Vector fields

Gradient, Divergence and Curl

Dr. Juhi Kesarwani Dr. Ashish Kumar Kesarwany

Mathematics Division, School of Advanced Sciences and Languages

VIT Bhopal University, Bhopal-Indore Highway, Kothrikalan, Sehore, Madhya Pradesh, 466114, India

October 25, 2024

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 Table of Contents

1 Vector Fields

2 Conservative vector field and Potential function

3 Divergence and curl of a vector field

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 Table of Contents

1 Vector Fields

2 Conservative vector field and Potential function

3 Divergence and curl of a vector field

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 Vector Fields
So far, every function we have dealt with takes an input (A scalar input in the form
of x, (x, y ) or (x, y , z) and gives a scalar output from other side.

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 Vector Fields
So far, every function we have dealt with takes an input (A scalar input in the form
of x, (x, y ) or (x, y , z) and gives a scalar output from other side.

x −→ f −→ f (x)

(x, y ) −→ f −→ f (x, y )

(x, y , z) −→ f −→ f (x, y , z)

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 Vector Fields
So far, every function we have dealt with takes an input (A scalar input in the form
of x, (x, y ) or (x, y , z) and gives a scalar output from other side.

x −→ f −→ f (x)

(x, y ) −→ f −→ f (x, y )

(x, y , z) −→ f −→ f (x, y , z)

In this section, we will deal with a different type of functions and that is a vector
fields or vector functions. A Vector field is a function that assigns a vector to any
point in the field.
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 Think of a river that at any point of it, the velocity vector might be different in
terms of direction and magnitude. At any point inside this river, we can assign a
vector that has its own direction and magnitude. That is what we call a Vector
field.

Figure 1: Vector fields representing water velocity in a river

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 Definition (Vector fields in R2 )
Let D ⊆ R2 be a plane region. A vector field on R2 is a function F that assigns to
a each point (x, y ) in D a two dimensional vector F⃗ (x, y ), i.e.

F⃗ (x, y ) = P(x, y )iˆ + Q(x, y )j.

ˆ

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 Definition (Vector fields in R2 )
Let D ⊆ R2 be a plane region. A vector field on R2 is a function F that assigns to
a each point (x, y ) in D a two dimensional vector F⃗ (x, y ), i.e.

F⃗ (x, y ) = P(x, y )iˆ + Q(x, y )j.

ˆ

Definition (Vector fields in R3 )

Let E ⊆ R3 . A vector field on R3 is a function F that assigns to a each point
(x, y , z) in E a three dimensional vector F⃗ (x, y , z), i.e.

F⃗ (x, y , z) = P(x, y , z)iˆ + Q(x, y , z)jˆ + R(x, y , z)k̂.

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 Example
1 The gravitational force field describes the force of attraction of the earth on a
mass m and is given by
mMG
F⃗ = − 3 ⃗r
r
where ⃗r = x i + y j + z k̂ and r = |⃗r | = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 . The vector field F⃗
ˆ ˆ
p

points to the centre of the earth.

2 The vector field F : R2 → R2 given by F (x, y ) = (−y , x) is a rotational vector

field in R2 which rotates a vector in the anti-clockwise direction by an angle
π
.
2

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 Figure 2: Examples of vector fields

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 Figure 3: Vector field representing Hurricane Katrina

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 Figure 4: Velocity field for a) a wheel rotating on its axle; b) water flowing through a pipe;
(c) air around a moving car.

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 Representing a vector field

Example
Represent the following vector field diagrammatically:

F (x, y ) = 2jˆ

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 Solution
We draw the vectors at different points in space for given vector field. Note that
F⃗ = 2jˆ is a constant vector field. At each point of the vector field, we just have to
draw the vector 2j.ˆ This vector field is shown in Fig. 5 for the first quadrant of the
xy -plane. You can see that all vectors are of the same length.

Figure 5: The vector field F⃗ = 2j.

ˆ

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 Representing a vector field

Example
Represent the following vector field diagrammatically:

F (x, y ) = −y iˆ + x jˆ

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 Solution
First let us write down the vectors at some representative points in the xy plane
corresponding to the vector field F (x, y ) = −y iˆ + x j:
ˆ