controls the trigger and
threshold levels. This pin controls the pulse width of the o/p
waveform. When an external voltage is applied, then the o/p
waveform will be modulated.
 Pin6 is the threshold pin, when the voltage is applied to this
pin, then it compares with a reference voltage. The amplitude
of this pin is responsible for the flip flop’s set state.
 Pin7 is the discharge pin, when the open collector o/p
discharges a capacitor among the intervals, then it toggles the
o/p from high to low.
 Pin8 is the V+ pin which is used to supply the voltage with
respect to GND terminal.

LM555 Timer based Frequency to Voltage Converter Circuit

The F to V converter circuit requires a power supply circuit. For the

below circuit. This circuit uses a 12V DC supply for powering the owl
circuit In the power supply circuit diagram the D4 and D3 bridges can
be made using diodes 1N4007, and 1A bridge rectifier modules also
exist in the market.

325
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

F to V using LM555 Timer IC Circuit

The Frequency to voltage converter circuit diagram is shown belo.

These circuits are used in many applications like tachometers, digital
frequency meters, etc. This circuit mainly uses a LM 555 timer IC and it
is wired in mono stable mode to change the i/p frequency into a fixed
pulse width and variable frequency PWM (pulse width modulation)
signal. Capacitor C2 and Resistor R4 afford the required timing for the
circuit. The T1 transistor forms a discharge path parallel to C2
capacitor, which is required for reactivating the IC and C1 capacitor
performs as an i/p DC de-coupler.

 This frequency to voltage Converter Circuit using LM555

 Timer can be assembled on a Vero board.
 It uses a 12V DC for driving the circuit.
 LM555 timer IC must be attached to a holder.
326
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4

 The o/p of this circuit is not a pure DC but a PWM waveform.\

 Extra circuitry is mandatory to convert this waveform from
PWM to pure DC.

There are many features of using an LM555 timer in this circuit.

Because, we can directly replace the SE555 or NE555. This IC operates
in both astable and monostable modes. It has an adjustable duty cycle
and the temperature stability is better than 0.005% per °C. The output
of the LM555 timer IC is normally ON and normally OFF. It is available
in the package of 8-pin VSSOP.

Some More F to V Converter Circuits

LM331 based frequency to voltage converter is a precise and compact

circuit from national semiconductors. The circuit is extremely linear
and has a very great dynamic range.The circuit operated from a single
supply and can be easily assembled.

NE555 based F to V converter is one of the great application of IC

NE555 timer. A simple to V converter works from 12V DC. This circuit
uses a maximum number of electronic components.

The applications of LM555 IC timer mainly involve in precision and

sequential timing, generation of pulse and time delay, linear ramp
generator, pulse width modulation and pulse position modulation.

327
ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

THE LEARN WITH As per updated syllabus

EXPERTIES DIWAKAR
EDUCTION HUB
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

1. Which of the following isn’t a type c) sin-1 VD/VI

of rectifier? d) sin-1 VD/VI – VI
a) Precision Half-wave Rectifier
Answer: c
b) Bridge Rectifier
Explanation: The diode doesn’t
c) Peak Rectifier
conducts when VD ≥VI . Hence Θ = sin-
d) None of the mentioned 1 ( /V ).
D I

Answer: d
4. Bridge rectifier is an alternative for
Explanation: All of the mentioned are
a) Full wave rectifier
different types of a rectifier.
b) Peak rectifier
2. For a half wave or full wave c) Half wave rectifier
rectifier the Peak Inverse Voltage of d) None of the mentioned
the rectifier is always
Answer: a
a) Greater than the input voltage
Explanation: Bridge rectifier is a
b) Smaller than the input voltage
better alternative for a full wave
c) Equal to the input voltage
rectifier.
d) Greater than the input voltage for
full wave rectifier and smaller for the 5. Which of the following is true for a
half wave rectifier bridge rectifier?
a) The peak inverse voltage or PIV for
Answer: b
the bridge rectifier is lower when
Explanation: The peak input voltage is
compared to an identical center
smaller than the input voltage due to
tapped rectifier
the presence of diode(s). A single
b) The output voltage for the center
diode reduces the output voltage by
tapped rectifier is lower than the
approximately 0.7V.
identical bridge rectifier
3. For a half-wave rectifier having c) A transistor of higher number of
diode voltage VD and supply input of coil is required for center tapped
VI, the diode conducts for π – 2Θ, rectifier than the identical bridge
where Θ is given by rectifier
a) tan -1 VD/VI d) All of the mentioned
b) tan-1 VD/VI – VI

2
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: d with a resistor can only makes ripples

Explanation: All of the given go away. Series connection will
statements are true for a bridge become equal to an open circuit once
rectifier. the capacitor is fully charged.

6. The diode rectifier works well 8. Consider a peak rectifier fed by a

enough if the supply voltage is much 60-Hz sinusoid having a peak value
than greater than 0.7V. For smaller Vp = 100 V. Let the load resistance R
voltage (of few hundreds of millivolt) = 10 kΩ. Calculate the fraction of the
input which of the following can be cycle during which the diode is
used? conducting
a) Superdiode a) 1.06 %
b) Peak rectifier b) 2.12 %
c) Precision rectifier c) 3.18%
d) None of the mentioned d) 4.24%

Answer: a Answer: c
Explanation: For the supply voltages Explanation: w Δt ~ √(2Vr/Vp)
less than 0.7V super diodes are used. Θ = √(2 X 2/100)
Θ = 0.2 rad or 3.18% of the cycle
7. A simple diode rectifier has
‘ripples’ in the output wave which (Q.9-Q.10) The op amp in the
makes it unsuitable as a DC source. precision rectifier circuit is ideal with
To overcome this one can use output saturation levels of ±12 V.
a) A capacitor in series with a the Assume that when conducting the
load resistance diode exhibits a constant voltage
b) A capacitor in parallel to the load drop of 0.7 V.
resistance
c) Both of the mentioned situations
will work
d) None of the mentioned situations
will work

Answer: b
Explanation: A capacitor is parallel
3
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

9. Find V– when VI is -1V. Virtual gnd as negative feedback is

a) 0V closed through R.
b) 0.7V VI > 0 D1 conducts D2 cutoff.
c) 1V VI < 0 D2 conducts D1 cutoff.
d) 1.7V V ⁄
0 VI = -1.

Answer: a
Explanation: VI = -1v
Vo = 1v
VA = 1.7v
V– = 0v
Virtual gnd as negative feedback is
closed through R.
VI > 0 D1 conducts D2 cutoff. 11. The diode in a half wave rectifier
VI < 0 D2 conducts D1 cutoff. has a forward resistance RF. The
V ⁄
0 VI = -1.
voltage is Vmsinωt and the load
resistance is RL. The DC current is
given by _________
a) Vm/√2RL
b) Vm/(RF+RL)π
c) 2Vm/√π
d) Vm/RL

10. Find V0 when VI is 2V. Answer: b

a) 0V Explanation: For a half wave rectifier,
b) 0.7V the IDC=IAVG=Im/π
c) 1V I= Vmsinωt/(RF+RL)=Imsinωt
d) 1.7V Im =Vm/ RF+RL So, IDC=Im/π=Vm/(RF+RL).

Answer: a 12. The below figure arrives to a

Explanation: VI = 2v conclusion that _________
Vo = 0v
VA = -0.7v
V– = 0v

4
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 0
b) -Vi
c) Vi
d) 2Vi

Answer: c
Explanation: When the input of the
inverted mode op-amp is positive,
a) for Vi > 0, V0=-(R2/R1)Vi the output is negative.
b) for Vi > 0, V0=0 The diode is reverse biased. The input
c) Vi < 0, V0=-(R2/R1)Vi appears at the output.
d) Vi < 0, V0=0
14. In a half wave rectifier, the sine
Answer: b wave input is 50sin50t. If the load
Explanation: The given op-amp is in resistance is of 1K, then average DC
inverting mode and this makes the power output will be?
output voltage to have a phase shift a) 3.99V
of 180°. The output voltage is now b) 2.5V
negative. So, the diode 1 is reverse c) 5.97V
biased and diode 2 is forward biased. d) 6.77V
Then output is clearly zero.
Answer: b
13. What is the output as a function Explanation: The standard form of a
of the input voltage (for positive sine wave is Vmsinωt. BY comparing
values) for the given figure. Assume the given information with this
it’s an ideal op-amp with zero equation, Vm =50.
forward drop (Di=0) Power=Vm2/RL=50*50/1000=2.5V.

15. In a half wave rectifier, the sine

wave input is 200sin300t. The
average value of output voltage is?
a) 57.876V
b) 67.453V
c) 63.694V
d) 76.987V
5
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: c occur. For a rectifier, PIV=Vm-Vd=5-

Explanation: Comparing with the 0.7=4.3V.
standard equation, Vm=200V.
18. Transformer utilisation factor of a
Average value is given by, Vavg=Vm/π.
half wave rectifier is _________
So, 200/π=63.694.
a) 0.234
16. Efficiency of a half wave rectifier b) 0.279
is c) 0.287
a) 50% d) 0.453
b) 60%
Answer: c
c) 40.6%
Explanation: Transformer utilisation
d) 46%
factor is the ratio of AC power
Answer: c delivered to load to the DC power
Explanation: Efficiency of a rectifier is rating. This factor indicates
the effectiveness to convert AC to DC. effectiveness of transformer usage by
For half wave it’s 40.6%. It’s given by, rectifier. For a half wave rectifier, it’s
Vout/Vin*100. low and equal to 0.287.

17. If peak voltage for a half wave 19. If the input frequency of a half
rectifier circuit is 5V and diode cut in wave rectifier is 100Hz, then the
voltage is 0.7, then peak inverse ripple frequency will be_________
voltage on diode will be? a) 150Hz
a) 5V b) 200Hz
b) 4.9V c) 100Hz
c) 4.3V d) 300Hz
d) 6.7V
Answer: c
Answer: c Explanation: The ripple frequency of
Explanation: PIV is the maximum the output and input is same. This is
reverse bias voltage that can be because, one half cycle of input is
appeared across a diode in the given passed and other half cycle is seized.
circuit, If the PIV rating is less than So, effectively the frequency is the
this value of breakdown of diode will same.

6
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

20. Ripple factor of a half wave 22. A full wave rectifier supplies a
rectifier is_________(Im is the peak load of 1KΩ. The AC voltage applied
current and RL is load resistance) to diodes is 220V (rms). If diode
a) 1.414 resistance is neglected, what is the
b) 1.21 ripple voltage?
c) 1.4 a) 0.562V
d) 0.48 b) 0.785V
c) 0.954V
Answer: b
d) 0.344V
Explanation: The ripple factor of a
rectifier is the measure of Answer: c
disturbances produced in the output. Explanation: The ripple voltage is
It’s the effectiveness of a power (Vϒ)RMS=ϒVDC /100.
supply filter to reduce the ripple VDC=0.636*VRMS* √2=0.636*220*
voltage. The ratio of ripple voltage to √2=198V and ripple factor ϒ for full
DC output voltage is ripple factor wave rectifier is 0.482.
which is 1.21. Hence, (Vϒ)RMS=0.482*198
/100=0.954V.
21. Efficiency of a centre tapped full
wave rectifier is _________ 23. A full wave rectifier delivers 50W
a) 50% to a load of 200Ω. If the ripple factor
b) 46% is 2%, calculate the AC ripple across
c) 70% the load.
d) 81.2% a) 2V
b) 5V
Answer: d
c) 4V
Explanation: Efficiency of a rectifier is
d) 1V
the effectiveness to convert AC to DC.
It’s obtained by taking ratio of DC Answer: a
power output to maximum AC power Explanation: We know that,
delivered to load. It’s usually PDC=VDC2/RL. So,
expressed in percentage. For centre VDC=(PDC*RL)1/2=100001/2=100V.
tapped full wave rectifier, it’s 81.2%. Here, ϒ=0.02

7
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

ϒ=VAC/VDC=VAC/100.So, a) 54%
VAC=0.02*100=2V. b) 48%
c) 26%
24. A full wave rectifier uses load
d) 81%
resistor of 1500Ω. Assume the diodes
have Rf=10Ω, Rr=∞. The voltage Answer: b
applied to diode is 30V with a Explanation: The ripple factor ϒ=
frequency of 50Hz. Calculate the AC [(IRMS/IAVG)2 – 1]1/2.
power input. IRMS =Im /√2=Vm/(Rf+RL)√2=200/1.01=1
a) 368.98mW 98.
b) 275.2mW (Secondary line to line voltage is
c) 145.76mW 800/2=400. Due to centre tap
d) 456.78mW Vm=400/2=200)
IRMS=198/√2=140mA,
Answer: b
IAVG=2*198/π=126mA. ϒ=[(140/126)2-
Explanation: The AC power input
1]1/2=0.48. So, ϒ=48%.
PIN=IRMS2(RF+Rr).
IRMS=Im/√2=Vm/(Rf+RL)√2=30/(1500+1 26. If input frequency is 50Hz for a
0)*1.414=13.5mA full wave rectifier, the ripple
So, PIN=(13.5*10- frequency of it would be _________
3)2*(1500+10)=275.2mW. a) 100Hz
b) 50Hz
25. In a centre tapped full wave
c) 25Hz
rectifier, RL=1KΩ and for diode
d) 500Hz
Rf=10Ω. The primary voltage is
800sinωt with transformer turns Answer: a
ratio=2. The ripple factor will be Explanation: In the output of the
_________ centre tapped rectifier, one of the
half cycle is repeated. The frequency
will be twice as that of input
frequency. So, it’s 100Hz.

27. Transformer utilization factor of a

centre tapped full wave rectifier
is_________
8
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 0.623
b) 0.678
c) 0.693
d) 0.625

Answer: c
Explanation: Transformer utilisation
factor is the ratio of AC power
delivered to load to the DC power c)
rating. This factor indicates
effectiveness of transformer usage by
rectifier. For a half wave rectifier, it’s
low and equal to 0.693.

28. In the circuits given below, the

correct full wave rectifier is
_________

d)

Answer: c
Explanation: When the input is
applied, a full wave rectifier should
have a current flow. The flow should
be in the same direction for both
a)
positive and negative half cycles. Only
the third circuit satisfies the above
condition.

29. If the peak voltage on a centre

tapped full wave rectifier circuit is 5V
and diode cut in voltage is 0.7. The
peak inverse voltage on diode
is_________
b)
9
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 4.3V b) Adjustable output voltage

b) 9.3V regulator
c) 5.7V c) Switching regulator
d) 10.7V d) Special regulator

Answer: b Answer: c
Explanation: PIV is the maximum Explanation: In linear regulator’s the
reverse bias voltage that can be impedance of active element may be
appeared across a diode in the given continuously varied to supply a
circuit, if PIV rating is less than this desired current to the load. But in the
value of breakdown of diode will switching regulator, a switch is
occur. For a rectifier, PIV=2Vm-Vd = turned on and off.
10-0.7 = 9.3V.
32. What is the dropout voltage in a
30. In a centre tapped full wave three terminal IC regulator?
rectifier, the input sine wave is a) |Vin| ≥ |Vo|+2v
250sin100t. The output ripple b) |Vin| < |Vo|-2v
frequency will be _________ c) |V in| = |Vo|
a) 50Hz d) |Vin| ≤ |Vo|
b) 100Hz
Answer: a
c) 25Hz
Explanation: The unregulated input
d) 200Hz
voltage must be atleast 2V more than
Answer: b the regulated output voltage. For
Explanation: The equation of sine example, if Vo=5V, then Vin=7V.
wave is in the form Vmsinωt. So, by
33. To get a maximum output
comparing we get ω=100. Frequency,
current, IC regulation are provided
f =ω/2=50Hz. The output of centre
with
tapped full wave rectifier has double
a) Radiation source
the frequency of inpu. Hence, fout =
b) Heat sink
100Hz.
c) Peak detector
31. Which is not considered as a d) None of the mentioned
linear voltage regulator?
a) Fixed output voltage regulator
10
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b [ß×(VEB(ON)/R1)]=[(15+1)×2]–
Explanation: The load current may [15×(1v/12 Ω)] =32-1.25 =30.75A.
vary from 0 to rated maximum
35. Which type of regulator is
output current. To maintain this
considered more efficient?
condition, the IC regulator is usually
a) All of the mentioned
provided with a heat sink; otherwise
b) Special regulator
it may not provide the rated
c) Fixed output regulator
maximum output current.
d) Switching regulator
34. For the given circuit, let
Answer: d
VEB(ON)=1v, ß= 15 and IO=2mA.
Explanation: The switching element
Calculate the load current
dissipates negligible power in either
on or off state. Therefore, the
switching regulator is more efficient
than the linear regulators.

36. State the reason for thermal

shutdown of IC regulator?
a) Spikes in temperature
b) Decrease in temperature
c) Fluctuation in temperature
d) Increase in temperature

Answer: d
Explanation: The IC regulator has a
a) IL = 23.45A temperature sensor (built-in) which
b) IL = 46.32A turn off the IC, when it becomes too
c) IL = 56.87A hot (usually 125oC-150oC). The output
d) IL = 30.75A current will drop and remains there
until the IC has cooled significantly.
Answer: d
Explanation: The equation for load 37. Find the difference between
current, IL = [(ß+1)IO]- output current having a load of 100Ω
and 120Ω for 7805 IC regulator.

11
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Consider the following specification: and is also expressed in millivolts or

Voltage across the load = 5v; Voltage as a percentage of output voltage.
across the internal resistor= 350mv.
39. An IC 7840 regulator has an
a) 8.4mA
output current =180mA and internal
b) 7mA
resistor =10Ω. Find the collector
c) 9mA
current in the output using the
d) 3.4mA
transistor specification: ß=15 and
Answer: a VEB(ON) =1.5v.
Explanation: Given the voltage across a) 270mA
the internal resistor to be 350mv, b) 450mA
which is less than 0.7v. Hence the c) 100mA
transistor in 7805 is off. d) 50mA
When load = 100Ω, IL= IO= Ii= 5v/100
Answer: b
Ω = 50mA
Explanation: The collector current
When load=120Ω, IO= 5v/120 Ω =
from transistor, IC= ßIB
41.6mA.
Where, IB= IO-(VEB(ON)/R1) = 180mA-
So, the difference between the
(1.5v-10Ω) = 0.03A.
output voltage = 50-41.6mA = 8.4mA.
Therefore, IC= 15×0.03 = 0.45A =
38. The change in output voltage for 450mA.
the corresponding change in load
40. How the average temperature
current in a 7805 IC regulator is
coefficient of output voltage
defined as
expressed in fixed voltage regulator?
a) All of the mentioned
a) miilivolts/oC
b) Line regulation
b) miilivoltsoC
c) Load regulation
c) None of the mentioned
d) Input regulation
d) oC/ miilivolts
Answer: c
Answer: a
Explanation: Load regulation is
Explanation: The temperature
defined as the change in output
stability or average temperature
voltage for a change in load current
coefficient of output voltage, is the
change in the output voltage per unit
12
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

change in temperature and expressed IO = [IL/(ß+1)]+ [ß×(VEB(ON)/R1) =

in miilivolts/oC. [1/(16+1)]+[16×(0.8/2Ω)] ≅111mA.
=> IC=IL-IO=1A-111mA =889mA.
41. In the circuit given below, let
VEB(ON)=0.8v and ß=16. Calculate the 42. Calculate the output voltage for
output current coming from 7805 IC LM314 regulator. The current IADJ is
and collector current coming from very small in the order of 100µA.
transistor Q1 for a load of 5Ω. (Assume VREF=1.25v)

a) 17.17v
b) 34.25v
c) 89.34v
a) IO =111mA, IC= 808mA d) 23.12v
b) IO =111mA, IC= 829mA
Answer: a
c) IO =111mA, IC= 881mA
Explanation: The output voltage,
d) IO =111mA, IC= 889mA
VO =VREF[1=(R2/R1)]+(IADJ×R2)=1.25Vin×
Answer: d [1+(3kΩ/240Ω)] +( 100µA×3kΩ )=
Explanation: When load = 5Ω, IL= 16.875 +0.3.
5v/5Ω =1A. The voltage across R1 is => VO=17.17v.
7Ω × 1A=7v. Since, IL is more than
43. Compute the input voltage of
100mA, the transistor Q1 turns on
7805c voltage regulator with a
and supplies the extra current
current source that will deliver a
required.
0.725A current to 65Ω, 10w load.
Therefore, IL =(ß+1)IO-[ß×(VEB(ON)/R1)
(Assume reference voltage =5v)
13
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) Vin = 84v regulator, which can act as both a low

b) Vin = 34v voltage regulator as well as a high
c) Vin = 54v voltage regulator. Output can be set
d) Vin = 64v between 7-37 volts. 7 volts is the
reference starting voltage.
Answer: c
Explanation: VO=VREF+VL =VREF+(IL×RL) 46. Consider the circuit shown below
= 5v+(0.725A×65Ω) = 52.125v where the breakdown voltage of the
=> Input voltage, Vin = VO + dropout diode is 5V. Source voltage varies
voltage = 52.125v+2v. between 6V to 12V.
=> Vin ≅54v.

44. Which of the following is not a

characteristic of adjustable voltage
regulators?
a) Non-versatile
b) Better performance Find the maximum current through
c) Increased reliability the R2, given that R1=2kΩ and
d) None of the mentioned R2=5kΩ.
a) 3.5 mA
Answer: a
b) 1 mA
Explanation: Adjustable voltage
c) 1.4mA
regulators are versatile; it has
d) 0.2 mA
improved over-load protection
allowing greater output current over Answer: c
operating temperature range. Explanation: Source current is I = VS-
VZ/R2
45. What is IC 723?
Thus here I is maximum when VS is
a) A voltage regulator
maximum.
b) A full-wave rectifier
I = 12-5/5000 = 1.4 mA.
c) A half-wave rectifier
d) A clipper 47. For a Zener diode shunt regulator,
the source current is IS, the Zener
Answer: a
diode current is IZ and the load
Explanation: The IC 723 is a voltage
current is IL. The source voltage is VS,
14
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Zener voltage is VZ and load voltage is process of keeping the load voltage
VL. The load resistance is RL. What is constant, irrespective of fluctuation
the correct option for the safe in AC supply or the line voltage. In
operation of the diode? line regulation, the load current is
a) IS = IZ + IL considered constant.
b) IS =< IZmax + IL
49. What is load regulation?
c) IS =< IZmin + IL
a) The process of keeping the load
d) VL = VZ
voltage constant irrespective of any
Answer: b change in AC supply
Explanation: For proper operation, b) The process of keeping the load
the current through RS should be at voltage constant irrespective of
least equal to the sum of IZmin a variations in load current
specified load current. IS >= IZmin + IL c) The process of keeping load
For safe operation of the diode, IS =< voltage constant irrespective of
IZmax + IL. variations in source current
d) The process of keeping load
48. What is line regulation?
current constant irrespective of
a) The process of keeping Zener
variations in AC supply
diode voltage constant inspite of
changes in AC supply Answer: b
b) The process of keeping load Explanation: Load regulation is the
voltage constant irrespective of the process of keeping VO constant
fluctuation in AC supply or the line irrespective of variations in load
voltage current. The line voltage is taken to
c) The process of keeping load be constant during load regulation.
voltage constant irrespective of
50. Find the power rating of the
fluctuation in load current
diode in the given circuit. The
d) The process of keeping Zener
breakdown voltage of the diode is 5V.
current constant irrespective of
fluctuation in AC supply

Answer: b
Explanation: Line regulation is the

15
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 200 mW IS >= 10mA

b) 125 mW V1-5/R2 >= 10mA
c) 250 mW R2 =< V1-5/10-2
d) 300 mW Thus R2 =< 1500Ω when V1 = 20V
And R2 =< 4500Ω when V1 = 50V
Answer: c
Hence R2 =< 1500Ω.
Explanation: Source current IS = 15-
5/200 = 0.05A = 50 mA 52. In the figure below, the voltage
The power rating of the diode is the V1 ranges from 15 to 35V. The load
maximum power it can dissipate current is 20mA. The diode knee
which occurs when the load is current is 2 mA, the breakdown
disconnected because then the whole voltage is 5V and power rating is 200
current flows into the diode. mW.
Hence maximum power rating is P =
VZxIZ = 5×50 = 250 mW.

51. The following circuit is provided.

Calculate the range of R2 for the

circuit to behave properly as a
regulator.
a) 400Ω =< R2 =< 500Ω
b) 450Ω =< R2 =< 500Ω
Given that V1 varies from 20V to 50V,
c) 454Ω =< R2 =< 500Ω
the diode breakdown voltage is 5V,
d) 454Ω =< R2 =< 600Ω
the knee current is 1mA and the
current is 9 mA across R1, find the Answer: c
maximum value of R2. Explanation: IS >= IL + IZmin
a) 4500Ω IS >= 22mA
b) 1500Ω IZmax = 200mW/5 = 40 mA.
c) 2000Ω V1 is minimum, IS >= IZmin + IL
d) 5000Ω V1-5/R2 >= 22mA
R2 <= 454 Ω
Answer: b
IS =< IZmax + IL when VS is maximum
Explanation: IS >= IZmin + IL
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

V1-5/R2 =< 60mA choke

R2 >= 500 Ω d) None of the mentioned
Hence 454Ω =< R2 =< 500Ω.
Answer: c
53. Which of these is a not drawback Explanation: To minimize power
of Zener diode shunt regulator? dissipation during switching, the
a) The output voltage is fixed external transistor must be a
b) The output voltage can vary with switching power transistor and a
temperature 1mH choke smooth out the current
c) Variation in load current needs to pulses delivered to the load.
be minimal
55. Fixed voltage regulators and
d) It is difficult to design
adjustable regulators are often called
Answer: d as
Explanation: The Zener diode shunt a) Series dissipative regulators
regulator is a simple voltage regulator b) Shunt dissipative regulators
circuit which provides a fixed output c) Stray dissipative regulators
voltage. However, due to the d) All the mentioned
presence of the Zener diode, the
Answer: a
output is temperature dependent
Explanation: Series dissipative
because the breakdown voltage of
regulators simulate a variable
Zener diode depends on
resistance between the input voltage
temperature. When load current
& the load and hence functions in a
varies a lot, then Zener current also
linear mode.
varies which causes a change in
output voltage. 56. Linear series regulators are suited
for application with
54. What is done in switching
a) High current
regulators to minimize its power
b) Medium current
dissipation during switching?
c) Low current
a) Uses external transistor
d) None of the mentioned
b) Uses 1mH choke
c) Uses external transistor and 1mH Answer: b
Explanation: In series dissipative

17
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

regulator, conversion efficiency which the components are

decreases as the input or output connected.
voltage differential increases and vice
59. What are the conditions to be
versa. So, linear series regulators are
satisfied by a voltage source for using
suited for medium current
it in switching regulator.
application with a small voltage
1. It must supply the required output
differential.
power and the losses associated with
57. A series switching regulators the switching regulator
a) Improves the efficiency of 2. It must be large enough to supply
regulators sufficient dynamic range line and load
b) Improves the flexibility of variations
switching 3. It must be sufficient high to meet
c) Enhance the response of regulators the minimum requirement of the
d) All of the mentioned regulator system to be designed
4. It may be required to store energy
Answer: a
for a specified amount of time during
Explanation: A series switching
power failure especially if the system
regulators is constructed such that, a
is designed for a computer power
series pass transistor is used as a
supply.
switch rather than as a variable
a) 1 and 3
resistance in linear mode.
b) 1,2,3 and 4
58. The switching regulators can c) 2,3 and 4
operate in d) 1,3 and 4
a) Step up
Answer: b
b) Step down
Explanation: A voltage source must
c) Polarity inverting
satisfy the entire given requirement
d) All the mentioned
to be used in switching regulator.
Answer: d
60. Which among the following act as
Explanation: The switching regulators
a switch in switching regulator?
can operate in any one of the three
a) Rectifiers
modes depending on the way in
b) Diode

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

c) Transistors switching mechanism allows a

d) Relays conversion similar to transformers,
the switching regulators is often
Answer: c
referred to as a DC transformer.
Explanation: A transistor is connected
as power switch and is operated in 63. Which of the following is
the saturated mode.Thus, the pulse considered to be the most important
generator output alternatively turns components of the switching
the switch ON and OFF in switching regulator?
regulator. a) RC or RLC filter
b) RL or RLC filter
61. What should be the frequency
c) ORC or RL filter
range of pulse generator?
d) RC, RLC or RL filter
a) 250 kHz
b) 40 kHz Answer: b
c) 120 kHz Explanation: RL or RLC filter is the
d) 20 kHz most important components of the
switching regulator, because there
Answer: d
are several areas that are affected by
Explanation: The most effective
the choke of inductor including
frequency range for pulse generator
energy storage for the regulators
for optimum efficiency and
output ripple, transient, response etc.
component size is 20kHz.
64. Which is the most commonly
62. Filter used in switching
used low voltage switching
regulator’s are also as called
regulators?
a) DC – AC transformers
a) Powdered Permalloy toroids
b) AC – DC transformers
b) Fermite EI, U and toroid cores
c) DC transformer
c) Silicon steel EI butt stacks
d) AC transformer
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c
Answer: c
Explanation: Filter converts the pulse
Explanation: The silicon steel EI butt
waveform from the output of the
stack exhibits high permeability high
switch into a dc voltage. Since this
flux density and ease of construction
19
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

and mounting therefore, it is most saturating Voltage Vs=1.1v and the

commonly used in low voltage forward voltage drop Vd = 1.257v
switching regulators. a) η = 75%
b) η = 48.5%
65. Find the value of Rsc, L and Co for
c) η = 63.9%
a µA7840 switching regulator to
d) η = 80.5%
provide +5 v at 3A, using the
following specifications: toff= 24µs, Answer: d
ripple voltage = 400mA and ton=26µs. Explanation: Efficiency of the step
a) Rsc = 55 mΩ , L = 25µH & Co = down switching regulator, η = {[(Vin-
750µF Vs+Vd)]/ [Vin]}×(Vo) / [(Vo+Vd)] =
b) Rsc = 550 mΩ , L = 25µH & Co = {[(13.5v-1.1v+1.257v)/13.5v]} ×[(6/(6
75µF ×1.257)] => Efficiency of switching
c) Rsc = 650 mΩ , L = 25µH & Co = 65µF regulator, η = (1.012×0.7955)×100 =
d) Rsc = 720 mΩ , L = 25µH & Co = 0.8051×100 = 80.5%.
250µF
67. Match the characteristics for
Answer: a various switching regulators.
Explanation: Peak current,Ipk=
400mA× 1.5 (since Ipk = 1.5 A for peak Switching
Characteristics
current) regulator
∴ Rsc = 0.33ohm/Ipk = 0.33ohm/6 =
0.055ohm.
(i) [ton / toff ] = [ Vo +
=> L= [(Vo +Vp) / I pk]×toff =[(5+1.25) /6 1.
Vd] / [Vin -Vs -Vd]; Rsc =
]× 24×10-6 =25µH. Inverting
( 0.33/ Ipk)
=> Co = [Ipk (Ton +Toff)]/[8×Vripple] ∵T =
[ton + toff] = 26µs + 24µs = 50µs
=> Co = [ (6×50µs)]/(8×50mA) = (ii) [ton / toff ] = [ Vo +
2. step
7.5×10-4 = 750µF. Vd -Vin] / [Vin-Vs] ;
down
Rsc = ( 0.33/ Ipk)
66. Calculate the efficiency of the
step down switching regulator given
the input voltage Vin= 13.5v and
output voltage =6v. Assume the

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) To increase gain of op-amp

(iii) [ton / toff ] = [
c) To reduce input offset current
Modulus Vo +Vd] /
3. step up d) To protect op-amp from damage
(Vin-Vs); Rsc = ( 0.33/
Ipk Answer: d
Explanation: The diodes protect the
a) 1- iii , 2- i , 3- ii op-amp from damage due to
b) 1- i , 2- ii , 3- iii excessive input voltage. Because of
c) 1- iii , 2- ii , 3- i these diodes the difference input
d) 1- iii , 2- ii , 3- i voltage of the op-amp is clamped to
0.7v or -0.7 v, hence these diodes are
Answer: b
clamp diodes.
Explanation: Characteristics and
design formula for step up, step 70. Find the non-inverting
down and converting mode of comparator
switching regulator.

68. Depending on the value of input

and reference voltage a comparator
can be named as
a) Voltage follower
b) Digital to analog converter
c) Schmitt trigger
d) Voltage level detector

Answer: d
Explanation: A comparator is some
time called as voltage level detector
because, for a desired value of
reference voltage, the voltage level of
the input can be detected.

69. Why clamp diodes are used in Answer: a

comparator? Explanation: In a non-inverting
a) To reduce output offset voltage comparator a fixed reference voltage

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Vref of 1v is applied to positive and input offset (voltage & current)

inverting input terminal and the help to keep changes in temperature
other time vary in signal voltage is variation very slight.
applied to non-inverting input
73. How to keep the output voltage
terminal of the op-amp.
swing of the op-amp comparator
71. How the op-amp comparator within specific limits?
should be choosen to get higher a) External resistors or diodes are
speed of operation? used
a) Large gain b) External zeners or diodes are used
b) High slew rate c) External capacitors or diodes are
c) Wider bandwidth used
d) None of the mentioned d) External inductors or diodes are
used
Answer: c
Explanation: The bandwidth of the Answer: b
op-amp comparator must be wider so Explanation: To keep the output
that the output of comparator can voltage swing within specific limit,
switch rapidly between saturation op-amps are used with external wired
levels. Also, the op-amp responds components such as zeners or diodes.
instantly to any change in condition In the resulting circuit, the outputs
at the input. are limited to predetermined values.

72. How to obtain high rate of 74. Zero crossing detectors is also
accuracy in comparator? called as
a) Input offset a) Square to sine wave generator
b) High voltage gain b) Sine to square wave generator
c) High CMRR c) Sine to triangular wave generator
d) All of the mentioned d) All of the mentioned

Answer: d Answer: b
Explanation: High voltage gain causes Explanation: In zero crossing
comparator output voltage to switch detectors, the output waveform is
between saturation levels. High always a square wave for the applied
CMRR rejects noise at input terminal sinusoidal input signal.
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

75. What is the drawback in zero 77. Name the comparator that helps
crossing detectors? to find unknown input.
a) Low frequency signal and noise at a) Time marker generator
output terminal b) Zero crossing detectors
b) High frequency signal and noise at c) Phase meter
input terminal d) Window detector
c) Low frequency signal and noise at
Answer: d
input terminal
Explanation: Sometimes it is
d) High frequency signal and noise at
necessary to find the instant at which
output terminal
an unknown input is between two
Answer: c threshold levels. This can be achieved
Explanation: Due to low frequency by a circuit called window detector.
signal, the output voltage may not
78. Find the instance at which the
switch quickly from one saturation
input can be fed to the op-amp in a
voltage to other. The presence of
three level comparator with LED
noise can fluctuate the output
indicator.
between two saturation voltages.

76. State a method to overcome the

drawback of zero crossing detectors?
a) Increasing input voltage
b) Use of positive feedback
c) Connect a compensating network
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: b
Explanation: The drawback of zero
crossing detectors can be in cured
with the use of regenerative or
positive feedback that causes the
output to change faster and eliminate
any false output transition due to
noise signals at the input.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) When Green LED glow

b) When Yellow LED glow
c) When Red LED glow
d) All of the mentioned

Answer: a
Explanation: The input can be fed to
the op-amp when the green LED
glows, which is considered to be safe
input that is when the input voltage is
between 3v and 6v.

79. Find the output voltage at the

point V2 from the given circuit.

Answer: b
Explanation: The output of the zero
crossing detector is differentiated by
an RC circuit (RC>>1). So, the voltage
at V2 is a series of positive and
negative pulses.

80. Mention the application areas of

time marker generator can be used
a) Monoshots
b) SCR
c) Sweep voltage of CRT
d) All of the mentioned

Answer: d
Explanation: A diode connected at
the output of time marker generator
circuit converts the sinusoidal signal
into a train of positive pulses. So,

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

these pulses are used in triggering

the monoshot, SCR, sweep voltage of
CRT, etc.

81. Which among the following is

used to increase phase angle
between different voltages?
a) Phase detector
b) Window detector
c) Zero crossing detector
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: a
Explanation: Phase angle between
different voltages can be measured
using phase detector circuit. The
corresponding voltage to be
Answer: a
measured is converted into spikes
Explanation: The open loop voltage
and the time interval between the
gain of an ideal op-amp AOl=∞, even
pulse spikes is measured, which is
a small positive or negative voltage at
proportional to the phase difference.
the input drives the output to ±Vsat.
82. For the comparator shown below, So, the output voltage VO = ±(
determine the transfer curves if an V2 +Vsat)
ideal op-amp with VZ1= VZ2=9v. Therefore, VO = ±(VZ+VSat) =± (9+0.7) =
±9.7 v.

83. Which circuit converts irregularly

shaped waveform to regular shaped
waveforms?
a) Schmitt trigger
b) Voltage limiter
c) Comparator
d) None of the mentioned

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: a 85. What happens if the threshold

Explanation: Schmitt trigger are also voltages are made longer than the
called as squaring circuit because, noise voltages in schmitt trigger?
this type of circuit converts an a) All the mentioned
irregularly shaped wave to a square b) Enhance the output signal
wave or pulse. c) Reduce the transition effect
d) Eliminate false output transition
84. Determine the upper and lower
threshold voltage Answer: d
Explanation: In schmitt trigger, if the
threshold voltage VUT and VLT are
made larger than the input noise
voltage. The positive feedback will
eliminate the false output transition.

86. To a schmitt trigger in non-

inverting configuration an input
triangular wave of 1Vp is applied.
What will be the output waveform, if
the upper and lower threshold
a) VUT = +14.63v, VLT= +14.63v voltages are 0.25v?
b) VUT = -14.63v, VLT= -14.63v a) Square waveform
c) VUT = VLT= ±14.63v b) Pulse waveform
d) None of the mentioned c) Sawtooth waveform
d) Cannot be determined
Answer: b
Explanation: Upper threshold voltage, Answer: a
VUT = [R1/(R1+ R2)]× (+Vsat) = Explanation: The input waveform has
[10kΩ/(10kΩ +250Ω)]×(+15v)=
+14.63v.
Lower threshold voltage VLT = [R1/(R1+
R2)]×( -Vsat) = [10kΩ /(10kΩ+250Ω)]×(-
15v)= -14.63v.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a threshold level of ±0.25v. +Vsat to -Vsat. It reverts back to its

original state, +Vsat when the input
goes below lower threshold voltage.

88. Calculate the hysteresis voltage

for the schmitt trigger from the given
specification:
R2 =56kΩ , R1 = 100Ω ,Vref = 0v & Vsat =
±14v.

87. In which configuration a dead

band condition occurs in schmitt
trigger
a) Differential amplifier with positive a) 0 mv
feedback b) 25 mv
b) Voltage follower with positive c) 50 mv
feedback d) -25 mv
c) Comparator with positive feedback Answer: c
d) None of the mentioned Explanation: Upper threshold voltage,
Answer: c VUT =[R1/(R1+R2)]×( +Vsat) =
Explanation: The comparator with [100kΩ/(56kΩ +100 Ω)]×(+14v)=
positive feedback is said to exhibit +25mv.
hysteresis, a dead band condition, Lower threshold voltage VLT = [R1/(R1+
when the input of comparator R2)]×(-Vsat) = [100kΩ
exceeds upper threshold voltage. At /(56kΩ+100Ω)]×(-14v)= -25 mv.
this condition, output switch from

27
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

∴ Hysteresis voltage = VUT-VLT = 25-(-

25) = 50mv.

89. How to limit the output voltage

swing only to positive direction?
a) Combination of two zener diodes
b) Combination of zener and rectifier
diode
c) All of the mentioned
d) Combination of two rectifier
diodes

Answer: b
Explanation: To limit the output
voltage swing to positive or negative
direction, the basic op-amp
comparator should be connected
with a combination of zener and
rectifier diode in the feedback path.

90. For the circuit shown below,

obtain output waveform. Assume
zener voltage to be 4.78v and voltage
drop across the forward biased zener
to be 0.7v.

Answer: a
Explanation: During positive half cycle
of the input waveform, the output
voltage is equal to (VZ +VD1) (because
diode D1 would be in forward bias) ,
∴ (VZ +VD1) = 4.78 v+0.7 v = 5.5 v.
Similarly, during negative half cycle of
the input wave form, the output

28
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

voltage is equal to – (VZ +VD2) as the forward bias and zener goes into
diode D2 would be in forward bias) , – avalanche condition. Hence, the
(VZ +VD2) =- 4.78 v-0.7 v = -5.5 v. maximum positive output voltage VOz
+VD (VD –> voltage drop across
rectifier diode).
=> VO= 5.1v+0.7 v= 5.8v.

92. Use the specification and obtain

the output voltage swing for op-amp
comparator.
Specification: R= 1kΩ; RL=10kΩ;
VZ=6v; VSat=±15v (Assume forward
bias of zener = 0.7v).

91. A basic op-amp circuit has a zener

and rectifier diode connected in the
feedback path. Calculate the
maximum positive voltage. Where,
zener voltage = 5.1 v and voltage
drop across the forward biased zener
= 0.7v?
a) VO = 5.8v
b) VO = 9.9v
c) VO = 4.7v
d) VO = 7.1v

Answer: d
Explanation: Initially, rectifier diode
will be reverse biased and makes the
op-amp to operate in open loop
configuration. So, the output voltage
is obtained till the rectifier diode is
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b applying a dc control voltage the

Explanation: During the positive half frequency can be shifted on either
cycle, the output voltage would be at sides. This frequency deviation is
-VD = -0.7v because the zener will be directly proportional to the dc control
forward biased. However, during voltage and hence it is called as
negative half cycle of VO would be at ‘voltage controlled oscillator’.
+VZ =+6v. Thus, the zener diode in the
94. The output voltage of phase
feedback path limits VO to swing
detector is
between +6v to -0.7v.
a) Phase voltage
b) Free running voltage
c) Error voltage
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: c
Explanation: The phase detector
compares the input frequency with
the feedback frequency and produces
output dc voltage called as error
voltage.

95. At which state the phase-locked

93. Free running multivibrator is also loop tracks any change in input
called as frequency?
a) Stable multivibrator a) Free running state
b) Voltage control oscillator b) Capture state
c) Square wave oscillator c) Phase locked state
d) Pulse stretcher d) All of the mentioned

Answer: b Answer: c
Explanation: Free running Explanation: In the phase-locked, the
multivibrator operates at a frequency output frequency is exactly same as
which is determined by an external the input signal frequency. So the
tuning capacitor and a resistor. On circuit tracks any change in the input

30
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

frequency through its repetitive 97. What is the function of low pass
action. filter in phase-locked loop?
a) Improves low frequency noise
96. Match the list I with list II which
b) Removes high frequency noise
represents the three stages of phase
c) Tracks the voltage changes
locked loop.(PLL)
d) Changes the input frequency

List I List II Answer: b

Explanation: The output voltage of a
1.Before input i. PLL-Phase phase detector is a dc voltage and is
frequency applied locked state often referred to as error voltage.
This output is applied to the low pass
filter which removes the high
2.When the input ii.PLL=Free
frequency noise and produces a dc
frequency applied running state
level.

3.After input iii. PLL-Capture 98. What is the need to generate

frequency applied mode corrective control voltage?
a) To maintain the lock
a) 1-ii, 2-iii, 3-i b) To track the frequency change
b) 1-iii, 2-ii, 3-i c) To shift the VCO frequency
c) 1-i, 2-ii, 3-iii d) All of the mentioned
d) 1-ii, 2-i, 3-iii
Answer: d
Answer: a Explanation: The output frequency(fo)
Explanation: Before the input is of VCO is identical to input
applied, the PLL is in a free running frequency(fs) except for a finite phase
state. Once the input frequency is difference(φ), which generates a
applied, the VCO frequency start to corrective control voltage to shift
change & PLL is said to be in capture VCO frequency from fo to fs, thereby
mode. When the VCO frequency maintains the lock once locked and
continues to change until it is equal PLL tracks the frequency changes of
to the input frequency, the PLL is said the input signal.
to be in phase locked state.

31
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

99. At what range the PLL can Answer: b

maintain the lock in the circuit? Explanation: Analog phase detector is
a) Lock in range called as half wave detector because,
b) Input range the phase information for only one-
c) Feedback loop range half of the input waveform is
d) None of the mentioned detected and averaged.

Answer: a 102. What happens when VCO output

Explanation: The change in frequency is 90o out of phase with respect to
of the incoming signal can be tracked input signal?
when the PLL is locked. So, the range a) Perfect lock
of frequencies over which PLL b) Attenuation
maintains the lock with the incoming c) Shift in phase of comparator
signal is called as the lock in range. d) Error signal is removed

100. The pull-in time depends on Answer: a

a) Initial phase and frequency Explanation: The error voltage is zero
difference between two sign when the phase shift between the
b) Overall loop gain two inputs is 90o. So, for the perfect
c) Loop filter characteristics lock, the VCO output should be
d) All of the mentioned 90o out of phase with respect to the
input signal.
Answer: d
Explanation: The pull-in time depends 103. Find the error voltage of phase
on the above mentioned comparator whose input signal is Vs=
characteristics to establish lock in the Vssin(2πfst) and the output signal Vo=
PLL circuit. Vosin(2πfot+φ).
a) Ve=[k×(Vs/2)]×[cos(-φ)-
101. Analog phase detector is often
cos(2πfot+φ)].
referred as
b) Ve=[k×Vs×(Vo/2)]×[cos(-φ)-
a) Full wave detector
cos(2πfot+φ)].
b) Half wave detector
c) Ve=[k×Vs×(Vo/2)]×[cos(-
c) Rectifier wave detector
φ)+cos(2πfot+φ)].
d) None of the mentioned

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

d) Ve=[k×Vs×Vo]×[cos(-φ)- 105. If the average error voltage &

cos(2πfot+φ)]. the phase shift are given as 6.2v &
π/4.Determine the phase angle to
Answer: b
voltage transfer coefficient of full
Explanation: A phase comparator is
wave switching phase detector.
basically a multiplier which multiplies
a) -0.19
the input signal by the VCO signal.
b) -0.09
Thus, the phase comparator output =
c) -0.03
Vs×Vo = Vs×Vosin(2πfst)× sin(2πfot+φ)
d) -0.13
=k×Vs×Vo ×sin(2πfst)×sin(2πfot+φ)
Where k – phase comparator gain.= Answer: d
k×Vs×Vo/2[cos(-φ)-cos(2πfot+φ)] Explanation: The phase angle to
When at lock, fs =fo voltage transfer coefficient
=> Ve = Ve={k×Vs× Vo/2}x[cos(-φ)- =>kφ = (φ-π/2)/ Ve (avg) =[π/4-π/2]/6.2
cos(2πfot+φ)]. =[π-2π/4]/6.2 = -(π/4)/6.2 = -π/24.8
=>kφ = -0.13.
104. How to overcome the problem
associated with switch type phase 106. When does a digital phase
detective? detector can be used, where fo-
a) Increase loop gain depending on >output frequency, fs->input
input signal frequency.
b) Phase shift is made linear a) Both fo & fs signals should be
c) Limit the amplifier of input signal square wave
d) All of the mentioned b) fo should be square wave & fs can
be any non-sinusoidal wave
Answer: c
c) fs should be square wave & fo can
Explanation: The problems can be
be any non-sinusoidal wave
eliminated by limiting the amplifier of
d) Both fo & fs can be any non-
the input signal that is converting the
sinusoidal wave
input to a constant amplified square
wave. This can be achieved by using a Answer: a
balanced modulator used as full wave Explanation: The XOR gate produces
switching phase detector. high output when only one of the
input signal fo or fs is high. So, to

33
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

detect high or low value of Answer: c

waveform, square waves are used. Explanation: The slope gives the
conversion gain. Therefore,
107. The maximum dc output voltage
conversion gain=Vcc/φ =5V/π
in digital phase detector occurs
=1.59V/rad.
a) When the phase difference is π/2
b) When the phase difference is π 109. Which among the following has
c) When the phase difference is 3π/4 better capture tracking & locking
d) When the phase difference is 2π characteristics?
a) XOR phase detector
Answer: b
b) Edge triggered phase detector
Explanation: The maximum dc output
c) Analog phase detector
voltage occurs when the phase
d) All of the mentioned
difference is π, because the output of
the XOR gate phase detector remains Answer: b
high throughout. Explanation: Edge triggered phase
detector has better capture tracking
108. Given the DC output voltage
and locking characteristics as the dc
versus phase difference φ curve. Find
output voltage is linear upto
the conversion gain values.
360o compared to other detectors.

110. Which device is used for

diagnostic purposes and for
recording?
a) Low pass filter
b) Monolithic PLL
c) Voltage Controlled Oscillator
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: c
a) 15.7V/rad Explanation: A Voltage Controlled
b) 1.26V/rad Oscillator (VCO) is used for
c) 1.59V/rad converting low frequency signals such
d) 0.8V/rad as EEGs, EKG into an audio frequency
range. These audio signals can be
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

transmitted over two way radio 112. Write the equation for time
communication systems for period of VCO?
diagnostic purposes or can be a) (2×Vcc×CT)/i
recorded on a magnetic tape for b) (Vcc CT)/(2×i)
further reference. c) (Vcc×CT×i)/2
d) (2×Vcc)/(i×CT)
111. If the output of the Schmitt
trigger is given below. Estimate the Answer: b
output at the pin 3 of VCO. Explanation: The time period of VCO
is given as T=2×△t =(2×0.25×Vcc ×CT)/i
=(0.5 V×cc×CT)/i = (Vcc×CT)/(2×i).

113. Determine the value of current

flow in VCO, when the NE566 VCO
external timing resistor RT =250Ω and
the modulating input voltage
Vc=3.25V.(Assume Vcc=+5v).
a) 3mA
b) 12mA
c) 7mA
d) 10mA

Answer: c
Explanation: Current flowing in VCO, i
=(Vcc– Vc)/ RT = (5V-3.25V)/250 =
Answer: a 1.75/250
Explanation: In VCO, the output of =>i =7mA.
Schmitt trigger is fed to the input of
inverter. Therefore, the output at 114. From the circuit given, find the
pin3 would be an inverted output. As value of output frequency?
the input is a square wave, the
output obtained will be an inverted
square wave.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

VCO, fo = [2×(Vcc– Vc)]/(CT×RT×Vcc).

From the equation, it is clear that the
fo is inversely proportional to CT &
RT and directly proportional to
Vc.Therefore, the output frequency
can be changed by changing either
voltage control, CT or RT.

116. Calculate the value of external

timing capacitor, if no modulating
input signal is applied to VCO.
Consider fo=25 kHz and RT=5 kΩ.
a) 6nF
b) 100µF
a) 178.484 Hz c) 2nF
b) 104.84 Hz d) 10nF
c) 145.84 Hz Answer: c
d) 110.88 Hz Explanation: When modulating input
Answer: b signal is not applied to VCO, the
Explanation: Output frequency, output frequency becomes
fo =[2×(Vcc– Vc) ]/(CT×RT×Vcc )= [2x(8- fo=1/(4×RT×CT)
1.5)]/(0.47µFx33kΩx8v) =13/0.124 => CT =1/(4×RT×fo) =1/(4×5kΩ×25kHz)
=> fo=104.84 Hz. = 2×10-9 =2nF.

115. The output frequency of the 117. What is the advantage of using
VCO can be changed by changing filter?
a) External tuning resistor a) High noise immunity
b) External tuning capacitor b) Reduce the bandwidth of PLL
c) Modulating input voltage c) Provides dynamic range of
d) All of the mentioned frequencies
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: d
Explanation: The output frequency of Answer: a
Explanation: The charge on the filter
36
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

capacitor gives a short time memory a) NE566

to the PLL. So, even if the signal b) SE566
becomes less than the noise for a few c) MC4024
cycles, the dc voltage on the d) All of the mentioned
capacitor continues to shift the
Answer: c
frequency of VCO, till it picks up the
Explanation: MC4024 is used for
signal again. This produces high noise
attaining high output frequency,
immunity.
because the maximum output
118. Which filter is used in VCO? frequency of NE566 and SE566 is
500kHz.

120. Voltage to frequency conversion

factor for VCO is
a) Kv = △Vc/ △fo
b) Kv = △fo/△Vc
c) Kv = △fo × △Vc
d) Kv = 1/(△fo×△Vc)

Answer: b
Explanation: The voltage to frequency
conversion factor is defined as the
change in frequency to the change in
modulating input voltage.
=> Kv=△fo/△Vc.

121. Calculate the voltage to

frequency conversion factor, where
Answer: d fo=155Hz and Vcc=10V.
Explanation: The loop filter used in a) 130
the VCO can be one of the three b) 124
types of filter shown above. c) 134
d) 116
119. Choose the VCO for attaining
higher output frequency.

37
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b
Explanation: The voltage to frequency
conversion factor, Kv = △fo/△Vcc=
8×fo/Vcc = (8×155)/10=124.

122. Find the equation for change in

frequency of VCO?
a) △fo = (2×△Vc)/(RT×CT×Vcc)
b) △fo = △Vc/(4×RT×CT×Vcc)
c) △fo = △Vc/(2×RT×CT×Vcc)
d) △fo = (4×△Vc)/(RT×CT×Vcc)

Answer: a
Explanation: The original output
frequency, fo =2×[Vcc-
Vc+△Vc]/[RT×CT×Vcc].
a) 8.32
The new frequency f1 =2×[Vcc-
Vc]/[RT×CT×Vcc]. b) 8.90
c) 8.51
Change in frequency, △fo= fo– f1 =
2×[Vcc-Vc+△Vc]/[RT×CT×Vcc]-{2×[Vcc- d) 8.75
Vc]/[ RT×CT×Vcc] => △fo = Answer: c
(2×△Vc)/(RT×CT×Vcc). Explanation: △fo = 2×△Vc/(RT×CT×Vcc)
123. Using the given specifications, =>△Vc= (△fo×RT×CT×Vcc)/2 =
determine the voltage to frequency (4.7µFx10kΩx5x112)/2 = 13.16V.
Kv= △fo/ △Vc = 112Hz/13.16V
conversion factor.
=>Kv=8.51.

124. How to obtain a desired amount

of multiplication in frequency
multiplier?
a) By decreasing the multiplication
factor
b) By increasing the input frequency
c) By selecting proper divide by N-

38
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

network Answer: a
d) None of the mentioned Explanation: VCO can be directly
locked to the nth harmonic of the
Answer: c
input signal without connecting any
Explanation: The desired amount of
frequency divider in between the
multiplication can be obtained by
input signal rich in harmonics like
properly selecting a divide by N-
square wave.
network. For example, to obtain the
output frequency fout=5×fin, a divide 127. What must the typical value of n
by N = 5 network is needed. for a frequency multiplication /
division? (n->order of harmonics)
125. Calculate the output frequency
a) n ≤ 12
in a frequency multiplier if, fin =
b) n > 11
200Hz is applied to a 7 divide by N-
c) n < 10
network.
d) n = 7
a) 1.2kHz
b) 1.6kHz Answer: d
c) 1.2kHz Explanation: As the amplitude of the
d) 1.9kHz higher order harmonics becomes less,
effective locking may not take place
Answer: c
for high values of n. So, the typical
Explanation: Since the VCO is actually
value of n is less than 10 for
running at a multiple of input
frequency multiplication / division.
frequency. fout=divide by N-network x
fin=7x200Hz=1400Hz 128. Determine the offset frequency
=>fout=1.4kHz. of frequency translation, when the
output and input frequency are given
126. For what kind of input signal, the
as 75kHz and 1000Hz.
frequency divider can be avoided
a) 35 kHz
frequency multiplier?
b) 20 kHz
a) Triangular waveform
c) 29 kHz
b) Square waveform
d) 14 kHz
c) Saw tooth waveform
d) Sine waveform Answer: b
Explanation: The output of the
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

frequency translation fo= fs+f1 b) Two stage filter

=> f1 = fo– fs= 75kHz-55kHz =20kHz. c) Single stage filter
d) All of the mentioned
129. The frequency corresponding to
logic 1 state in FSK is called Answer: a
a) Space frequency Explanation: The high cut-off
b) Mark frequency frequency of ladder filter is chosen to
c) Both mark and space frequency be approximately halfway between
d) None of the mentioned the maximum keying rate of 150Hz &
twice the input frequency (≅ 2200Hz)
Answer: b
which can be obtained using three
Explanation: Frequency shift is
stage filters.
usually accomplished by dividing a
VCO with binary data signal. 132. An electrical filter is a
Therefore, the logic 1 state of the a) Phase-selective circuit
binary data signal corresponds to b) Frequency-selective circuit
mark frequencies. c) Filter-selective circuit
d) None of the mentioned
130. Find the frequency shift in FSK
generator? Answer: b
a) 230 Hz Explanation: An electric filter is often
b) 250 Hz a frequency selective circuit that
c) 180 Hz passes a specified band of
d) 200 Hz frequencies and blocks or alternates
signal of frequencies outside this
Answer: d
band.
Explanation: Frequency shift is the
difference between FSK signals of 133. Filters are classified as
1070 Hz and 1270 Hz frequency, a) Analog or digital
which is 200 Hz. b) Passive or active
c) Audio or radio frequency
131. Which filter is chosen to remove
d) All of the mentioned
the carrier component in the
frequency shift keying? Answer: d
a) Three stage filter Explanation: Filters are classified

40
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

based on the design technique 136. What happens if inductors are

(analog or digital), elements used for used in low frequency applications?
construction (active or passive) and a) Enhance inductor usage
operating range (audio or radio b) No losses occurs
frequency). c) Degrades inductor performance
d) Low power dissipation
134. Why inductors are not preferred
for audio frequency? Answer: c
a) Large and heavy Explanation: For low frequency
b) High power dissipation applications more number of turns of
c) High input impedance wire must be used, which in turn
d) None of the mentioned adds to the series resistance
degrading inductor’s performance.
Answer: a
Explanation: At audio frequencies, 137. Find out the incorrect statement
inductor becomes problematic, as the about active and passive filters.
inductors become large, heavy and a) Gain is not attenuated in active
expensive. filter
b) Passive filters are less expensive
135. The problem of passive filters is
c) Active filter does not cause loading
overcome by using
of source
a) Analog filter
d) Passive filters are difficult to tune
b) Active filter
or adjust
c) LC filter
d) A combination of analog and Answer: b
digital filters Explanation: Typically active filters
are more economical than passive
Answer: b
filters. This is because of the variety
Explanation: The active filters enclose
of cheaper op-amp and the absence
as a capacitor in the feedback loop
of inductor’s.
and avoid using inductors, this way
inductorless active filter are 138. What are the most commonly
obtained. used active filters?
a) All of the mentioned
b) Low pass and High pass filters
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

c) Band pass and Band reject filters 141. Find out the low pass filter from
d) All-pass filters the given frequency response
characteristics.
Answer: a
Explanation: All the mentioned filters
use op-amp as active element and
capacitors & resistors as passive
elements.

139. Choose the op-amp that

improves the filter performance.
a) µA741
b) LM318
c) LM101A
d) MC34001

Answer: b
Explanation: LM318 is a high speed
op-amp that improves the filter’s
performance through increased slew
Answer: a
rate and higher unity gain-bandwidth.
Explanation: A low pass filter has a
140. Ideal response of filter takes constant gain from 0Hz to high cut-
place in off frequency fH.
a) Pass band and stop band
142. Which filter type is called a flat-
frequency
flat filter?
b) Stop band frequency
a) Cauer filter
c) Pass band frequency
b) Butterworth filter
d) None of the mentioned
c) Chebyshev filter
Answer: c d) Band-reject filter
Explanation: The ideal response
Answer: b
indicates the practical filter response
Explanation: The key characteristic of
and it lies within the pass band
the butterworth filter is that it has a
frequencies.
flat pass band as well as stop band.
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

So, it is sometimes called a flat-flat a) All-pass filter

filter. b) High pass filter
c) Low pass filter
143. Which filter performs exactly the
d) All of the mentioned
opposite to the band-pass filter?
a) Band-reject filter Answer: a
b) Band-stop filter Explanation: In all-pass filter, the
c) Band-elimination filter output and input voltages are equal
d) All of the mentioned in amplitude for all frequencies. This
filter passes all frequencies equally
Answer: d
well and with phase shift and
Explanation: A band reject is also
between the two function of
called as band-stop and band-
frequency.
elimination filter. It performs exactly
the opposite to band-pass because it 146. The gain of the first order low
has two pass bands: 0 < f < fL and f > pass filter
fH. a) Increases at the rate 20dB/decade
b) Increases at the rate 40dB/decade
144. Given the lower and higher cut-
c) Decreases at the rate 20dB/decade
off frequency of a band-pass filter are
d) Decreases at the rate 40dB/decade
2.5kHz and 10kHz. Determine its
bandwidth. Answer: c
a) 750 Hz Explanation: The rate at which the
b) 7500 Hz gain of the filter changes in the stop
c) 75000 Hz band is determined by the order of
d) None of the mentioned filter. So, for a low pass filter the gain
decreases at the rate of
Answer: b
20dB/decade.
Explanation: Bandwidth of a band-
pass filter is Bandwidth= fH– 147. Which among the following has
fL=10kHz-2.5kHz=7.5kHz=7500Hz. the best stop band response?
a) Butterworth filter
145. In which filter the output and
b) Chebyshev filter
input voltages are equal in amplitude
c) Cauer filter
for all frequencies?
d) All of the mentioned
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: c 150. The frequency response of the

Explanation: The cauer filter has a filter in the stop band.
ripple pass band and a ripple stop i. Decreases with increase in
band. So, generally cauer filter gives frequency
the best stop band response among ii. Increase with increase in frequency
the three. iii. Decreases with decrease in
frequency
148. Determine the order of filter
iv. Increases with decrease in
used, when the gain increases at the
frequency
rate of 60dB/decade on the stop
a) i and iv
band.
b) ii and iii
a) Second-order low pass filter
c) i and ii
b) Third-order High pass filter
d) ii and iv
c) First-order low pass filter
d) None of the mentioned Answer: c
Explanation: The order of frequency
Answer: b
of the filter in the stop band
Explanation: The gain increases for
determines either steady decreases
high pass filter. So, for a third order
or increases or both with increase in
high pass filter the gain increases at
frequency.
the rate of 60dB/decade in the stop
band until f=fL. 151. Determine the time period of a
monostable 555 multivibrator.
149. Name the filter that has two
a) T = 0.33RC
stop bands?
b) T = 1.1RC
a) Band-pass filter
c) T = 3RC
b) Low pass filter
d) T = RC
c) High pass filter
d) Band-reject filter Answer: b
Explanation: The time period of a
Answer: a
monostable 555 timer is T =
Explanation: A band-pass filter has
RC×ln(1/3) = 1.1.RC.
two stop bands: 1) 0 < f < fL and 2) f >
fH.

44
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

152. Find monostable vibrator circuit 153. How to overcome mistriggering

using 555 timer. on the positive pulse edges in the
monostable circuit?
a) Connect a RC network at the input
b) Connect an integrator at the input
c) Connect a differentiator at the
input
d) Connect a diode at the input

Answer: c
Explanation: To prevent the
mistrigger on positive pulse edges, a
resister & capacitor combined of
10kΩ and 0.001µF at the input to
form a differentiator

The circuit shows the differentiator to

be connected between trigger input
and the +VCC.

154. A monostable multivibrator has

Answer: a R = 120kΩ and the time delay T =
Explanation: When 555 timer is 1000ms, calculate the value of C?
configured in monostable operation, a) 0.9µF
the trigger input is applied through b) 1.32µF
pin2 whereas, upper comparator c) 7.5µF
threshold (pin6) & discharge (pin7) d) 2.49µF
are shorted and connected at the
Answer: c
output.
Explanation: Time delay for a

45
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

monostable multivibrator, T = 1.1RC speed whenever it drops below a

=> C = T/(1.1R) = predetermined value. Therefore, it
1000ms/(1.1×120kΩ) = 7.57µF. can be used for speed control and
measurement.
155. Which among the following can
be used to detect the missing heart 157. How can a monostable
beat? multivibrator be modified into a
a) Monostable multivibrator linear ramp generator?
b) Astable multivibrator a) Connect a constant current source
c) Schmitt trigger to trigger input
d) None of the mentioned b) Connect a constant current source
to trigger output
Answer: a
c) Replace resistor by constant
Explanation: A monostable
current source
multivibrator can be used as a
d) Replace capacitor by constant
missing pulse detector by connecting
current source
a transistor between trigger inputs. If
a pulse misses, the discharge trigger Answer: c
input goes high & transistor become Explanation: The resistor R of the
cut-off and the output goes low. So, monostable circuit is replaced by a
this type of circuit can be used to constant current source. So, that the
detect missing heart beat. capacitor is charged linearly and
generates ramp signal.
156. A 555 timer in monostable
application mode can be used for 158. Determine time period of linear
a) Pulse position modulation ramp generator using the
b) Frequency shift keying specifications
c) Speed control and measurement RE = 2.7kΩ, R1 =47kΩ , R2 100kΩ , C=
d) Digital phase detector 0.1µF, VCC =5v.

Answer: c
Explanation: In monostable operation
mode, if input trigger pulses are
generated from a rotating wheel, the
circuit will determine the wheel
46
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

applied to pin5 and pin22

respectively in the following circuit?

a) 8ms a) Frequency modulated wave form

b) 4ms b) Pulse width modulated wave form
c) 2ms c) Both pulse and frequency
d) 1ms modulated wave form
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: d
Explanation: The time period of the Answer: b
linear ramp generator, T= Explanation: On application of
[(2/3)×(VCC×RE)×(R1+ R2)×C]/{(R1×VCC)- continuous trigger at pin22 and a
[VBE×(R1+R2)]} modulated input signal at pin5, a
= {(2/3)×5v×[2.7kΩ×(4.7kΩ+ series of output pulses are obtained.
100kΩ)]×(0.1µF)}/{[(47kΩ)×5v]- The duration of which depends on
[(0.7)×(47kΩ+100kΩ)]} the modulating signal. Also in the
=>T= 132.3/132.100 =1.0015×10-3 = pulse duration, only the duty cycle
1ms. varies, keeping the frequency same
as that of the continuous input pulse
159. What will be the output, if a train trigger.
modulating input signal and
continuous triggering signal are 160. Free running frequency of
Astable multivibrator?
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) f=1.45/(RA+2RB)C d) Charging time=5ms; Discharging

b) f=1.45(RA+2RB)C time=3ms
c) f=1.45C/(RA+2RB)
Answer: b
d) f=1.45 RA/( RA+RB)
Explanation: The time required to
Answer: a charge the capacitor is
Explanation: The frequency of the tHigh=0.69(RA+RB)C
Astable multivibrator is =0.69(10kΩ+5kΩ)x0.5µF =5ms.
T=0.69(RA+2RB)C. The time required to discharge the
Therefore, f = 1/T =1.45/(RA+2RB)C. capacitor is
tLow=0.69xRC =0.69x5kΩx0.5µF=2ms.
161. Find the charging and
discharging time of 0.5µF capacitor. 162. Astable multivibrator operating
at 150Hz has a discharge time of
2.5m. Find the duty cycle of the
circuit.
a) 50%
b) 75%
c) 95.99%
d) 37.5%

Answer: d
Explanation: Given
f=150Hz.Therefore,T=1/f =1/150
=6.67ms.
∴ Duty cycle, D%=(tLow/T) x 100% =
(2.5ms/6.67ms)x100% = 37.5%.
a) Charging time=2ms; Discharging
163. Determine the frequency and
time=5ms
duty cycle of a rectangular wave
b) Charging time=5ms; Discharging
generator.
time=2ms
c) Charging time=3ms; Discharging
time=5ms

48
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

164. How to achieve 50% duty cycle

in adjustable rectangular wave
generator? (Assume R1 –> Resistor
connected between supply and
discharge and R2 –> Resistor
connected between discharge and
trigger input.)
a) R1 < R2
b) R1 > R2
c) R1 = R2
d) R1 ≥ R2

Answer: c
Explanation: The equation of duty
cycle, D = R2/(R1 + R2). If R1 is made
equal to R2 then 50% duty cycle is
a) Frequency=63.7kHz; Duty achieved.
cycle=50%
b) Frequency=53.7kHz; Duty 165. How to obtain symmetrical
cycle=55% waveform in Astable multivibrator?
c) Frequency=43.7kHz; Duty a) Use clocked RS flip-flop
cycle=50% b) Use clocked JK flip-flop
d) Frequency=60kHz; Duty cycle=55% c) Use clocked D-flip-flop
d) Use clocked T-flip-flop
Answer: b
Explanation: Answer: b
Frequency=1.45/(RA+RB)C . Explanation: Symmetrical square
Where RA=100Ω+50Ω=150Ω, wave can be obtained by adding a
RB=100Ω+20Ω=120Ω. clocked JK flip-flop to the output of
=>∴f=1.45/((150+120)x0.1µF) = Astable multivibrator. The clocked
53703Hz = 53.7kHz. flip-flop acts as a binary divider to the
Duty cycle, D% = [RB/(RA+RB)] x 100% times output and produces 50% duty
= 120Ω/(150Ω +120Ω) x 100% = cycle without any restriction on the
0.55×100% = 55%. choice of resistors.

49
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

166. Determine the output frequency divider?

of the circuit. a) Using square wave generator
b) Using triangular wave generator
c) Using sawtooth wave generator
d) Using sine wave generator

Answer: a
Explanation: Monostable
multivibrator can be used as a
frequency divider when a
continuously triggered monostable
circuit is triggered using a square
wave generator. Provided the timing
interval is adjusted to be longer than
the period of triggering square wave
input signal.

168. Which of the following relation

a) 1450Hz is true about gate current?
b) 1333Hz a) IG=ID+IS
c) 1871Hz b) ID=IG
d) 1700Hz c) IS= IG
Answer: c d) IG=0
Explanation: The output frequency of Answer: d
the frequency shift keying generator Explanation: The FET physical
is structure which contains silicon
f=1.45/[(RA||RC)+2(RB)]xC = dioxide provides infinite resistance.
1.45/[(2.3kΩ||2.3kΩ) + (2×3.3kΩ)] x Hence no current will flow through
0.1µF = 1.45/{[(2.3×2.3)/(2.3+2.3)] + the gate terminal.
6.6kΩ}x0.1µF = 1.45/(7.75×10-4) =
1870.9 ≅ 1871Hz. 169. Which of the following
equations gives the relation between
167. How does a monostable ID and Vgs?
multivibrator used as frequency a) ID=IDSS (1-Vgs/Vp)2
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) ID=IDSS (1-Vgs/Vp)1 Answer: c

c) ID=IDSS (1-Vgs/Vp)3 Explanation: VDS=VDD-ID RD
d) ID=IDSS (1-Vgs/Vp)4 =>10=12-RD×1mA
=>RD=2/1mA=2 KΩ.
Answer: a
Explanation: The above equation 172. Which of the following equation
called as Shockley’s equation depicts brings the relation between gate to
the relation between ID and Vgs. source voltage and drain current in
When Vgs becomes equal toVp, the Self Bias?
current will become zero, which a) Vgs=VDD
clearly satisfies the physical nature of b) Vgs=-ID Rs
FET. c) Vgs=0
d) Vgs=1+ID Rs
170. For a fixed bias circuit the drain
current was 1mA, what is the value of Answer: b
source current? Explanation: VRs=ID Rs
a) 0mA ButVRs+Vgs=0
b) 1mA Vgs=-ID Rs.
c) 2mA
173. For a self-bias circuit, find drain
d) 3mA
to source voltage if VDD=12V, ID=1mA,
Answer: c Rs=RD=1KΩ?
Explanation: We know that for an FET a) 1V
same current flows through the gate b) 2V
and source terminal, Hence source c) 10V
current=1mA. d) 5V

171. For a fixed bias circuit the drain Answer: c

current was 1mA, VDD=12V, Explanation: VDS=VDD-ID (RD+Rs)
determine drain resistance required if =>VDS=12-1mA(1KΩ+1KΩ)
VDS=10V? =>VDS=10V.
a) 1KΩ
174. Find the gate voltage for voltage
b) 1.5KΩ
divider having R1=R2=1KΩ and
c) 2KΩ
VDD=5V?
d) 4KΩ
51
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 1V Rs result in lower quiescent values of

b) 5V ID and more negative values of Vgs.
c) 3V
177. What is the current flowing
d) 2.5V
through the R1 resistor for voltage
Answer: d divider (R1=R2=1KΩ, VDD=10V)?
Explanation: VG = R2×VDD/R1+R2 a) 5mA
=>VG=1×5/2 b) 3mA
=> VG= 2.5V. c) 1mA
d) 2mA
175. Find the gate to source voltage
for voltage divider having R1=R2=2KΩ Answer: a
and VDD=12V, ID=1mA and RS=4KΩ? Explanation: IR1=IR2 =VDD/R1+R2
a) 3V =>IR1 = 10/2KΩ
b) 2V =>IR1 = 5mA.
c) 0V
178. Which of the following is not a
d) 1V
part of a BJT?
Answer: b a) Base
Explanation: VG = R2×VDD/R1+R2 b) Collector
=>VG=2×12/4 c) Emitter
=>VG=6V d) None of the mentioned
=>VGS=VG-ID Rs
Answer: d
=>VGS=2V.
Explanation: BJT consists of three
176. What will happen if values of semiconductor regions, base region,
Rs increase? emitter region and collector region.
a) Vgs Increases
179. The number of pn junctions in a
b) Vgs Decreases
BJT is/are
c) Vgs Remains the same
a) 1
d) Vgs=0
b) 2
Answer: b c) 3
Explanation: Increasing values of d) 4

52
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b c) Cut-off mode or saturation mode

Explanation: There are two pn d) Cut-off mode or saturation mode
junctions, base-emitter junction and or active mode
collector-emitter junction
Answer: c
respectively.
Explanation: A BJT operates as an
180. In which of the following modes amplifiers in active mode and as a
can a BJT be used? switch in cut-off or saturation mode.
a) Cut-off mode
182. In cut off mode
b) Active mode
a) The base-emitter junction is
c) Saturation mode
forward biased and emitter-collector
d) All of the mentioned
junction is reversed biased
Answer: d b) The base-emitter junction is
Explanation: These three are the forward biased and emitter-collector
defined regions in which a BJT junction is forward biased
operates. c) The base-emitter junction is
reversed biased and emitter-collector
181. If a BJT is to be used as an
junction is reversed biased
amplifier, then it must operate
d) The base-emitter junction is
in___________
reversed biased and emitter-collector
a) Cut-off mode
junction is forward biased
b) Active mode
c) Saturation mode Answer: c
d) All of the mentioned Explanation: In cut-off mode there is
no current flowing through the BJT
Answer: b
hence both junctions must be
Explanation: A BJT operates as an
reversed biased else if either of them
amplifiers in active mode and as a
is forward biased then the current
switch in cut-off or saturation mode.
will flow.
182. If a BJT is to be used as a switch,
183. The curve between the collector
it must operate in____________
current versus the potential
a) Cut-off mode or active mode
difference between the base and
b) Active Mode or saturation mode
emitter is
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) A straight line inclined to the axes 186. The correct relation between
b) A straight line parallel to the x-axis the transistor parameters α and ß are
c) An exponentially varying curve related by
d) A parabolic curve a) ß = 1 – α/α
b) ß = 1 + α/α
Answer: c
c) α = ß + 1/ß
Explanation: The natural logarithm of
d) α = ß/ß + 1
the collector current depends directly
on the the potential difference Answer: d
between the base and the emitter. Explanation: Only expression α = ß/ß
+ 1 is the correct expression that
184. The curve between the collector
relates α and ß.
current and the saturation is
a) A straight line inclined to the axes 187. The correct expression relating
b) A straight line parallel to the x-axis the emitter current Ie to the collector
c) A straight line parallel to the y-axis current Ic is
d) An exponential curve a) Ie = α Ic
b) Ic = α Ic
Answer: a
c) Ie = ß Ic
Explanation: The collector current
d) Ic = ß Ic
depends directly on the saturation
current. Answer: b
Explanation: Ie = Ic/α or Ic = α Ie
185. The magnitude of the thermal
voltage is given by 188. The value of the thermal voltage
a) k/Tq at room temperature can be
b) kT/q approximated as
c) q/Kt a) 25 mV
d) Tk/q b) 30 mV
c) 35 mV
Answer: b
d) 40 mV
Explanation: kT/q is the correct
mathematical expression for the Answer: a
thermal voltage. Explanation: Thermal voltage is given

54
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

by kT/q which at T = 25 degrees

Celsius is approximately 25 mV.

189. Which of the following circuits

can be used as limiter or clamper or
both?

a)

a)

b)

c)
d) All of the mentioned b)

Answer: d
Explanation: Each of the circuit can
be either as a clamper or limiter or
both.

190. The V0 vs VI curve for the below

circuit is
c)

55
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

d) d) The output waveform is a straight

line with the value of output voltage
equal to 10V

Answer: a
Explanation: It is a clamped capacitor
circuit.

192. Which of the following is not

true for the duty cycle of a
waveform?
Answer: d
a) Duty cycles can be used to describe
Explanation: Only this curve
the percent time of an active signal in
represents the characteristics
an electrical device
correctly.
b) Duty cycle can be used to
191. For the circuit and the input determine the percentage of the time
signal shown which of the following is a signal is active
true for the output voltage? c) 60% duty cycle means that the
waveform is active for 40% of the
total time
d) 50% duty cycle means that the
waveform is non-active for 50% of
the total time

Answer: c
Explanation: 60% duty time means
that a signal is active for 60% of the
a) The output waveform is a square total time.
wave with lowest peak clamped to 0V
193. Where should be the bias point
b) The output wave is a square wave
set in order to make transistor work
with lowest peak clamped to -6V
as an amplifier?
c) The output waveform is a square
a) Cut off
wave with highest peak clamped to
b) Active
4V

56
 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

c) Saturation off Region, then how does the

d) Cut off and Saturation transistor behave?
a) Switch
Answer: b
b) Amplifier
Explanation: To operate transistor as
c) Inverter
an amplifier, it requires more current
d) Bulb
amplification factor and in cut off and
saturation, the current amplification Answer: a
is less, therefore active region is Explanation: When the Q point lies in
better to fix the Q point. cut off, No current flows and hence it
acts as a closed switch. When the Q
194. Q point can be set to work on
point is shifted to saturation, Current
active region requires particular
flows through the circuit creating a
conditions. What are they?
closed switch. Thus the current flow
a) BE reverse biased and BC forward
makes the turn on and off of switch.
biased
b) BE reverse biased and BC reverse 196. For a Fixed bias circuit having
biased RC=2.2KΩ, RB=240Ω, VCC=12v and
c) BE forward biased and BC reverse current amplification factor is 100
biased and the current flowing through the
d) BE forward biased and BC forward base is 20µA, the value if Collector
biased current in saturation
is_____________
Answer: c
a) 5.4mA
Explanation: BJT requires the forward
b) 3mA
voltage nearly equal to 0.7v and the
c) 1mA
p-junction should be more positive in
d) 0A
BE junction and n region should be
more positive in BC junction. This will Answer: a
make the current to flow through Explanation: Vce = VCC – IC RC
emitter which is the sum of current For saturation, Vce = 0 ICsat = VCC/RC =
through base and emitter. 5.4mA.

195. The Q-point of a transistor is 197. The bias point of a transistor

made to shift between Active and cut occurs when the supply voltage
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

exceeds the breakdown voltage of a Answer: b

transistor. Explanation: By using Thevenin’s law
a) True Vth=VccR2/(R1+R2)=10V
b) False ICsat=VCC/(RC+RE)=0.87mA.

Answer: b 200. For a Voltage divider circuit

Explanation: Bias point can be set on having RC=R1=R2=RE=1KΩ, if VCC=20V,
the basis of DC load line that is Q find IC when Vce = VCC?
point can be found out only without a) 1mA
applying any input. The DC load line is b) 2mA
defined as the line drawn in response c) 20mA
of collector current and base emitter d) 0
voltage when no input is applied.
Answer: 0
198. For a fixed bias circuit having Explanation: when Vce = VCC,
RC=4.7KΩ and RB=1KΩ, VCC=10V, and VCC = Vce-IC (RC+RE) => VCC-Vce = 0 = IC.
base current at Bias point was found
201. Changes in the temperature will
to be 0.2µA, Find β?
not affect the bias point.
a) 100
a) True
b) 106
b) False
c) 125
d) 0 Answer: b
Explanation: The temperature
Answer: b
changes the β value of the Transistor
Explanation: ICQ = Vcc/Rc = 2.12mA
which wills in turn shifts the Q-point
β=ICQ/IBQ=106.
of the Transistor. Once the
199. For a Voltage divider bias circuit, temperature changes, it will increase
having R1=R2=10KΩ, RC=4.7 KΩ, RE=1 the mobility of electrons resulting in
KΩ, What is the value of collector a change of system current, hence
current at saturation if VCC=10V? temperature does affect the
a) 1A transistor parameter.
b) 10mA
202. For the voltage divider circuit, if
c) 0.87mA
a diode is connected in reverse
d) 1ma
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

direction across the base Find the voltage changes, keeping base
value of β? (Vd=1.2v and input is 1V) current constant. It can also be
a) 0 defined as the ratio of change in
b) 50 collector current to change in base
c) 100 current when temperature changes
d) cannot be determined occur.

Answer: d 204. The base current for a BJT

Explanation: Since the input voltage is remains constant at 5mA, the
less than the diode voltage, transistor collector current changes from 0.2mA
never turns on during the positive to 0.3 mA and beta was changed
half cycle, hence it is difficult to from 100 to 110, then calculate the
measure the β value. Also during a value of S.
negative half cycle, the diode will be a) 0.01m
turned off and hence no current b) 1m
flows, so the value if beta cannot be c) 100m
determined, it can be 0 because the d) 25m
manufacturer will certainly provide
Answer: a
the value.
Explanation: Since the current in the
203. What is Stability factor? above case, remains constant,
a) Ratio of change in collector current therefore stability factor is 0.01 as it
to change in a current amplification is defined as the ratio of change in
factor collector current to change in beta.
b) Ratio of change in collector current S=change in collector current/change
to change in base current in beta=0.1mA/10=0.01m.
c) Current amplification factor
205. For a n-p-n transistor, the
d) Ratio of base current to collector
collector current changed from
current
0.2mA to 0.22mA resulting a change
Answer: a of base emitter voltage from 0.8v to
Explanation: Stability factor is defined 0.8005V. What is the value of
as the rate at which collector current Stability factor?
changes when Base to emitter a) 0

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) 0.25 Answer: 0
c) 0.04 Explanation: For a transistor, the
d) 0.333 ideal value of S is 0 which interprets
that for a change in beta, there
Answer: c
should not be changing. In Ideal
Explanation: Change in Vbe = 0.0005V
transistor, the collector current will
Change in collector current = 0.02mA
vary only if either base or emitter
S = 0.02m/0.0005 = 0.04.
current varies or hence for an ideal
206. There are two transistors A and transistor the value of S is zero.
B having ‘S’ as 25 and 250
208. For a fixed bias circuit having Ic =
respectively, on comparing the value
0.3mA and In=0.0003mA, S
of S, we can say B is more stable than
is______________
A.
a) 100
a) True
b) 0
b) False
c) 11
Answer: b d) 111
Explanation: More the value of S,
Answer: c
lesser the stability, since A has lesser
Explanation: For fixed bias S=1+beta
S value the change in beta does not
Beta=IC/IB=10
affect much on the collector current.
S=1+10=11.
When S is high, even if IB changes by
a small value, the IC current will 209. For a fixed bias circuit having
drastically vary. Hence stability factor RC=2Kohm and VCC=60V, IB=0.25mA
must possess lesser value for the and S=101, find Vce.
proper working of a transistor. a) 12V
b) 10V
207. What is the value of Stability
c) 5V
factor for an ideal transistor?
d) 2.5V
a) 100
b) 1000 Answer: b
c) infinite Explanation: S = 1 + beta,
d) 0 => 100 = IC/IB => Ic = 25mA

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Vce = VCC – Ic RC b) Collector to base bias is more

Vce = 10V. stable
c) Both are the same in terms of
210. For an ideal transistor having a
stability
fixed bias configuration, what will be
d) Depends on the design
the value of Beta?
a) 0 Answer: b
b) 2 Explanation: For fixed bias circuit, S =
c) -1 1+beta, more the beta, lesser the
d) 1 stability
For collector to base bias S =
Answer: c
(1+beta)/(1+beta(RC/RC+RB))
Explanation: S = 1 + Beta
Hence collector to base bias is more
S=0
stable.
Beta = -1.
213. The collector current (IC) that is
211. The temperature changes do not
obtained in a collector to base biased
affect the Stability.
transistor is_________
a) True
a) (VCC-VBE)/RB
b) False
b) (VCC+VBE)/RB
Answer: b c) (VCE-VBE)/RB
Explanation: The temperature d) (VCE+VBE)/RB
changes the value of beta which in
Answer: a
turn changes the stability of the
Explanation: The collector current is
transition. The temperature changes
analysed by the DC analysis of a
affect the mobility of the charge
transistor. It involves the DC
carries which results in a change of
equivalent circuit of a transistor. The
the current parameters affecting
base current is first found and the
stability.
collector current is obtained from the
212. Comparing fixed and collector to relation, IC=IBβ.
base bias which of the following
214. The collector to emitter voltage
statement is true?
(VCE) is obtained by_________
a) Fixed bias is more stable
a) VCC – RC(IC-IB)
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) VCC – RC(IC+IB) a) of its independence of β

c) VCC + RC(IC+IB) b) of the positive feedback produced
d) VCC + RC(IC-IB) by the base resistor
c) of the negative feedback produced
Answer: b
by the base resistor
Explanation: The collector to emitter
d) of its dependence of β
voltage is obtained in order to find
the operating point of a transistor. It Answer: c
is taken when there is no signal Explanation: The self destruction of a
applied to the transistor. The point transistor due to increase
thus obtained lies in the cut off temperature is called thermal run
region when the transistor is used as away. It is avoided by the negative
a switch. feedback produced by the base
resistor in a collector to base bias.
215. What is the DC characteristic
The IC which is responsible for the
used to prove that the transistor is
damage is reduced by decreased
indeed biased in saturation mode?
output signal.
a) IC = βIB
b) IC > βIB 217. When the temperature is
c) IC >> βIB increased, what happens to the
d) IC < βIB collector current after a feedback is
given?
Answer: d
a) it remains same
Explanation: When in a transistor is
b) it increases
driven into saturation, we use
c) it cannot be predicted
VCE(SAT) as another linear parameter.
d) it decreases
In, addition when a transistor is
biased in saturation mode, we have Answer: d
IC < βIB. This characteristic used to Explanation: Before the feedback is
prove that the transistor is indeed applied, when the temperature is
biased in saturation mode. increased, the reverse saturation
increases. The collector current also
216. The thermal runway is avoided
increases. When the feedback is
in a collector to base bias
applied, the base current increases
because_________
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

with decreasing collector current and point. On the other side, the negative
the thermal runway too. feedback is badly done for AC signal
by decreasing the voltage gain.
218. The demerit of a collector to
base bias is_________ 220. In the circuit, transistor has β
a) its need of high resistance values =60, VBE=0.7V. Find the collector to
b) its dependence on β emitter voltage drop VCE.
c) its independence on β
d) the positive feedback produced by
the base resistor

Answer: a
Explanation: When the stability factor
S=1, the collector resistor value
should be very large when compared
to the base resistor. So, when RC is
large we need to provide large power
supply which increases the cost. At
the same time, as the base resistor is
a) 5V
small we need to provide small
b) 3V
power supply.
c) 8V
219. The negative feedback does d) 6V
good for DC signal by_________
Answer: d
a) decreasing the gain
Explanation: We know, IC=(VCC-VBE)/RB
b) increasing the gain
By putting the values, we have
c) stabilising the operating point
IC=5.9mA. IE=IC/α. So, IE=5.99mA.
d) increasing the stability factor
VCE= VCC-RC(IC+IB). We have VCE=6V.
Answer: c
221. In the circuit shown below, β
Explanation: The resistor RB can
=100 and VBE=0.7V. The Zener diode
provide negative feedback for both
has a breakdown voltage of 6V. Find
AC and DC signals. The negative
the operating point.
feedback for DC signal is done good
as it can provide stable operating
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

VCE changes to VCC-RCIC. The collector

current IC is changed to (VCC-
VBE)/RB from β(VCC-VBE)/(1+ β)RE+ RB.

223. For emitter feedback bias, to

make IC independent of DC current
gain, which of the following condition
is required?
a) RC >> RB/dc current gain
b) RE >> RB/dc current gain
c) RB >> RC/dc current gain
a) (6.7V, 5.3mA) d) Re >> RC/dc current gain
b) (5.7V, 5.3mA)
c) (6.7V, 5mA) Answer: a
d) (6V, 5mA) Explanation: In order to make the
IC stable, the dc current gain has to be
Answer; a maintained in a proper constant
Explanation: We know, by KVL - value, and the Re value must be very
12+(IC+IB)1K+6+VBE=0 much greater than (RB/ current gain).
We have IE=5.3. IC= αIE=5.24mA. Since the value of RC becomes very
From another loop, -12+IEIK+VBE=0 high, this results in IC independent of
We have, VCE=12-5.3m*1000=6.7V. beta.
Hence the Q point is (6.7V, 5.3mA).
224. For an emitter feedback bias
222. When the β value is large for a circuit, the value of VCC = 10V, RB =
given transistor, the IC and VCE values 10Kohm, RE=1Kohm and RC=2Kohm, if
are given by_________ current flowing through collector is
a) (VCC-VBE)/RB, VCC-RCIC 0.5mA, what is the voltage difference
b) (VCC+VBE)/RB, VCC-RC(IC+IB) between collector and emitter?
c) (VCC+VBE)/RB, VCC+RC(IC+IB) a) 8.5V
d) (VCC+VBE)/RB, VCC+RC(IC-IB) b) 9V
Answer: a c) 10V
d) 10.5V
Explanation: The base current IB is
zero when β value is large. So, the
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: a current will reduce because of

Explanation: VCC = Vce + IC RC + IE RE emitter feedback, resulting in a
Vce = VCC – IC RC – IE RE constant gain. In emitter feedback
Vce = 10-0.5-1 circuits, the resistance RE is used to
Vce = 8.5V. provide negative feedback which is
given to the base to maintain a
225. For an emitter feedback bias
constant gain.
circuit, RC is 10Kohm, Re= 5Kohm,
RB = 1Kohm, If IC = 1mA, current gain 227. What will be the temperature
is changes effects on the emitter
_________________ feedback circuit?
a) 4 a) Increases voltage gain
b) 2 b) Increases current gain
c) 5 c) Does not affect the gain
d) 6 d) Decreases both current and
voltage gain
Answer: b
Explanation: For emitter feedback Answer: c
bias circuit, current gain=RC/RE Explanation: Since the temperature
There will be a change in phase of changes IE value, these results in the
180 degrees, current increase of feedback through R_E,
gain=10Kohm/5Kohm=2 which in turn reduces Ib, resulting in
Hence while designing an amplifier constant gain, even though
circuit depending on the gain value, temperature effects beta and other
the resistors RC and Re can be transistor parameters, due to the
selected. feedback these effects are
neutralized.
226. The feedback helps to maintain
a constant gain value. 228. For an emitter feedback bias
a) True Circuit having, RE=1Kohm, RC=
b) False 4.7Kohm, IB=0.005mA, IE = 1mA, VCC =
12V and Vce = 5V. Find the value of
Answer: a
beta.
Explanation: From the equation IE =
a) 254
IC + IB, once the IE increases, the base
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) 100 c) Emitter feedback bias is more

c) 1000 stable than the fixed bias
d) 500 d) Fixed and emitter bias have same
stability and feedback
Answer: a
Explanation: VCC=Vce+IC RC + IE RE Answer: c
IC=1.27mA Explanation: Since S is having a linear
Beta=1.27/0.005=254. relationship with beta in fixed bias, it
is less stable, but in emitter feedback
229. Which of the following
bias, S is not exactly linear with a
statement is the main disadvantage
beta. In fixed bias, even a small
of emitter feedback bias?
change in ICo changes the IC value very
a) Reduces the gain
much, but due to negative feedback
b) Positive feedback
in emitter bias, ICo does not change
c) Design is difficult
the IC value maintaining its stability.
d) High output impedance
231. In order to make an amplifier
Answer: a
which of the following biasing
Explanation: Due to the negative
technique is used more?
feedback, the voltage gain will reduce
a) Fixed bias
drastically compared to other biasing
b) Self bias
techniques. Hence there will be a
c) Collector to base bias
huge amount of power loss in the
d) Emitter feedback bias
form of heat dissipated across
emitter and collector. Setting Q- Answer: d
Point is also difficult for emitter Explanation: Since emitter feedback
feedback circuit. bias circuit, the output swing is very
much stable and the design shows
230. Among the following statements
more stability to changes in
which one is true according to
temperature. Voltage divider circuit is
feedback bias?
the most used among all of the
a) Fixed bias is more stable than
biasing technique because of its gain
emitter feedback bias
stability and impedance parameters.
b) Fixed bias produces more feedback
than emitter feedback bias
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

232. What will happen if a capacitor 234. For the given circuit, β = 150.
is connected in parallel with RE in the
amplifier design which uses emitter
feedback bias circuit?
a) No changes
b) Gain value increases
c) Feedback increases
d) Gain value remains the same but
feedback doubles

Answer: b
Explanation: Since the capacitor acts
as a short circuit during high
frequency, there will be no feedback
and hence gain increases. All of the Fig. 1 has stability factor S1
current will flow to ground through a If the above circuit is changed to
capacitor which acts as a short circuit. below circuit

233. BJT is biased to _________

a) Work as a switch
b) Prevent thermal runaway
c) Increase DC collector current
d) Operate it in the saturation region

Answer: b
Explanation: A BJT is biased to
operate in the active region, to work
Fig. 2 having stability factor S2
as an amplifier. It is not biased in the
Choose the correct option which is
cut-off or saturation region to work
having better stability with S1 and S2
as a switch. Also, biasing is done to
Values.
maintain a stable collector current so
a) S2 = 151, S1 = 150. Circuit 1 has
that the operating point does not
better stability
change. This also prevents thermal
b) S2 = 100, S1 = 10 Circuit 2 has
runaway.
better stability
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

c) S2 = 151, S1 = 10.3 Circuit 1 has

better stability
d) S2 = 151, S1 = 10.3 Circuit 2 has
better stability

Answer: c
Explanation: The above circuits are a
collector to base bias circuits, where
stability factor
S=1+β1+βRCRC+RB
Thus, in the question, S1
=1+1501+150∗10110=15114.63 =
10.32
However, in circuit 2, which is a a) Minimum = 16.36kΩ, Maximum =
transformer coupled amplifier, RC = 0 20kΩ
Thus, S2 = 1+150 = 151. b) Minimum = 16.36kΩ, Maximum =
235. Consider the biasing circuit 18kΩ
shown. The β for the circuit is large. c) Minimum = 10 kΩ, Maximum =
R3 = 1kΩ, R4 = 2kΩ. The stability 20kΩ
factor varies between 10 and 11. Find d) Minimum = 6 kΩ, Maximum =
the maximum and minimum values of 10kΩ
R2. Answer: a
Explanation: Circuit is a self bias
circuit.
Base resistance = RB = R1*R2 /
(R1+R2)
Since β is large, stability factor, S = 1
+ RB/RE = 1 + RB/R3
1 + RB/R3 = 10
RB/R3 = 9 => RB = 9k => R2 = 16.36 kΩ
For S = 11
RB/R3=10 => RB = 10k => R2 = 20kΩ.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

236. Choose the incorrect option a) 5 mA

according to self bias circuit? b) 4.807 mA
a) Voltage gain increases c) 4.5 mA
b) Stability factor is independent of d) 5.2 mA
collector resistance
Answer: b
c) BJT can be used in either of the
Explanation: The circuit is a current
three configurations
mirror circuit. Both transistors are
d) Excellent stability in collector
similar. I1= IREF = 5 mA
current is achieved
Β is not large so 2/β is not negligible.
Answer: d Thus current I = I1/(1 + 2/β) = 5mA/(1
Explanation: In a self bias circuit, due + 2/50) = 4.807 mA.
to emitter resistance a negative
238. Given Vout = 5V, β=100,
feedback exists. This decreases
I1=10mA, R1=100KΩ. Find the output
voltage gain. Also, stability factor S
resistance.
does not depend on collector
resistance, only on base and emitter
resistance and β, if
required. S=(1+β)(RB+RE)RB+(1+β)RE.
S is least in self bias circuit, hence
excellent stability is achieved.

237. In the circuit given, the two Si

transistors are similar. Given β=50,
Vcc=12V, I1=5mA. Find I?

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 8 kΩ reduce this area requirement, we use

b) 8.163 kΩ current mirror circuits instead.
c) 7.582 kΩ
240. Considering all transistors to be
d) 8.4 kΩ
similar and β is very large, when I1 =
Answer: b 10 mA, find current I2.
Explanation: The circuit is a current
mirror, whose output resistance,
ROUT = (VA + VCE)/IOUT
Here, IOUT = I1 / (1+ 2/β) = 10mA / (1 +
2/100) = 9.8 mA
VCE = VOUT = 5V
VA = Early voltage = 75 V (obtained
from the graph)
ROUT = (VA + VCE)/ IOUT = (75 + 5) / 9.8 *
10-3
ROUT = 80,000/9.8 = 8.163 kΩ.

239. Why is self bias circuit not used

in IC amplifier? a) 10 mA
a) To reduce power losses b) 50 mA
b) To reduce area used on the chip c) 25 mA
c) Stability factor reduces in the IC d) 20 mA
d) Voltage gain is reduced
Answer: c
Answer: b Explanation: Let current through the
Explanation: Self biased circuits are transistor Q1/Q2 be IC. Since both are
not preferred in IC amplifiers because similar, we can say that,
they need large resistances R1 and IC = I1/2
R2, since then S will be smaller and Similarly, current through transistors
stability will be more. However, using Q3 to Q7 is assumed to be IC’, where
large resistances in ICs means a IC’ = I2/5
requirement of larger chip area, so to Since all transistors are similar. IC = IC’
I2 = 5IC’ = 5 IC = 2.5*I1.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

241. Consider the following circuit, Answer: a

where the transistors are similar Si Explanation: In a current mirror
transistors. Given I1 = 2mA, I2 = 1μA, circuit, to obtain lower values of
Vcc = 12 V, find R1 and R2. output current, the resistance values
required to increase a lot, which
becomes difficult to manufacture on
an IC. Instead, we use a widlar
current source, where an emitter
resistance is also present, affecting
the output current.

243. At saturation, which of these is

not true for a BJT?
a) The collector current IC cannot
increase further
b) The base current IB, cannot
increase further
c) The collector-to-emitter voltage,
a) R1 = 10kΩ, R2 = 6kΩ
VCE is due to the non-zero internal
b) R1 = 5.6kΩ, R2 = 20kΩ
resistance of BJT
c) R1 =18kΩ, R2 = any value
d) VCE(saturation) is the minimum
d) R1 = 18kΩ, R2 = 5.6kΩ
voltage drop between C and E
Answer: d
Answer: b
Explanation: R2 = (Vcc – VBE)/I1 = (12 –
Explanation: At saturation, the
0.7)/2m = 5.65 kΩ – Using KVL
collector-to-emitter voltage is the
Also, I2*R1 = VT ln(I1/I2) = 0.026 *
minimum drop possible occurring due
ln(2)
to the non-zero internal resistance of
Thus, R1 = 0.026*ln(2) / 1μ = 18 kΩ.
the BJT. Since it cannot decrease
242. Widlar current source was further, the current IC cannot increase
introduced to obtain a smaller output further. The BJT is said to be
current. saturated. However, the base
a) True current, IB, can keep increasing with
b) False the input voltage and hence, in
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

saturation, the relation IC = βIB is not overdrive > 1. In hard/strong

satisfied. saturation, β>>1.

244. For a transistor in saturation, 246. Consider the graph of IC vs

which is true? VI shown below for a transistor. Find
a) IC = βIB the correct relation for region 3 in the
b) IC > βIB diagram.
c) IC < βIB
d) IC = (β+1)IB

Answer: c
Explanation: At saturation, collector
current remains constant. However,
the base current increases with the
input voltage being applied and
hence BJT cannot satisfy the relation
IC = βIB. In the saturation region, βIB >
IC is the correct relation.

245. Given that the BJT is completely

saturated, what is the overdrive?
a) Overdrive = 1
b) Overdrive < 1
a) IC = IC(sat) and VCE = VCE(sat)
c) Overdrive > 1
b) IC = IC(sat) and VCE = VCC
d) Overdrive > 0
c) IC = βIB and VCE = VCE(sat)
Answer: c d) IC = βIB and VCE = VCC
Explanation: Overdrive during BJT
Answer: a
saturation is the ratio of its normal β
Explanation: Region 3 in the above is
and its forced β. Forced β is the ratio
the saturation region in which
of IC(sat) and IB when BJT is in
IC remains constant with respect to
saturation. Since in saturation IC is
the input voltage and the voltage
constant and IB increases thus,
VCE is the saturation voltage, almost
IC/IB decreases and the forced β is less
than the normal β. Hence the
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

zero. At this point, the transistor acts t2 = 2ms

as an ON switch. t3 = 4ms
t4 = 6ms
247. What is the ON resistance of a
t5 = 16ms
transistor?
t6 = 18ms
a) RON = VCEsat/βIB
a) 3ms
b) RON = VCEsat + VA/ICsat
b) 1ms
c) RON = VCEsat/(β+1)IB
c) 2ms
d) RON = VCEsat/ICsat
d) 5ms
Answer: d
Answer: a
Explanation: In the saturation region,
Explanation: On time is the time
we consider that the transistor acts
taken by BJT to change from the OFF
as an ON switch. In this region, both
state to the ON state. It is the sum of
collector-to-emitter voltage as well
the delay time and the rise time. Rise
current are constant and do not
time is the time taken by current to
change. The ON resistance is the ratio
increase from 10% to 90% of
of this saturation voltage to
saturation and delay time is time
saturation current.
taken by current to increase from 0
248. For the graph which depicts to 10% of the saturation.
collector current, find the ON time. ton = td + tr = t2 – t1 + t3 – t2 = 2 – 1 + 4
– 2 = 3ms.

249. Find the storage time for the

current variation shown below.

t1 = 1ms

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

d) Off time = Storage time + Delay

time

Answer: a
Explanation: Off time for a BJT is
larger than its ON time. Off
time=Storage time + Fall time.
Often Storage time is larger than
fall/delay/rise time and hence OFF
time is quite large than ON time.

251. How is BJT used as a faster

t1 = 2ms switch?
t2 = 3ms a) By operating it in the saturation
t3 = 4ms and cut-off region
t4 = 6ms b) By operating it in the active and
t5 = 19ms cut-off region
t6 = 20ms c) By using it in strong saturation
a) 1ms d) By decreasing its ON resistance
b) 13ms
Answer: b
c) 3ms
Explanation: If BJT is to act as a
d) 2ms
switch with negligible power
Answer: b dissipation, then BJT is operated in
Explanation: Storage time is the time the cut-off and saturation region, as
taken by IC to decrease from ICsat to in the TTL family. When BJT has to be
90% of ICsat. operated as a fast switch, then it is
TS = t5 – t4 = 19 – 6 = 13ms. operated in the active and cut-off
region, as in the ECL family.
250. Which of these relations is true
always for the BJT as a switch? 252. Which of these is incorrect for
a) Off time >> On time an operational amplifier?
b) Off time = Storage time – Rise time a) It has a high voltage gain
c) Off time << On time b) It is a direct coupled amplifier
c) It is only useful for amplifying AC
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

signals c) 1% negative feedback

d) It was originally designed to d) 1% positive feedback
perform mathematical operations
Answer: a
Answer: c Explanation: B2 = B1(1+βA) =
Explanation: Operational amplifier is 10(1+β106) = 100k
a high voltage gain, direct coupled 1 + β106 = 10k
amplifier which can be used to β = 9.999×10-3
perform mathematical operations on In percentage, feedback β = 0.99%
analog signals. It can be used to negative feedback.
amplify both DC and AC signals.
255. Given that for an op-amp the
253. In an ideal op-amp, which is not gain is 103, the slew rate is 1.5V/μsec.
true? Input is 5×10-3sinωt, calculate
a) Open loop voltage gain is infinite maximum frequency to prevent
b) Input resistance is infinite distortion.
c) Slew rate is infinite a) 47.7 kHz
d) CMRR is zero b) 0.3 MHz
c) 477 Hz
Answer: d
d) 3 kHz
Explanation: For an ideal op-amp, the
open loop voltage gain is infinite. The Answer: a
output resistance is 0 and the input Explanation: dVOUT(max)/dT =< Slew
resistance is infinite. Op-amp has rate
zero input current, zero offset A.Vmω =< 1.5 V/μsec
voltage, infinite bandwidth, infinite 103.5.10-3.ω = < 1.5×106
CMRR and infinite slew rate. ω=<0.3×106
Frequency f = 0.0477×106Hz
254. A practical op-amp has a
bandwidth of only 10 Hz. Gain is 106, 256. Given that CMRR is 100dB. Input
and the required bandwidth is 100 common-mode voltage is 12 V.
kHz. How much feedback is required? Differential voltage gain is 4000.
a) 0.99% negative feedback Calculate output common-mode
b) 0.99% positive feedback voltage.
a) 48V
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) 0.48V not the correct reason for A

c) 20V c) A is correct and B is incorrect
d) 11V d) A is incorrect and B is correct

Answer: b Answer: a
Explanation: CMRR = 20 log(AD/ACM) = Explanation: The internal structure of
20 log(4000×12/Vocm) = 100 an op-amp uses a compensation
Log(48000/VOCM) = 5 capacitor for stability purpose. It
48000/VOCM = 105 provides dominant pole
VOCM = 0.48V. compensation; thereby the op-amp
remains stable. However, the op-amp
257. The unity gain bandwidth for an
gain remains constant at low
op-amp having open loop gain
frequencies but decreases at high
2×106 is 10 Mhz. Calculate the AC
frequencies due to a compensation
gain of op-amp at an input of 2000
capacitor.
Hz.
a) 2000 259. Till what frequency do we get
b) 5000 amplification from IC 741?
c) 10000 a) Unity gain bandwidth
d) 12.5 b) 3-dB frequency
c) Infinity
Answer: b
d) UGB + fOL
Explanation: UGB = AOLfOL
fOL = 10M/2×106 = 5Hz Answer: a
The AC gain |A| = AOL1+(f/5)2√ Explanation: The 3dB frequency is the
|A| = 2×106/400 = 5000. cut-off frequency, where the gain
is 12√ of the maximum. The gain is
258. Given that:
only constant for infinite frequency,
A: Voltage gain of op-amp decreases
that is, has infinite bandwidth if the
at high frequencies
op-amp is ideal, which practically
B: Its internal structure uses a
doesn’t exist. The UGB is the point at
capacitor
which gain of op-amp reaches 1.
a) Both A and B are correct, and B is
the correct reason for A 260. What is the use of the
b) Both A and B are correct, but B is compensation capacitor in op-amp?
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) Improves the amplification of op- d) Positive or Negative depends upon

amp frequency
b) Decreases the slew rate of op-amp
Answer: b
c) Increases the bandwidth of op-amp
Explanation: Colpitts oscillator uses
d) Op-amp acts as all pass filter
positive feedback for oscillation. The
Answer: b feedback is provided through a
Explanation: Compensation capacitor capacitor voltage divider tank circuit
in the internal structure of op-amp to to the amplifying element.
improve its frequency response,
263. To ensure constant feedback
increasing its stability. It also
which method is used in Colpitts
decreases the slew rate of the op-
oscillator ________
amp.
a) Gang tuning
261. The frequency of Colpitts b) Using same capacitor
oscillator is expressed as __________ c) No method is used
(Where L is inductance and C is the d) Voltage divider always gives
effective capacitance) constant feedback
a) 1/(4ᴨ√LC)
Answer: a
b) 1/(2ᴨ√LC)
Explanation: Frequency of oscillation
c) 1/(3ᴨ√LC)
is determined by the tank circuit and
d) √3/(2ᴨ√LC)
is varied by the gang tuning of two
Answer: b capacitors/center tapped capacitors.
Explanation: The frequency of colpitts As they are tuned, thus as tuning is
oscillator is expressed as 1/(2ᴨ√LC) varied then values of both capacitors
where L is inductance and C is varies, and the ratio of both
effective capacitance. capacitors remains same.

262. Colpitts oscillator uses which 264. If C1 and C2 are the capacitance
type of feedback ________ used in Colpitts oscillator the
a) Negative feedback effective capacitance in the equation
b) Positive feedback of frequency calculation is equal to
c) No feedback ___________
a) (ᴨ×C1×C2)/(C1+C2)
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) 3 (C1×C2)/(C1+C2) Answer: c
c) (C1×C2)/(2ᴨ(C1+C2)) Explanation: The overall phase shift
d) (C1×C2)/(C1+C2) provided by tank circuit is 180
degrees. Since active element
Answer: d
produces a phase shift of 180 degrees
Explanation: In the tank circuit of
the tank circuit should create 180
Colpitts oscillator there are two
degrees to obey Barkhausen’s
capacitors connected in series and
criteria.
hence effective capacitance is
(C1×C2)/(C1+C2). 267. The gain device in the colpitts
oscillator act as a ___________
265. Which configuration of
a) Low pass filter
transistor amplifier is used for
b) High pass filter
Colpitts oscillator?
c) Band pass filter
a) Common emitter amplifier
d) Band rejection filter
b) Common collector amplifier
c) Common base amplifier Answer: c
d) Combination of both common Explanation: The gain device in
emitter and common collector Colpitts oscillator act as a band pass
filter and thus limits frequency of
Answer: a
oscillation to a certain range.
Explanation: Common emitter
configuration is used for amplifying 268. Which of the following equation
distorted oscillatory signal to a gives amplitude of oscillation in
perfect oscillation. The transistor Colpitts oscillator using describing
provides a 180° phase shift and tank function method? (Where Ic is the is
circuit another 180°, a total of 0 the bias current RL is the load resistor
phase shift. and C1 & C2 are the upper and lower
capacitance of voltage divider bias)
266. Phase shift provided by overall
a) 2ICRL/C1+C2
tank circuit is ___________
b) 2ICC2/C1+C2
a) 0 degree
c) 2ICRL C2/C1
b) 90 degree
d) 2ICRL C2/C1+C2
c) 180 degree
d) -90 degree
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: d oscillator is improved along with a

Explanation: Amplitude of oscillation more simple design.
in Colpitts oscillator using describing
271. Recommended frequency range
function method is egual to
of Harley oscillator is __________
V=(2IC RL C2)/C1.
a) 30KHz-30MHz
269. The improvement of Colpitts b) 1KHz-10MHz
oscillator over Hately oscillator is, c) 2Hz-3MHz
Colpitts oscillator’s performance in d) 0.5KHz-40MHz
___________
Answer: a
a) All frequency region
Explanation: Recommended
b) Mid frequency region
frequency range of Hartley oscillator
c) High frequency region
is 30KHz-30MHz. Frequencies higher
d) Low frequency region
or lower than this range will cause
Answer: c distortion.
Explanation: Colpitts oscillator shows
272. Lower frequencies are not
better frequency stability in high
practically possible in the case of
frequencies than Hartley oscillator.
Harley oscillator because of the
270. Colpitts oscillator provides more requirement of low ___________
performance than Hartley oscillator value.
because of its ________ elements a) Capacitance
a) Capacitive b) Resistance
b) Resistive c) Inductance
c) Inductive d) Gain
d) Active
Answer: c
Answer: a Explanation: Lower frequencies are
Explanation: Colpitts oscillator theoretically possible in Hartley
provide more performance than oscillator however in practice, the
Hartley oscillator because of its achievement of required inductive
capacitive feedback elements. Due to value is a problem.
less self and mutual inductance in the
circuit, frequency stability of the
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

273. Which type of feedback is used Answer: c

by Hartley oscillator? Explanation: Inductive voltage divider
a) Voltage series feedback bias is used, wherein a center tapped
b) Current series feedback inductor in parallel to a capacitor is in
c) Voltage shunt feedback the feedback network to the base of
d) Current shunt feedback the transistor/amplifying element.

Answer: a 276. How many capacitors are there

Explanation: The feedback used in in the tank circuit of Hartley
Hartley oscillator is Voltage series oscillator?
feedback. a) 1
b) 2
274. Which component of Hartley
c) 3
oscillator is used in feedback system?
d) 0
a) Inductor
b) Resistor Answer: a
c) Capacitor Explanation: There is only one
d) Transistor capacitor is used in the tank circuit of
Hartley oscillator.
Answer: a
Explanation: Center tapped inductors 277. How many inductors are there in
are used in Hartley oscillator to the tank circuit of Hartley oscillator?
ensure feedback. These are often in a) 1
parallel to a variable capacitor, and b) 2
feedback is sent into the base of the c) 3
transistor. d) 0

275. Which of the following network Answer: b

is used to give feedback to transistor Explanation: There are two inductors
of Hartley oscillator? in the tank circuit and one capacitor,
a) Inductive fixed bias in the Hartley oscillator. Often
b) Capacitive fixed bias though, we use a center tapped
c) Inductive voltage divider inductor instead of two inductors.
d) Capacitive voltage divider

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

278. The frequency of Hartley b) Positive feedback

oscillator is expressed as __________ c) No feedback
(Where L is effective inductance and d) Positive or Negative depends upon
C is the capacitance) the frequency
a) 1/(4ᴨ√LC)
Answer: b
b) 1/(2ᴨ√LC)
Explanation: As normal oscillators,
c) 1/(3ᴨ√LC)
Hartley oscillator also uses positive
d) √3/(2ᴨ√LC)
feedback for sustained oscillation.
Answer: b
281. What is a square wave
Explanation: Frequency of Hartley
generator?
oscillator can be expressed as
a) Flip-flop
1/(2ᴨ√LC). L is the total cumulatively
b) Bi-stable multivibrator
coupled mutual inductance if two
c) Astable multivibrator
separate coils are used with mutual
d) Monostable multivibrator
inductance M. Frequency of
oscillation can be adjusted by varying Answer: c
the tuning capacitor C or the Explanation: An astable multivibrator
inductance. is one which does not have any stable
state. It has two quasi-stable output
279. Active element used in Hartley
states which keep toggling at regular
oscillator is __________
intervals. The output waveform is
a) Cell
thus a square wave and this circuit is
b) Voltage regulator
also called a square wave generator
c) Diode
or a free running oscillator.
d) Transistor
282. Given the circuit below, find the
Answer: d
feedback factor.
Explanation: Active element used in
Hartley oscillator is Transistor for
amplification purposes.

280. Hartley oscillator uses which

type of feedback?
a) Negative feedback
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

to non inverting terminal = ±6V

d) Quasi-stable output = ±12V, Input
to non inverting terminal = 0V

Answer: c
Explanation: Quasi-stable output =
±VSat = ± VSupply = ±12V
Input to non inverting terminal =
±βVSat = ±6V.

284. What is the duty cycle of the

output of an astable multivibrator?
a) 50%
b) 100%
a) 3
c) 75%
b) 1/3
d) 55%
c) 4
d) 1/4 Answer: a
Explanation: An astable multivibrator
Answer: d
is a square wave generator. Charging
Explanation: The feedback factor is β
and discharging times of the
= R1/R1+R2
capacitor are equal and thus the
β = 10k/30k+10k = 1/4.
output waveform has a duty cycle of
283. In an astable multivibrator using 50%.
an op-amp, the feedback factor is 0.5
285. Given that the feedback factor
and the supply voltage is ±12V. What
of an astable multivibrator is 0.3, find
are the quasi-stable output state and
the frequency of the output.
the input to the non-inverting
terminal?
a) Quasi-stable output = ±12V, Input
to non inverting terminal = ±12V
b) Quasi-stable output = ±6V, Input to
non inverting terminal = ±12V
c) Quasi-stable output = ±12V, Input

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

a) 22Hz
b) 20kHz
a) 0.436 ms
c) 20Hz
b) 0.436 seconds
d) 40Hz
c) .5 ms
Answer: c d) 5.22 seconds
Explanation: TO = 2RCln (1 + β/1-β) =
Answer: b
2RCln(1.3/0.7) = 2x10x4x10-3x0.619 =
Explanation: Since the two feedback
49.52ms
resistors are same, then β=0.5.
f = 1/TO = 20Hz.
Thus time period TO = 2RCln3 =
286. Consider the following circuit 2x20x10x10-3x1.09 = 436ms = 0.436
and find the time period of the seconds.
output of the multivibrator.
287. How can the duty cycle be
changed for an astable multivibrator?
a) By adding another capacitor to the
circuit
b) By adding diodes to the circuit
c) By adding an inductor to the circuit
d) The duty cycle cannot be changed

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b β)
Explanation: To generate a square T = 22x10x10-3xln(1.6/0.4) =
wave of duty cycle other than 50%, 22x10x10-3x1.38 = 0.303 seconds.
diodes can be connected so that
289. The monostable multivibrator
charging and discharging now occurs
has one quasi-stable state and one
through these diodes. This thus
unknown state.
changes the time period as well as
a) True
the duty cycle of the diodes.
b) False
288. Given that the feedback factor is
Answer: b
0.6, find the time period of the circuit
Explanation: The monostable
below.
multivibrator is a circuit whose
output has one stable state and one
quasi-stable state. If trigger input is
not applied then output remains in
the stable state indefinitely and
whenever the trigger is applied, the
output enters the quasi-stable state.
The output then changes back to the
stable state on its own after a short
duration.

290. Which of these is not a type of

monostable multivibrator?
a) Schmitt trigger as a monostable
multivibrator
b) Emitter coupled monostable
a) 0.331 seconds
multivibrator
b) 0.303 seconds
c) Using an op-amp
c) 0.276 seconds
d) 555 Timer as a monostable
d) 0.606 seconds
multivibrator
Answer: b
Answer: a
Explanation: T = (RXC + RYC)ln(1+β/1-
Explanation: A Schmitt trigger circuit
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

is a comparator circuit, also called a

regenerative comparator. It converts
any waveform into a square wave. It
is not a monostable multivibrator,
unlike the other three options.

291. Which of these doesn’t refer to a

series-shunt feedback?
a) Voltage in and Voltage out
b) Current in and Voltage out
What are A and B?
c) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source
a) A = Current sampling network, B =
d) Series voltage feedback
Voltage sampling network
Answer: b b) A = Current mixing network, B =
Explanation: In a series shunt Voltage sampling network
feedback network, feedback is c) A = Shunt mixing network, B =
connected in series with signal source Current sampling network
but in shunt with the load. Error d) A = Voltage mixing network, B =
voltage from feedback network is in Current sampling network
series with the input. Voltage fed
Answer: c
back from output is proportional to
Explanation: When feedback network
output voltage, hence parallel or
is in shunt with load, then output
shunt connected. The current in and
voltage appears as input to feedback.
voltage out connection refers to a
In above case, output current
shunt-shunt connection.
appears as the feedback input, hence
292. In the following diagram, shaded B is a current sampling network. Also,
portions are named A and B. feedback network is in shunt with the
signal source, hence it’s called shunt
mixing or current mixing.

293. Given that a feedback network is

shunt-series, and output load is 10kΩ,
what is the output voltage across it
given that transfer gain is 10, source
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

current is 20mA and feedback current it’s not connected directly to the
is 10mA? input node. Hence it’s series mixing
a) 1V at the input. Voltage sampling is a
b) 2V shunt network.
c) 10V
295. Consider a voltage series
d) 20V
feedback network, where amplifier
Answer: c gain = 100, feedback factor = 5. For
Explanation: RL = 10kΩ the basic amplifier, input voltage =
IF = βIL 4V, input current=2mA. Find the
IL = IF/β = 10/10 = 1mA input resistance of the network.
VL = ILRL = 10V. a) 1.002kΩ
b) 1002kΩ
294. Consider the circuit shown.
c) 2kΩ
d) 2000kΩ

Answer: b
Explanation: RI = VI / II = 4/2m = 2kΩ
RIF = RI(1+A.β) = 2k(1+500) = 1002kΩ.

296. In which network is the unit of

the feedback factor Ω?
a) Shunt-shunt feedback
b) Shunt-series feedback
What is the type of sampling c) Series-series feedback
observed? d) Series-shunt feedback
a) Shunt-Series feedback
b) Series-Series feedback Answer: c
c) Shunt-Shunt feedback Explanation: In series-series
d) Series-Shunt feedback feedback, the output is current
sampled, that is it is in series with the
Answer: d load. Also, input is a voltage mixer,
Explanation: The feedback network is which is in series with signal source.
connected directly to output node, so So feedback factor
voltage sampling occurs. However, Β = VF/IL in Ohms.
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

297. A circuit can have more than one b) Current shunt feedback
type of feedback. c) Voltage series feedback
a) True d) Voltage shunt feedback
b) False
Answer: a
Answer: a Explanation: The resistance R4 is the
Explanation: In any circuit, the feedback network resistance. There is
feedback depends on the no bypass capacitor being used. The
configuration of resistor network and resistance is not directly connected
presence of capacitances. Consider a to either the input node, or output
collector to base bias circuit, in which node. Hence it’s a current series
base resistance causes voltage shunt feedback.
feedback. However, presence of an
299. Consider the circuit shown
emitter resistance provides a second
below.
feedback of current series type.

298. Consider given circuit.

Consider A: Current-shunt feedback

B: Current-series feedback
C: Voltage-shunt feedback
What is the feedback configuration?
D: Voltage-series feedback
a) Current series feedback

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Which of the above are present? voltage/current. Since output of

a) A and B feedback is voltage and input is
b) A only current, the output has current
c) B only sampling. Thus, configuration is a
d) A and D series-series feedback / current –
series feedback.
Answer: a
Explanation: Resistor R5 causes 301. Consider the ideal op-amp
global feedback. It is connected to shown and find the correct output.
the input node, causing shunt mixing
but not to output node, meaning
current sampling. Hence it’s a current
shunt feedback. Resistors R6 and R7
are neither connected to input nor
the output, causing series mixing and
current sampling, hence causing
current series feedback.

300. In a feedback network, input

voltage is 14V, feedback voltage is 6V
and source voltage is 20V. a)
β is in ohms. What is its
configuration?
a) Shunt-Shunt feedback
b) Shunt-Series feedback
c) Series-Series feedback
d) Series-Shunt feedback

Answer: c
Explanation: Given that input is 14V,
feedback is 6V and source is 20 V, we
can see
VI = VS – VF, which is voltage mixing. b)
Also β is in ohms that is

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

to an infinite value. The output value

is limited by the power supply
voltages. The maximum value can be
+VCC and minimum is –VEE. Hence, the
maximum output is +15V.

302. Consider a practical op-amp

where the power supply is VCC = +12V
and VEE = -12V. The open loop gain is
106 and open loop bandwidth is 5Hz.
What is the maximum positive input
c)
before which the output is saturated?
a) 12 mV
b) 0.012 mV
c) 24 mV
d) 12V

Answer: b
Explanation: The output is saturated
at the input +VSat/AOL or –VSat/AOL.
For positive saturation, the maximum
d) allowable input is 12/106 = 0.012 mV.

303. Given an op-amp who’s gain is

unknown but the output is saturated,
which of the following is not
possible?
a) No feedback is being applied
b) Negative feedback is applied while
input is more than –VSat/AOL
c) Positive feedback is applied
d) Negative feedback is applied while
Answer: b
the input is more than VSat/AOL
Explanation: For an ideal op-amp, the
gain is ∞. But the output does not go
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b d) The output offset voltage can be in

Explanation: If op-amp is used the units of Volts
without feedback or with positive
Answer: c
feedback, the difference voltage
Explanation: Output offset voltage is
VD will be large enough and hence op-
the output voltage of the op-amp
amp can be considered to be in the
when the input at both terminals is
saturation region. If op-amp is used
zero. It occurs due to the
with negative feedback then the
dissimilarities and mismatches in the
input is smaller. Saturation of output
internal structure of the op-amp. The
occurs if the input is not between –
value of output offset voltage is in
VSat/AOL and +VSat/AOL.
volts. It varies with changes in supply
304. The current flowing into one voltage.
input of the op-amp is 12nA and it is
306. Given that the PSRR of an op-
10 nA in the other. Find the input
amp is 120dB. The supply lies
offset current.
between 12V to 15V. Calculate the
a) 1nA
change in the input offset voltage.
b) 2nA
a) 3μV
c) -2nA
b) ±3μV
d) 11nA
c) ±3×10-12V
Answer: b d) -3V
Explanation: IIO = |IB1 – IB2|
Answer: b
IIO = 2nA.
Explanation: PSRR = 20log(ΔVS/ΔVIO)
305. What is incorrect regarding the ΔVIO = ±3/106 = ±3μV.
output offset voltage of op-amp?
307. Consider the circuit shown.
a) It is the output when the input
voltage at both input pins of op-amp
is zero
b) It occurs due to dissimilarities in
the internal structure of the op-amp
c) The output offset voltage does not
depend on the supply voltage The input VI = 10sin2π106t

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Calculate the duty cycle of the 309. How many types of band
output. elimination filters are present
a) 0.43 a) Three
b) 0.065 b) Two
c) 0.36 c) Four
d) 0.5 d) None of the mentioned

Answer: c Answer: b
Explanation: Duty cycle for a signal = Explanation: Band-reject filters are
Duration when output is VSat/Total also called as band elimination filters.
period They are classified into two types.
Let input = VI = 10 sinθ i) Wide band-reject filter and
The output goes to +VSat whenever ii) Narrow band-reject filter.
the input VI crosses amplitude of 4V.
310. A narrow band-reject filter is
Thus 4 = 10sinθ
commonly called as
Θ = sin-1 0.4 = 0.411 rad = 23.57°
a) Notch filter
The duty cycle = [180 – θ – θ]/360 =
b) Band step filter
180-47.14/360 = 0.36.
c) Delay filter
308. An op-amp uses a level shifter d) All of the mentioned
internally to prevent loading effect.
Answer: a
a) True
Explanation: A narrow band-reject
b) False
filter is also called as notch filter
Answer: a because of its higher quality factor, Q
Explanation: A level shifter is used to (>10).
eliminate the DC bias voltage present
311. Find the expression for notch-
in the output of the intermediate
out frequency?
stage which can cause distortion.
a) fN = 2πRC
Also, the level shifter has high input
b) fN = 2π/RC
resistance which prevents loading
c) fN = 1/2π×√(R/C)
effect on the intermediate stage
d) fN = 1/2πRC
since it is also a voltage buffer.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: d 314. Narrow band-pass filters are

Explanation: The notch-out frequency defined as
is the frequency at which maximum a) Q < 10
attenuation occurs: it is given by b) Q = 10
fN =1/2πRC. c) Q > 10
d) None of the mentioned
312. The quality factor of passive
twin T-network is increased by using Answer: c
a) Inverting amplifier Explanation: Quality factor (Q) is the
b) Non-inverting amplifier measure of selectivity, meaning
c) Voltage follower higher the value of Q, the narrower
d) Differential amplifier its bandwidth.

Answer: c 315. A band-pass filter has a

Explanation: The passive twin T- bandwidth of 250Hz and center
network has a selectively low figure frequency of 866Hz. Find the quality
of merit. The Q of the network can be factor of the filter?
increased significantly, if it is used a) 3.46
with the voltage follower. b) 6.42
c) 4.84
313. Which filter attenuates any
d) None of the mentioned
frequency outside the pass band?
a) Band-pass filter Answer: a
b) Band-reject filter Explanation: Quality factor of band-
c) Band-stop filter pass filter, Q =fc/bandwidth=
d) All of the mentioned 566/250=3.46.

Answer: a 316. Find the center frequency of

Explanation: A band- pass filter has a wide band-pass filter
pass band between two cut-off a) fc= √(fh ×fL)
frequencies fH and fL. So, any b) fc= √(fh +fL)
frequency outside this pass band is c) fc= √(fh -fL)
attenuated. d) fc= √(fh /fL)

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: a the high pass and low pass filter

Explanation: In a wide band-pass sections.
filter, the product of high and low
319. How is the higher order filters
cut-off frequency is equal to the
formed?
square of center frequency
a) By increasing resistors and
i.e. ( fc)2 =fH×fL
capacitors in low pass filter
=> fc= √(fh×fL).
b) By decreasing resistors and
317. Find out the voltage gain capacitors in low pass filter
magnitude equation for the wide c) By inter changing resistors and
band-pass filter. capacitors in low pass filter
a) AFt×( f/fL)/√[(1+(f/fh)2]×[1+(f/fL)2]. d) All of the mentioned
b) AFt/ √{[1+(f/fh)2]×[1+(f/fL)2]}
Answer: c
c) AFt/ √{[1+(f/fh)2]/[1+(f/fL)2]}
Explanation: High pass filter are often
d) [AFt/(f/fL)]/ √{[1+(f/fh)2]/[1+(f/fL)2]}
formed by interchanging frequency
Answer: a determining resistors and capacitors
Explanation: The voltage gain in low pass filters. For example, a first
magnitude of the band-pass filters order high pass filter is formed from a
equal to the product of the voltage first order low pass filter by inter
gain magnitudes of high pass and low changing components Rand C.
pass filter.
320. In a first order high pass filter,
318. When a second order high pass frequencies higher than low cut-off
filter and second order low pass frequencies are called
sections are cascaded, the resultant a) Stop band frequency
filter is a b) Pass band frequency
a) ±80dB/decade band-pass filter c) Centre band frequency
b) ±40dB/decade band-pass filter d) None of the mentioned
c) ±20dB/ decade band-pass filter
Answer: b
d) None of the mentioned
Explanation: Low cut-off frequency,
Answer: b fL is 0.707 times the pass band gain
Explanation: The order of the band- voltage. Therefore, frequencies
pass filter depends on the order of above fL are pass band frequencies.
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

321. Compute the voltage gain for a) VO = [1+(RF /R1)]×

the following circuit with input [(j2πfRC/(1+j2πfRC)] × Vin
frequency 1.5kHz. b) VO = [-(RF /R1)]×
[(j2πfRC/(1+j2πfRC)] × Vin
c) VO = {[1+(RF /R1)]× /[1+j2πfRC] }×
Vin
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: a
Explanation: The first order high pass
filter uses non-inverting amplifier. So,
AF= 1+(RF /R1) and the output voltage,
VO = [1+(RF /R1)]×
[(j2πfRC/(1+j2πfRC)]× Vin.

a) 4dB 323. The internal resistor of the

b) 15dB second order high pass filter is equal
c) 6dB to 10kΩ. Find the value of feedback
d) 12dB resistor?
a) 6.9kΩ
Answer: d b) 5.86kΩ
Explanation: |VO/Vin|= [AF×(f/fL)]/ c) 10kΩ
[√1+(f/fL)2] = [4×(1.5kHz/225.86)] / d) 12.56kΩ
√[1+(1.5kHz/225.86)2]
=26.56/6.716=3.955 Answer: b
=20log(3.955)=11.9. Explanation: Pass band gain for
|VO/Vin|≅12 dB second order butterworth response,
AF= 1+(RF /R1)= 1+(12kΩ/4kΩ) =4. AF =1.586.
fL= 1/(2πRC) = 1/2π×15kΩ×0.047µF= => AF= [1+(RF/R1)] => RF= (AF-
1/4.427×10-3 =225.86Hz. 1)×R1 =(1.586-1)×10kΩ =5860
=5.86kΩ.
322. Determine the expression for
output voltage of first order high pass 324. Voltage to current converter is
filter? also called as
a) Current series positive feedback
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

amplifier Answer: d
b) Voltage series negative feedback Explanation: Output current, Io =
amplifier Vin /R1 = 10/5kΩ =2mA.
c) Current series negative feedback
326. Which of the following
amplifier
application uses voltage to current
d) Voltage series positive feedback
converter?
amplifier
a) Low voltage dc and ac voltmeter
Answer: c b) Diode match finding
Explanation: Voltage to current c) Light emitting diode
converter is also called as current d) All of the mentioned
series negative feedback amplifier
Answer: d
because the feedback voltage across
Explanation: In all the applications
internal resistor applied to the
mentioned above, the input voltage
inverting terminal depends on the
Vin is converted into an output
output current and is in series with
current of Vin/R1 or the input voltage
the input difference voltage.
appear across resistor.
325. Given voltage to current
327. The op-amp in low voltage DC
converter with floating load.
voltmeter cannot be nullified due to
Determine the output current?
a) D’Arsonaval meter movement
b) Offset voltage compensating
network
c) Selection of switch
d) Gain of amplifier

Answer: a
Explanation: The op-amp sometimes
cannot be nullified because the
output is very sensitive to even slight
a) 3mA variation in wiper position of
b) 6mA D’Arsonaval meter movement
c) 4mA (ammeter with a full scale deflection
d) 2mA of 1mA).
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

328. What is the maximum input ammeter with a full scale deflection
voltage that has to be selected to of 1mA).
calibrate a dc voltmeter with a full
330. In the diagram given below,
scale voltage range of 1-13v.
determine the deflection of the
a) ≤ ±14v
ammeter with a full scale deflection
b) ≥ ±13v
of 1mA when the switch is at X2kΩ.
c) ≤ ±15v
Consider resistance of the offset
d) = ±14v
voltage compensating network to be
Answer: a 10Ω.
Explanation: The maximum input
voltage has to be ≤ ±14v, to obtain
the maximum full scale input voltage
of 13v.

329. Higher input voltage can be

measured in low voltage DC
voltmeter using
a) Smaller resistance value
b) Higher resistance value
c) Random resistance value
d) All of the mentioned a) Full scale deflection in the
ammeter
Answer: b b) Half scale deflection in the
Explanation: Higher resistance values ammeter
are required to measure relatively c) Quarter scale deflection in the
higher input voltage. For example, if ammeter
the range of switch is at x10 position d) No deflection occurs in the
in the low voltage dc voltmeter then, ammeter
the corresponding resistance value
would be 10kΩ. So, it requires a 10v Answer: b
input to get a full scale deflection (if Explanation: Given Vin=1v ,R1=10+2kΩ
1v cause full scale deflection in the ≅2kΩ
Io = Vin/R1= 1v/2kΩ =0.5mA. This

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

means that 2v causes half scale )].

deflection of the ammeter. d) Io= -
(Vref/2R1)×[(D7/2)+(D6/4)+(D5/8)+(D4/
331. How to modify a low voltage DC
16)+(D3/32)+(D2/64)+(D1/128)+(D0/25
voltmeter to low voltage ac voltmeter
6)].
a) Add a full wave rectifier in the
feedback loop Answer: c
b) Add a half wave rectifier in the Explanation: MC1408 is a
feedback loop combination of a DAC and current to
b) Add a square wave rectifier in the voltage converter. If the binary signal
feedback loop is input to MC1408 DAC then the
b) Add a sine wave rectifier in the output current would be,
feedback loop Io= (Vref/R1)×[
(D7/2)+(D6/4)+(D5/8)+(D4/16)+(D3/32)
Answer: a
+(D2/64)+(D1/128)+(D0/256)].
Explanation: A combination of an
ammeter and a full wave rectifier can 333. Determine the maximum value
be employed in the feedback loop to of output current of the DAC in
form an ac voltmeter. MC1408?
a) 0.773×(Vref/R1)
332. The output current equation for
b) 0.448×(Vref/R1)
MC1408 digital to analog converter
c) 0.996×(Vref/R1)
would be
d) 0.224×(Vref/R1)
a) Io= -
(Vref/R1)×[(D7/2)+(D6/4)+(D5/8)+(D4/1 Answer: c
6)+(D3/32)+(D2/64)+(D1/128)+(D0/256 Explanation: The output current of
)]. DAC is the maximum when all the
b) Io= inputs are logic 1.
(Vref/2R1)×[(D7/2)+(D6/4)+(D5/8)+(D4/ Therefore, Io=
16)+(D3/32)+(D2/64)+(D1/128)+(D0/25 (Vref/R1)×(1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16+1/32+1/
6)]. 64+1/128/+1/256)=(0.996)×(Vref/R1).
c) Io=
334. Determine the range or the
(Vref/R1)×[(D7/2)+(D6/4)+(D5/8)+(D4/1
output voltage?
6)+(D3/32)+(D2/64)+(D1/128)+(D0/256

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

voltage is Vo= Io×RF = 1.494×3.3kΩ

=4.93v. Thus, the output voltage
range is from 0 to 4.93v.

335. Calculate the change in the

output voltage if the photocell is
exposed to light of 0.61lux from a
dark condition. Specification: Assume
that the op-amp is initially nulled,
Minimum dark resistance = 100kΩ
and resistance when illuminated (at
0.61lux) = 1.5kΩ.

a) 0 – 2.51v
b) 0 – 2.22v
c) 0 – 3.74v
d) 0 – 4.93v

Answer: d
Explanation: When all binary input
D0 through D7 are logic 0, the current
Io =0. a) Vo –> 23v to 50v
∴ The minimum value of Vo =0v. b) Vo –> 0v to 33.11v
When all the inputs are at logic 1, Io = c) Vo –> -1.653v to 8.987v
(Vref/R1) × d) Vo –> -0.176v to -11.73v
(1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16+1/32+1/64+1/12 Answer: d
8/+1/256) = (3/2kΩ) × (0.996) Explanation: The resistance RT in
=1.494mA. darkness is 100kΩ. The minimum
Hence, the maximum value of output output voltage in darkness is Vo min = -

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

(Vdc×RF)/ RT = -(3.2v×5.5kΩ)/100kΩ = - c) 9.21v

0.176v. d) 67.34v
When photocell is illuminated, its
Answer: b
resistance RT =1.5kΩ. Therefore, the
Explanation:
maximum output voltage is Vo max = -
Io=Vref/R1×[(D7/2)+(D6/4)+(D5/8)+(D4/1
(Vdc×RF)/ RT = -(3.2v×5.5kΩ)/1.5kΩ =-
6)+(D4/32)+(D4/64)] Vref =(Io×R1)/
11.73v.
(1/2+0+1/8+1/16+0+1/64+0+0)=(2mA
Thus, Vo varies from -0.176v to -11.73
×1.2kΩ)/0.703 .
as the photocell is exposed to light
=> Vref = 3.41v.
from a dark condition.
338. The current to voltage converter
336. Which cell can be used instead
photosensitive device can be used as
of a photocell to obtain active
a) Light intensity meter
transducer in photosensitive devices?
b) Light radiating meter
a) Photovoltaic cell
c) Light deposition meter
b) Photo diode
d) None of the mentioned
c) Photo sensor
d) All of the mentioned Answer: a
Explanation: The photosensitive
Answer: a
device can be used as a light intensity
Explanation: A photovoltaic cell is
meter by connecting a meter at the
semiconductor junction device that
output that is calibrated for light
convert radiation energy into
intensity.
electrical energy and hence it does
not require external voltage. 339. For a full wave rectification, in a
low voltage ac voltmeter, the meter
337. If the input applied to DAC using
current can be expressed as
current to voltage converter is
a) Io = (1.9×Vin)/R1
10110100, determine the reference
b) Io = (3.9×Vin)/R1
voltage (Assume Io= 2mA and
c) Io = (0.9×Vin)/R1
R1=1.2kΩ)
d) Io = (2.9×Vin)/R1
a) 53.1v
b) 3.41v Answer: c
Explanation: For full wave

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

rectification, meter current is

expressed as Io = 0.9xVin/R1.

340. Determine the full scale range

for the input voltage if the resistance
in series with meters are 1kΩ, 2kΩ,
47kΩ and full scale meter movement
is 1mA in low voltage AC voltmeter?
a) 1.0 to 7.48 Vrms
b) 1.1 to 7.48 Vrms
c) 1.2 to 7.48 Vrms
d) 1.3 to 7.48 Vrms

Answer: b
Explanation: The minimum and
maximum values of resistors are 1kΩ
and 6.8kΩ.So, the range for the input
voltages are
a) Io (LED) =4.01mA; Io (Zener)
Vin(rms)|min = 1.1×R1/Io =
=4.01mA; Io (rectifier) =8.33mA
(1.1×1kΩ)/1mA =1.1v.
b) Io (LED) =25mA; Io (Zener)
Vin(rms)|max =1.1×R1/
=4.01mA; Io (rectifier) =4.01mA
Io =(1.1×6.8kΩ)/1mA = 7.48v.
c) Io (LED) =16.67mA; Io (Zener)
Thus, the full scale input voltage
=16.66mA; Io (rectifier) =4.01mA
ranges from 1.1 to 7.48 Vrms.
d) Io (LED) =8.33mA; Io (Zener)
341. Determine the current through =8.33mA; Io (rectifier) =8.33mA
the diode, when the switch is in
Answer: d
position 1, 2& 3. Assuming op-amps
Explanation: All the diodes are
initially nulled.
connected one after another in the
feedback path. Therefore, current
through the diode remains same.
Io =Vin/R1 =1.5/180 =8.33mA.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

342. A diode match finder circuit has knee current (IZk) of the zener, it
input voltage of 2.6v and output blocks VZ volts.
voltage is 5.78v. Calculate the voltage
344. Which among the following is
drop across diode 1N4735
preferred to display device in digital
a) 2.22v
application?
b) 8.38v
a) Matched zener diode
c) 3.18v
b) Matched LEDs
d) 15.02v
c) Matched rectifier diode
Answer: c d) All of the mentioned
Explanation: The output voltage
Answer: b
Vo =Vin+ VD.
Explanation: Matched LEDs with
∴ the voltage drop across 1N4735,
equal brightness at a specific value of
VD =Vo – Vin = 5.78-2.6 =3.18v.
current are useful as indicators and
343. Find the voltage drop across the display devices in digital applications.
zener diode in the zener diode tester
345. The maximum current through
from the given specifications:
the load in all application that uses
IZk=1mA, VZ =6.2v, input voltage=
voltage to current converter with
1.2v, output voltage =3.2v and
floating is
resistance in series with meter
a) 100mA
=150Ω.
b) 75mA
a) 6.2mA
c) 25mA
b) 8mA
d) 50mA
c) 21.33mA
d) Cannot be determined Answer: c
Explanation: The maximum current
Answer: a
through the load cannot exceed the
Explanation: Current through the
short circuit current of the 741c op-
zener Io=Vin/R1 =1.2v/150Ω =8mA.
amp which is 25mA.
Since, Io > IZk the voltage across the
zero will be approximately equal to 346. For voltage to current converter
6.2v. As the current is larger than the with grounded load, establish a
relation between the non-inverting

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

input terminals and load current

a) V1 = [Vin+Vo-(IL×R)] /2
b) V1 = [Vin-Vo-(IL×R)] /2
c) V1 = [Vin+Vo-IL+R] /2
d) V1 = [Vin+Vo+(IL×R)] /2

Answer: a
Explanation: In the voltage to current
converter circuit the relationship
between the voltage v1 at the non-
inverting input terminal and load is
a) IL=0.42mA, Vo =10v
given as V1 = [Vin+Vo-(IL×R)] /2.
b) IL=0.42mA, Vo =3.4v
347. Find the gain of the voltage to c) IL=0.42mA, Vo =6.1v
current converter with grounded d) IL=0.42mA, Vo =5v
load?
Answer: d
a) 2
Explanation: The load current
b) 1
IL =vin /R =5/12kΩ =0.42mA
c) ∞
vo =IL×R, can be obtained when
d) 0
Vo=2×V1 = 2×2.5 =5v.
Answer: a
350. A transistor series regulator has
Explanation: In voltage to current
the following specifications: VIN=15V,
converter with grounded load all
VZ=8.3V, β=100, R=1.8KΩ, RL=2KΩ.
resistor must be equal in value.
What will be the Zener current in the
∴ Gain = Vo/Vin = [1+(RF/R1)] = 1+R/R
regulator circuit?
=1+1=2.
a) 4.56mA
348. Find the output voltage and the b) 3.26mA
load current for the circuit given c) 4.56mA
below. Assume that the op-amp is d) 3.68mA
initially nulled V1 =2.5v
Answer: d
Explanation: We know, VO=VZ-
VBE=8.3-0.7=7.6V. VCE=VIN-V0=15-

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

7.6=7.4V. So, IR=(VIN-VZ)/R=(15- d) it is not controlled by the transistor

8.3)/1.8m=3.72mA. terminals
IL=VO/RL=7.6/2000=3.8mA. IB=IL/
Answer: b
β=3.8mA/100=0.038mA. Finally, IZ=IR-
Explanation: The principle is based on
IB=3.72-0.038=3.682mA.
the fact that a large fraction of the
350. When is a regulator used? increase in input voltage appears
a) when there are small variations in across the transistor so that the
load current and input voltage output voltage remains to be
b) when there are large variations in constant. When input voltage is
load current and input voltage increased, the output voltage also
c) when there are no variations in increases which biases the transistor
load current and input voltage towards less current.
d) when there are small variations in
352. Where does the Q point lie for
load current and large variations in
class B amplifier?
input voltage
a) Active
Answer: a b) Cut off
Explanation: The regulator has c) Saturation
following limitations: 1.It has low d) Between saturation and active
efficiency for heavy load currents 2.
Answer: b
The output voltage changes slightly
Explanation: Class B amplifier are
due to Zener impedance. Hence, it is
designed by fixing the Q point in cut
used when there are small variations
off region of the transfer
in load current and input voltage.
characteristic.
351. A transistor in a series voltage
353. Class B amplifier Produces
regulator acts like a variable resistor.
output even if the input is zero.
The value of its resistance is
a) True
determined by _______
b) False
a) emitter current
b) base current Answer: b
c) collector current Explanation: When input provided to
the class B amplifier is zero, no

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output will be achieved, because it is 356. Which is the main disadvantage

excellent against noise. of class B amplifiers?
a) Expensive
354. What happens when class B
b) Less efficient
amplifier is in a quiescent state?
c) More power dissipation
a) No current flows through the
d) More heat dissipation
transistor
b) Maximum current flows through Answer: a
the transistor Explanation: Since class B amplifier
c) Half of the maximum current flows uses a balanced centre-tapped
through the transistor transformer in its design, making it
d) Quarter of the maximum current expensive to construct.
flows
357. What kind of design is used to
Answer: a avoid transformer usage?
Explanation: When the transistor is in a) High resistance
a quiescent state, no input is applied b) Matched load
across the base terminal of the c) Complementary symmetry
transistor and hence no current flows d) Capacitive Model
through the transistor.
Answer: c
355. What is the value of the Explanation: To avoid transformer
maximum efficiency of the class B usage in Class B amplifier, pair of
amplifier? transistor is connected together in
a) 25% complemented manner.
b) 35%
358. What is cross over distortion?
c) 35% to 50%
a) Effect occurred during switching of
d) 50% to 70%
transistor after every half cycle
Answer: d b) Distortion occurred due to
Explanation: Class B amplifiers are resistors
more efficient compare to the class A c) Distortion occurred due to
amplifier because of good protection Capacitors
against noise effects. d) Distortion occurred due to
Inductors
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: a 361. What is the conduction angle for

Explanation: Transistor takes 0.7V to Class B push-pull amplifier?
turn on when during the end of half a) 0
cycles, the input gets below 0.7V and b) 90
it is not possible to reproduce these c) 180
signals. This is called as Cross over d) 270
distortion.
Answer: c
359. How to avoid cross over Explanation: For class B push-pull
distortion? amplifier, the conduction angle is 180
a) By using more resistance degree that is it amplifies only one
b) By using more capacitance half cycle of the input in one time
c) By using more Inductance period.
d) By shifting the Q point above cut
362. Why a class D amplifier is called
off
as switching amplifier?
Answer: d a) Because it consists of a transistor
Explanation: By using two more b) Because of high power
voltage sources and thus by shifting c) Because of less noise effect
the Q point slightly above the cut off, d) Because of binary switch
we can remove noise over distortion.
Answer: d
360. For a Class B amplifier, the Explanation: A class D amplifier or
utilized load power is 300W and the switching amplifier is an electronic
Dc power is 500W, find efficiency. amplifier where all power devices are
a) 30% operated as binary switches.
b) 60%
363. For an ideal class D amplifier,
c) 90%
what time is required in transitioning
d) 100%
between states?
Answer: b a) 0
Explanation: Efficiency=ac power/dc b) 10
power c) 100
Efficiency=300/500 = 3/5 = 0.6. d) Infinite

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Answer: a 366. Efficiency of class D

Explanation: For an Ideal class D amplifier____________
amplifier, zero time is spent between a) 100%
transitioning from on to off or vice b) 59%
versa. c) 75%
d) 60%
364. Which of the following is an
example for the application of class D Answer: a
amplifier? Explanation: Theoretically the
a) Switch efficiency of the class D power
b) Torch amplifier is 100% because of its
c) Pulse generator switching ability.
d) Bulb
367. MOSFET class D amplifier is
Answer: c more advantageous than BJT class D
Explanation: The output stages of amplifier.
class D amplifier are used as pulse a) True
generator, because of its switching b) False
ability.
Answer: a
365. Which of the following is true Explanation: MOSFET is smaller and is
about class D amplifier? controlled by voltage, hence it is
a) Its efficiency is very less more advantageous compared to BJT.
b) It can be made to work as bulb
368. Which of the following is true
c) It is big in size
about MOSFET class D amplifier?
d) It operates on lesser frequently
a) It has infinite gain
Answer: d b) It is less stable
Explanation: class D amplifier work by c) It is less advantageous
generating a square wave of which d) It dissipates less heat
the low frequency portions of the
Answer: d
spectrum is essentially the wanted
Explanation: When MOSFET is off, no
output signal.
current flows and hence no power
dissipation occurs.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

369. Why the cost of MOSFET based Answer: a

power amplifier is less? Explanation: Output is completely
a) High impedance dependent on the lower frequency
b) Low capacitance spectrum of the output signal and
c) Low power dissipation hence to properly obtain lower
d) Lesser in size frequency components, filters are
required.
Answer: c
Explanation: Since power dissipation 372. What are oscillators?
in MOSFET is less, this results in a) Switching circuits
smaller heat sinks and thus the cost b) Converts dc to ac
of the amplifier will be reduced. c) Converts ac to dc
d) Filter circuits
370. What is the conduction angle of
class D amplifier? Answer: b
a) 180 Explanation: Oscillator circuits are the
b) 270 one which uses dc power supply and
c) 0 converts it to alternating sinusoidal
d) 90 signals.

Answer: 0 373. Give the relation between

Explanation: The conduction angle of output and input voltage of an
class D amplifier is 0 because of its oscillator?
switching ability, it turns on and off a) Av = Vi/Vo
non linearly. b) Vi = Vo Av
c) Vo = Av/Vi
371. Why filters are required in class
d) Av = Vo/Vi
D amplifier?
a) Output is completely dependent Answer: d
on the lower frequency spectrum Explanation: For an oscillator circuit
b) To increase the complexity the output voltage is the product of
c) To obtain only lower frequency input voltage and gain of an
d) To nullify noise amplifier.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

374. What is the value of self- Answer: a

oscillating circuits? Explanation: For an oscillator, the
a) 0 output voltage is the product of loop
b) 1 gain and input voltage, hence output
c) 2 will be twice the input, that is 5*2
d) 3 =10V.

Answer: b 377. For practical oscillators, which

Explanation: For self-oscillating law has to be obeyed?
circuits, the loop gain Aβ must be a) Faraday law
equal to 1, otherwise there will be b) Hertz law
the effect of noise. c) Fleming law
d) Barkhausen law
375. What is the value of input
voltage, if Aβ=1 and input voltage is Answer: d
5V? Explanation: For an oscillator circuit,
a) 0 it has to obey the Barkhausen
b) 2 criteria, otherwise the output f the
c) 5 oscillator will tend to zero as the time
d) 10 advances.

Answer: c 378. Which of the following

Explanation: since Aβ =1, it is a self expression depicts Barkhausen
oscillating circuits and hence output criteria?
always has the peak amplitude of 5V. a) Aβ = 1
b) Aβ = 0
376. For an oscillator, input voltage is
c) Aβ < 1 < Aβ
5V, loop gain is 2, find output
d) Aβ < 1
voltage?
a) 10 Answer: a
b) 20 Explanation: Barkhausen criteria
c) 5 states that loop gain of the closed
d) 15 loop circuit must be equal to one in
order to repeat the generation.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

379. Barkhausen criteria states phase 382. For a phase-shift oscillator, the
of loop gain must be 0 for a self gain of the amplifier stage must be
sustaining oscillator. greater than ________
a) True a) 19
b) False b) 30
c) 29
Answer: a
d) 1
Explanation: For an oscillator circuit,
the phase of loop gain must be equal Answer: c
to zero or integral multiple of 2nπ. Explanation: Since the resistor-
capacitor combination in the RC
380. What is the average value of
Oscillator circuit also acts as an
saturation factor in a practical circuit?
attenuator producing an attenuation
a) 1
of -1/29th ( Vo/Vi = β ) per stage, the
b) 0
gain of the amplifier must be
c) 2
sufficient to overcome the circuit
d) 3
losses.
Answer: a Therefore, in our three stage RC
Explanation: The average value of network above the amplifier gain
saturation factor is equal to loop gain must be greater than 29.
of the particular circuit, usually it will
383. What is the minimum frequency
be nearly equal to 1.
at which a crystal will oscillate?
381. An oscillator requires an input a) fundamental
voltage of high amplitude. b) seventh harmonic
a) True c) second harmonic
b) False d) third harmonic

Answer: b Answer: a
Explanation: An oscillator circuit does Explanation: The physical size of the
not require an input voltage, an quartz crystal affects the final or
oscillator can be designed without fundamental frequency of
giving an input signal. oscillations. The fundamental
frequency is generally called the

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

crystals “characteristic frequency”. Answer: c

The crystals characteristic or Explanation: In oscillators using
characteristic frequency is inversely positive feedback it is important that
proportional to its physical thickness amplitude of the oscillator output
between the two metalized surfaces. remains stable. Therefore the closed
loop gain must be 1 (unity). In other
384. A circuit that can change the
words, the gain within the loop;
frequency of oscillation with an
provided by the amplifier, should
application of a dc voltage is
exactly match the losses (caused by
sometimes called___________
the feedback circuit) within the loop.
a) a crystal oscillator
b) a voltage-controlled oscillator 386. The Nyquist plot combines the
c) an astable multivibrator two Bode plots of gain versus
d) a Hartley oscillator frequency and phase shift versus
frequency on a single plot.
Answer: b
a) True
Explanation: A Voltage controlled
b) False
oscillator is an oscillator with an
output signal whose output can be Answer: a
varied over a range, which is Explanation: Bode plots show the
controlled by the input DC voltage. It frequency response of a system.
is an oscillator whose output There are two Bode plots one for gain
frequency is directly related to the (or magnitude) and one for phase.
voltage at its input. The Nyquist plot combines gain and
The oscillation frequency varies from phase into one plot in the complex
few hertz to hundreds of GHz. plane. It is drawn by plotting the
complex gain g(iω) for all frequencies
385. In order to start up, a feedback
ω. That is, the plot is a curve in the
oscillator requires______
plane parameterized by ω.
a) unity feedback equal to 1
b) negative feedback less than 1 387. An input signal is needed for an
c) positive feedback greater than 1 oscillator to start.
d) no feedback a) True
b) False

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: b a) minimum
Explanation: The oscillator is a device b) maximum
which gives an AC output without any c) equal
input. Oscillator needs an input signal d) Zero
for start. But once the capacitor is
Answer: a
charged then, Oscillator can
Explanation: The slope of the crystals
effectively start work without an
impedance suggests that as the
input signal.
frequency increases across its
388. The lead-lag circuit in the Wien- terminals. At a particular frequency,
bridge oscillator has a resonant the interaction between the series
frequency at which the attenuation capacitor and the inductor creates a
is_________ series resonance circuit reducing the
a) 1/2 crystals impedance to a minimum
b) 1/4 and equal to Resistance.
c) 1/5
390. The twin-T oscillator produces a
d) 1/3
________ response.
Answer: d a) low-pass
Explanation: The response curve for b) high-pass
the lead-lag circuit indicates that the c) band -pass
output voltage peaks at a frequency d) band-stop
called the resonant frequency, fr. At
Answer: d
this point, the attenuation (Vout/Vin)
Explanation: Twin T-oscillator is an RC
of the circuit is 1/3.
oscillator consists of Twin T-network
Vout/Vin = 1/3
and an op-amp. Twin-T is actually a
The lead-lag circuit in the Wien-
combination of low pass and high
bridge oscillator has a resonant
pass filter combined parallel response
frequency fr, at which the phase shift
provides a band-stop filter with a
through the circuit is and the
center frequency equal to
attenuation is 1/3.
fr=1/2πRC
389. At series resonance, the This is resonant frequency,
impedance of a crystal is________ Oscillations can occur only at this

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

frequency as the filter provides Answer: b

significant negative feedback at Explanation: Average DC current of
frequencies below or above the half wave rectifier is Im. Since output
resonant frequency which is not good of half wave rectifier contains only
for oscillation. one half of the input. The average
value is the half of the area of one
391. Which of the following
half cycle of sine wave with peak Im.
improvements is (are) a result of the
This is equal to Im.
negative feedback in a circuit?
a) Higher input impedance 393. DC power output of bridge full
b) Better stabilized voltage gain wave rectifier is equal to (Im is the
c) Lowered frequency response peak current and RL is the load
d) Higher input impedance & Better resistance).
stabilized voltage gain a) 2 Im2RL
b) 4 Im2RL
Answer: d
c) Im2RL
Explanation: The applied negative
d) Im2 RL/2
feedback can improve its
performance (gain stability, linearity, Answer: b
frequency response, step response) Explanation: DC output power is the
and reduces sensitivity to parameter power output of the rectifier. We
variations due to manufacturing or know VDC for a bridge rectifier is
environment. Because of these 2Vm and IDC for a bridge rectifier is
advantages, many amplifiers and 2Im. We also know VDC=IDC/RL. Hence
control systems use negative output power is 4Im2RL.
feedback.
394. Ripple factor of bridge full wave
392. DC average current of a bridge rectifier is?
full wave rectifier (where Im is the a) 1.414
maximum peak current of input). b) 1.212
a) 2Im c) 0.482
b) Im d) 1.321
c) Im/2
Answer: c
d) 1.414Im
Explanation: Ripple factor of a
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

rectifier measures the ripples or AC rectifier. For bridge full wave rectifier
content in the output. It’s obtained it’s equal to 0.693.
by dividing AC rms output with DC
397. If peak voltage on a bridge full
output. For full wave bridge rectifier
wave rectifier circuit is 5V and diode
it is 0.482.
cut in voltage os 0.7, then the peak
395. If input frequency is 50Hz then inverse voltage on diode will
ripple frequency of bridge full wave be_________
rectifier will be equal to_________ a) 4.3V
a) 200Hz b) 9.3V
b) 50Hz c) 8.6V
c) 45Hz d) 3.6V
d) 100Hz
Answer: d
Answer: d Explanation: PIV is the maximum
Explanation: Since in the output of reverse bias voltage that can be
bridge rectifier one half cycle is appeared across a diode in the
repeated, the frequency will be twice circuit. If PIV rating of diode is less
as that of input frequency. So, than this value breakdown of diode
f=100Hz. may occur.. Therefore, PIV rating of
diode should be greater than PIV in
396. Transformer utilization factor of
the circuit, For bridge rectifier PIV is
bridge full wave rectifier _________
Vm-VD = 5-1.4=3.6.
a) 0.623
b) 0.812 398. Efficiency of bridge full wave
c) 0.693 rectifier is_________
d) 0.825 a) 81.2%
b) 50%
Answer: b
c) 40.6%
Explanation: Transformer utilization
d) 45.33%
factor is the ratio of AC power
delivered to load to the DC power Answer: a
rating. This factor indicates Explanation: It’s obtained by taking
effectiveness of transformer usage by ratio of DC power output to
maximum AC power delivered to
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

load. Efficiency of a rectifier is the 401. In a bridge full wave rectifier,

effectiveness of rectifier to convert the input sine wave is 250sin100t.
AC to DC. It’s usually expressed inn The output ripple frequency will
percentage. For bridge full wave be_________
rectifier, it’s 81.2%. a) 50Hz
b) 200Hz
399. In a bridge full wave rectifier,
c) 100Hz
the input sine wave is 40sin100t. The
d) 25Hz
average output voltage is_________
a) 22.73V Answer: c
b) 16.93V Explanation: The equation of sine
c) 25.47V wave is in the form of Emsinωt. So,
d) 33.23V ω=100 and frequency (f)=ω/2=50Hz.
Since output of bridge rectifier have
Answer: c
double the frequency of input,
Explanation: The equation of sine
f=100Hz.
wave is in the form Emsinωt.
Therefore, Em=40. Hence output 402. Which of the following amplifier
voltage is 2Em=80V. class have highest linearity and
lowest distortion?
400. Number of diodes used in a full
a) Class A
wave bridge rectifier is_________
b) Class B
a) 1
c) Class C
b) 2
d) Class B push-pull
c) 3
d) 4 Answer: a
Explanation: Class A amplifier has the
Answer: d
highest linearity and the lowest
Explanation: The model of a bridge
distortion. The amplifying element is
rectifier is same as Wein Bridge. It
always conducting and close to the
needs 4 resistors. Bridge rectifier
linear portion of its transconductance
needs 4 diodes while centre tap
curve. The point where the device is
configuration requires only one.
almost off is not at a zero signal point

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and hence its distortions compared high efficiency but have the poorest
to other classes are less. linearity since they only take less
than 180° oscillations. They are
403. Which of the following letter is
suitable for amplifying constant
not used to represent a class?
envelope signals.
a) D
b) E 406. Which of the following amplifier
c) C cannot be used for audio frequency
d) K amplification?
a) Class A
Answer: d
b) Class C
Explanation: There is no amplifier
c) Class AB
called Class K. There are only A, B, C,
d) Class B push-pull
D,E/F, G, H, S.
Answer: b
404. Which of the following letter is
Explanation: Class C amplifier cannot
not used to represent a class?
be used for audio frequency
a) I
amplifiers because of its high
b) H
distortion.
c) G
d) S 407. Which of the following amplifier
is less efficient than others?
Answer: a
a) Class C
Explanation: There is no amplifier
b) Class B
called Class I. There are only A, B, C,
c) Class A
D, E/F, G, H, S.
d) Class AB
405. Which of the following class has
Answer: c
poorest linearity
Explanation: Class A amplifiers are
a) Class A
the least efficient of all. A maximum
b) Class B
of 25% theoretical efficiency is
c) Class C
obtainable, 50% for when using
d) Class AB
transformer or with induced
Answer: c coupling. This wastes power, as well
Explanation: Class C amplifiers have
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

as increases the cost and requires 78.5%?

higher rated output devices. a) Class A
b) Class D
408. Which of the following amplifier
c) Class C
is designed to operate in digital
d) Class B
pulses?
a) Class D Answer: d
b) Class C Explanation: Class B amplifier has a
c) Class AB theoretical efficiency of 78.5% which
d) Class B higher than Class A while Class D
theoretically have efficiency of 100%.
Answer: a
Explanation: Class D amplifiers use a 411. Which of the following amplifier
form of PWM to control the output is most suited for making tuning
devices. Conduction angle varies with circuits?
the pulse width and doesn’t depend a) Class A
on the input directly. The analog b) Class B
signal is converted into a stream of c) Class C
pulses representing the signal using a d) Class D
modulation technique.
Answer: c
409. Which of the following class Explanation: Class C is most suitable
have a theoretical efficiency of 50%? amplifier type for tuning circuit and
a) Class A radio frequency amplification. It
b) Class C employs filtering and hence the final
c) Class AB signal is completely acceptable. Class
d) Class D C amplifiers are quite efficient than
other types.
Answer: a
Explanation: Class A amplifier has a 412. The state amplifier has no input
theoretical efficiency of 50%. 50% of is not called ______________
the energy supplied is a waste. a) Zero signal condition
b) Non-signal condition
410. Which of the following class
c) Quiescent condition
have a theoretical efficiency of
d) Empty-signal condition
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: d
Explanation: The state at which
amplifier has zero input signal is
called zero signal condition, Non-
signal condition, quiescent condition.
There is nothing named empty-signal
condition.
a) R1
413. Which of the following is not b) R2
considered for quiescent operating c) RC
point? d) RL
a) DC collector-emitter voltage
b) DC collector current Answer: d
c) DC base current Explanation: R1, R2, RC are, used to
d) DC input voltage bias the circuit while RL is used as a
load resistor. R1, R2 are used as a
Answer: d voltage divider. RC is used to control
Explanation: The quiescent point is collector current.
the operating point of an amplifier
where the DC condition of amplifier is 415. Which of the following
constant. For that we have to make statements is most correct to explain
sure that DC collector-emitter role of biasing circuit in the
voltage, DC collector current, DC base implementation of a transistor
current are constant. circuit?
a) It is used provide proper voltage to
414. Which of the following resistor is every component in the circuit
not involving in biasing the circuit b) It is used to ensure maximum
shown below? power is obtained out of the circuit
c) It is used to provide the quiescent
collector current
d) It is used to provide proper and
stable functional environment to all
quiescent point parameters

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Answer: d d) To increase load to transistor

Explanation: The basic function of circuit
biasing is to maintain amplifier in
Answer: c
quiescent condition. The amplifier
Explanation: When an emitter
will properly work only if the
resistance is added to the amplifier
quiescent condition is stable.
circuit, in common emitter mode,
416. What is the role of input voltage gain is reduced and input
capacitance in the transistor impedance increases. When we need
amplifying circuit? to obtain higher gain, we add a
a) To prevent input variation from capacitance in parallel to the emitter
reaching output resistance, called emitter bypass
b) To prevent DC content in the input capacitance, and voltage gain does
from reaching transistor not decrease.
c) There isn’t any role for input
418. Which of the following is
capacitance
actually not a function of emitter
d) To increase input impedance
bypass capacitor?
Answer: b a) Increase gain
Explanation: The input capacitance, b) Lower the impedance of emitter
as its name indicates is used to resistance
prevent DC offset voltages in the c) Provide a low reactance path
input. It also prevents the transistor d) Help emitter resistance to
bias voltage to be fed back to input withstand voltage variation
generating circuit.
Answer: d
417. What is the role of emitter Explanation: The emitter bypass
bypass capacitance in the transistor capacitor is not meant for reducing
amplifying circuit? loading effect of emitter resistance. It
a) To prevent damage of emitter is to increase gain. It provides a low
resistance from variation in voltage reactive path to the AC signal without
b) To prevent emitter from over changing the quiescent point.
voltage
419. What is the role of emitter
c) To increase gain
resistance in the transistor amplifying
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

circuit? 421. Which of the following is the

a) To prevent thermal runaway best biasing method for transistor
b) To prevent increase in gain bias?
c) To lower the output impedance a) emitter bias
d) To increase gain b) voltage divider bias
c) fixed bias
Answer: a
d) collector feedback bias
Explanation: Thermal runaway is the
increase in the collector current Answer: b
without an increase in input due to Explanation: Voltage divider bias is
heating of semiconductor material more stable because the biased
which in turn reduce the resistance voltage will not change. It is best to
thus increases current. The emitter use voltage divider bias for accuracy.
resistor decreases effective input
422. What is reverse transmission
voltage decrease when collector
factor?
current increases and thus it reduces
a) Ratio of output by input signal
collector current itself.
b) Ratio of feedback by input signal
420. Which of the following is not c) Ration of feedback by output signal
true regarding the output capacitor in d) Ratio of input by feedback signal
the transistor biasing circuit?
Answer: c
a) To pass AC signal
Explanation: In feedback systems, the
b) To stop DC signal
feedback signal is in proportion with
c) To couple the amplifier to load or
the output signal.
next amplifier
XF ∝ XO
d) There is no importance for an
XF = βXO, where β is the feedback
output capacitance
factor or reverse transmission factor.
Answer: d
423. Return ratio for a circuit is 220.
Explanation: The output capacitor or
What is the amount of feedback,
output coupling capacitor is provided
correct up to 2 decimal places?
to pass AC signal and to block DC
a) 2.34 dB
signal. It also helps to couple the
b) – 46.84 dB
amplifier to load or next amplifier.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

c) – 46.88 dB upper cutoff frequency 20kHz. If

d) 46.88 dB negative feedback is applied to the
same, choose correct option stating
Answer: c
the new cutoff frequencies.
Explanation: Return ratio is Aβ,
a) Lower cutoff = 5kHz, Upper cutoff
where β=feedback factor, and
= 20kHz
A=open loop gain.
b) Lower cutoff = 2kHz, Upper cutoff
Amount of feedback is AF/A = 1 + Aβ
= 18kHz
In decibels, amount of feedback = -
c) Lower cutoff = 2kHz, Upper cutoff =
20log10(1+Aβ) = -20log10(221) = -46.88
25kHz
decibels.
d) Lower cutoff = 10kHz, Upper cutoff
424. Consider the given diagram. = 25kHz
Loop gain is 19. Consider closed loop
Answer: c
gain is 50. Find the output without
Explanation: Negative feedback
any feedback when input is 5.
decreases lower cutoff frequencies
and increases the higher cutoff
frequency.
fHF = fH(1+Aβ)
fLF = fL/(1+Aβ)
Total bandwidth is thus increased.
a) 1000
426. Find the relative change in gain
b) 500
with negative feedback given that
c) 5000
return ratio is 24, and feedback factor
d) 50000
is 3, when the change in open loop
Answer: c gain is 2.
Explanation: Feedback factor, β=10. a) 1
AF = A/(1+Aβ) = 50 b) 1.6
A = 20*50 = 1000 c) 0.1
Output is thus 5000. d) 0.01

425. Consider an open loop circuit Answer: d

with lower cutoff frequency 5kHz and Explanation: AF = A/(1+Aβ)

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

Aβ = 24 becomes smaller, but stable.

A=8 For circuit Q, desensitivity = 1/S = 10
Relative change in gain = dAF/AF = Circuit R has higher desensitivity,
dA/A(1+Aβ) hence most stable.
dAF/AF = 2/8*25 = 0.01.
429. Consider the open loop
427. Relative change of gain of response. An unknown feedback is
feedback amplifier is 0.05. Also, loop applied. Choose the correct output of
gain is 9. Find desensitivity? the new system from the following.
a) 50
b) 10
c) 20
d) 1/9

Answer: b
Explanation: We can simply use the
ratio of 0.1 to find the answer.
Loop gain Aβ = 9
1+Aβ = 10
Desensitivity = 1/S = 1+Aβ = 10.

428. Circuit P has desensitivity 20,

a) Output response of Increased
circuit Q has sensitivity 0.1 and circuit
frequency distortion
R has desensitivity 40. Which of the
following is more stable in gain?
a) Circuit P
b) Circuit Q
c) Circuit R
d) All circuits are equally stable in
gain

Answer: c
Explanation: Greater desensitivity
indicates better stability in gain.
More desensitivity means gain
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

b) Output response of Decreased frequency distortion.

frequency distortion

Answer: b
Explanation: Output should have
c) Output response of Decreased increased Bandwidth and decreased
frequency distortion frequency distortion. If bandwidth
increases, the distortion cannot
increase since it’s a case of negative
feedback. Also, the distortion cannot
remain the same.

430. Consider the total harmonic

distortion of a closed loop system is
5%. Distortion without feedback is
10%. Calculate the sensitivity of
closed loop system.
d) Output response of No change in a) 0.5
b) 0.2
c) 0.6
d) 0.1

Answer: a
Explanation: DHF = DH/1+Aβ
1 + Aβ = DH/DHF = 10/5 = 2
Sensitivity = 12 = 0.5.

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431. For the system shown gain with 433. An instrumentation system does
feedback is 200. Find feedback factor. not include
a) Transducer
b) Instrumentation amplifier
c) Automatic process controller
d) Tester

Answer: d
Explanation: Except tester the
remaining blocks form the input,
intermediate and output stage of
a) 0.41
instrumentation system.
b) 5
c) 0.0041 434. Transmission line are used for
d) It can be any real number a) Output signal
b) Input signal
Answer: c
c) Signal transfer
Explanation: AF = A/1+Aβ
d) All of the mentioned
A = A1 x A2 = 1200
Thus 1 + Aβ = 1200/200 = 6 Answer: c
Aβ = 5 Explanation: Transmission lines are
β = 5/A = 0.0041. the connecting line between the
blocks and permits signal transfer
432. Strain gage is an example of
from unit to unit.
which device?
a) Transducer 435. The length of the transmission
b) Voltage follower lines are
c) Integrator a) Longer than 10 meters
d) Differentiator b) Shorter than 10 meters
c) Equals to 10 meters
Answer: a
d) None of the mentioned
Explanation: Strain gage is a device
when subjected to pressure or force Answer: d
undergoes change in its resistance. Explanation: The length of the
transmission lines depends primarily

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on the physical quantities being a) Extremely stable

monitored and on system b) Relatively expensive
requirement. c) Accurate
d) All of the mentioned
436. Why output of transducer is not
directly connected to indicator or Answer:b
display? Explanation: LH0036 is a very precise
a) Low level output is produced special purpose circuit in which most
b) High level output is produced electrical parameters are minimized
c) No output is produced and performance is optimized. So, it
d) Input is fed directly is relatively expensive.

Answer: a 439. What instrument is used to

Explanation: Many transducers do amplify output signal of transducer
not produce output with sufficient a) Peaking amplifier
strength to permit there use directly. b) Instrumentation amplifier
Therefore, the low level output signal c) Differential amplifier
of transducer need to be amplified. d) Bridge amplifier

437. What are the features of Answer: b

instrumentation amplifier? Explanation: The major function of
a) Low noise instrumentation amplifier is to
b) High gain accuracy amplify the low level output signal of
c) Low thermal and time drift the transducer, so that it can drive
d) All of the mentioned the output stages.

Answer: d 440. General purpose op-amps are

Explanation: Instrumentation used in applications as
amplifiers are intended for precise a) Instrumentation amplifier
low level signal amplification because b) Differential instrumentation
of the features mentioned. amplifier
c) Inverting instrumentation amplifier
438. What is the disadvantage of
d) Non-inverting instrumentation
using LH0036 instrumentation op-
amplifier
amp?

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Answer: b resistor, with a negative temperature

Explanation: When the requirement coefficient of resistance. As the
for the application are not too strict. temperature of thermistor increases,
The general purpose op-amp can be its resistance decreases.
employed in the differential mode.
443.
Such amplifiers are called as
Differential instrumentation
amplifier.

441. In an instrumentation amplifier

using transducer bridge, which device
measure the change in physical
energy
a) Resistive transducer
b) Indicating meter
c) Capacitive transducer
d) Inductor circuit

Answer: a
Consider the entire resistors in the
Explanation: A resistive transducer is
bridge circuit are equal. The
used to measure the change in same
resistance and change in resistance
physical energy, which is connected
are given as 3kΩ and 30kΩ. Calculate
to one arm of the bridge.
the output voltage of differential
442. The temperature of a thermistor instrumentation amplifier?
increases, when the value of its a) 4.95v
resistance b) 1.65v
a) Remain constant c) 8.25v
b) Increase d) 14.85v
c) Decrease
Answer: b
d) Depends on the heating material
Explanation: The output voltage of
Answer: c the circuit is Vo =-(RF/R1)×(△R/R)×Vdc
Explanation: Thermistor is a = (5.5kΩ/100Ω)×(30kΩ/3kΩ)×3 =
semiconductor that behaves as 1.65v.
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

444. Consider a thermistor having the a) Vab = 4.9v

following specifications: RF=150kΩ at b) Vab = -5.6v
a reference temperature of 35oC and c) Vab =1.2v
temperature coefficient of resistance d) Vab =-8.2v
= 25oC. Determine the change in
Answer: a
resistance at 100oC.
Explanation: According to the voltage
a) -1.625MΩ
divider rule,
b) 9.75MΩ
Va =( Ra×Vdc)/[Ra+(RT+△R)] =
c) 4.78MΩ
(1kΩ×5v)/(1kΩ+75kΩ) = 0.065v
d) None of the mentioned
Vb = ( Rb×Vdc)/(Rb+Rc) =
Answer: a (50kΩ×5v)/(50kΩ+250Ω) = 4.975v
Explanation: Thermistor has negative The voltage across the output
temperature coefficient of resistance. terminal of the bridge, Vab = Va– Vb =
Therefore, △R=-(25kΩ/oC )×(100oC- 4.9v.
35oC) = -1625kΩ .
446. Express the equation for
△R=-1.625MΩ.
transducer bridge, if all the resistor
445. Consider the given bridge circuit, values are equal
find the voltage across the output a) v=-(△R×Vdc)/(2×R+△R)
terminal, Vab. b) v=-(△R×Vdc)/2×(R+△R)
c) v=-Vdc/[2×(2×R+△R)].
d) v=-(△R×Vdc)/ [2×(2×R+△R)].

Answer: d
Explanation: If the
Ra=Rb=Rc=RT=R(Equal), then the
output voltage across the bridge
terminals of the transducer bridge is
v=-(△R×Vdc)/ [2×(2×R+△R)].

447. Which type of thermistor is

chosen for temperature
measurement and control?
a) High temperature coefficient of
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

resistance Answer: d
b) Low temperature coefficient of Explanation: The resistance of the
resistance photoconductive cell in darkness is
c) Positive temperature coefficient of typically in the order of 100kΩ.
resistance
450. Which material is used for
d) None of the mentioned
photoconductive cells?
Answer: a a) Germanium
Explanation: Thermistors with a high b) Cadmium sulphide
temperature coefficient resistance c) Lithium
are more sensitive to temperature d) Phosphorous
change and are therefore well suited
Answer: b
to temperature measurement and
Explanation: The conductivity in
control.
cadmium sulphide is a function of
448. Photo conductive cell changes it incident radiant energy. So, it is used
resistance with for photoconductive cell.
a) Change in temperature
451. Name the resistive transducer
b) Material composition
that varies its resistance on
c) Incident radiant energy
application of external stress?
d) Change in elasticity
a) Photocells
Answer: c b) Light dependent
Explanation: Photoconductive cell is a c) Stain gage
type of transducer that changes its d) None of the mentioned
resistance or varies its resistance with
Answer: c
an incident radiant energy with light.
Explanation: Strain gage is a type of
449. What will be the resistance of a resistive transducer whose resistance
photoconductive cell in darkness? changes due to elongation or
a) 1000-3000Ω compression when external stress is
b) 100MΩ applied.
c) 250-500Ω
452. A Differential Amplifier should
d) None of the mentioned
have collector resistor’s value (RC1 &

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

RC2) as RE2)/(RE1+RE2) =
a) 5kΩ, 5kΩ (25kΩ×16kΩ)/(25kΩ+16kΩ) =
b) 5Ω, 10kΩ 9.7561kΩ.
c) 5Ω, 5kΩ
455. If output is measured between
d) 5kΩ, 10kΩ
two collectors of transistors, then the
Answer: a Differential amplifier with two input
Explanation: The values of collector signal is said to be configured as
current will be equal in differential a) Dual Input Balanced Output
amplifier (RC1=RC2). b) Dual Input Unbalanced Output
c) Single Input Balanced Output
453. A Differential Amplifier amplifies
d) Dual Input Unbalanced Output
a) Input signal with higher voltage
b) Input voltage with smaller voltage Answer: a
c) Sum of the input voltage Explanation: When two input signals
d) None of the Mentioned are applied to base of transistor, it is
said to be Dual Input. When both
Answer: d
collectors are at same DC potential
Explanation: The purpose of
with respect to ground, then it is said
differential amplifier is to amplify the
to be Balance Output.
difference between two signals.
456. A differential amplifier is capable
454. The value of emitter resistance
of amplifying
in Emitter Biased circuit are
a) DC input signal only
RE1=25kΩ & RE2=16kΩ. Find RE
b) AC input signal only
a) 9.756kΩ
c) AC & DC input signal
b) 41kΩ
d) None of the Mentioned
c) 9.723kΩ
d) 10kΩ Answer: c
Explanation: Direct connection
Answer: a
between stages removes the lower
Explanation: In emitter biased circuit,
cut off frequency imposed by
RE1 & RE2 is connected in parallel
coupling capacitor; therefore it can
combination.
amplify both AC and DC signal.
⇒ RE = RE1 II RE2 = (RE1×

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

457. In ideal Differential Amplifier, if

same signal is given to both inputs,
then output will be
a) Same as input
b) Double the input
c) Not equal to zero
d) Zero
c)
Answer: d
Explanation: In ideal amplifier,
Output voltage
⇒ Vout = Vin1-Vin2.

458. Find the Single Input Unbalance

Output configuration in following
d)
circuit diagrams :
Answer: c
Explanation: Circuit c has only single
input (V1) and output is measure only
at one of the collector with respect to
ground.

459. An emitter bias Dual Input

Balanced Output differential
a) amplifier has VCC=20v, β=100,
VBE=0.7v, RE=1.3kΩ. Find IE
a) 7.42mA
b) 9.8mA
c) 10mA
d) 8.6mA

Answer: a
Explanation: Emitter current can be
found out by substituting the values
b)
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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

in the equation,
3. Single Input iii. Ad= Rc/re ,
⇒ IE = (VEE-VBE)/(2RE) = (20v-
Balanced Output Ri = 2βacRE
07v)/(2×1.3kΩ) = 7.42mA.

460. Find IC, given VCE=0.77v, 4. Dual Input

iv. Ad = Rc/2re ,
VCC=10v, VBE=0.37v and RC=2.4kΩ in Unbalanced
Ri = 2βacRE
Dual Input Balanced Output Output
differential amplifier
a) 0.4mA a) 1-i , 2-iii, 3-iv, 4-ii
b) 0.4A b) 1-iv, 2-ii, 3-iii, 4-i
c) 4mA c) 1-ii, 2-iv, 3-i , 4-iii
d) 4A d) 1-iii, 2-i, 3-ii, 4-iv

Answer: c Answer: d
Explanation: Substitute the values in Explanation: Properties of differential
collector to emitter voltage equation, amplifier circuit configuration.
VCE= VCC+ VBE-RC IC
462. Obtain the collector voltage, for
⇒IC = (VCC-VCE+VBE)/RC = (10v-
collector resistor (RC) =5.6kΩ,
0.77v+0.37v)/2.4kΩ = 4mA
IE=1.664mA and VCC=10v for single
461. Find the correct match input unbalanced output differential
amplifier
Voltage gain a) 0.987v
Configuration and Input b) 0.682v
resistance c) 0.555v
d) None of the mentioned
1. Single Input
i. Ad = Rc/re , Answer: b
Unbalanced
Ri1 Ri2 = 2βacRE Explanation: Substitute the given
Output
values in collector voltage equation,
VC= VCC – RC×IC
2. Dual Input ii. Ad= Rc/2re , ⇒ VC= 10v – 5.6kΩ×1.664mA (∵ IC ≅
Balanced Output Ri1 Ri2 = 2βacRE IE )
⇒ VC= 0.682v.

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 ELECTRONIC SCIENCE 4 MCQs

463. For the circuit shown below, b) 56

determine the Output voltage c) 38
(Assume β=5, differential input d) 61
resistance=12 kΩ)
Answer: a
Explanation: In single Input Balance
Output amplifier,
⇒ IE = (VEE-VBE)/2RE
=(15v-0.7v)/(2×3.9kom)= 1.83mA
(∵VCC=VEE)
From the equation, VCE = VCC +VBE-
RC×IC
⇒ RC = (14.3v – 2.4v)/1.83mA =
6.5kΩ
a) 4.33v
The voltage gain, Vo
b) 2.33v
⇒ Vo = RC/re
c) 3.33v
= 6.5kΩ/250Ω = 26(no units).
d) 1.33v

Answer: c
Explanation: From the circuit dig,
RC=10kΩ, Vin1= 1.3v and Vin2=0.5v,
Differential input resistance = 2 βre,
⇒ 12kΩ = 2×5×Re
⇒ Re = 1.2 kΩ
Output voltage Vo = RC/2Re(Vin1-
Vin2)
⇒ Vo = 10kΩ/(2 ×1.2kΩ) × (1.3v-0.5v)
⇒ Vo = 3.33v.

464. In a Single Input Balanced

Output Differential amplifier, given
VCC=15v, RE = 3.9kΩ, VCE=2.4 v and
re=250Ω. Determine Voltage gain
a) 26
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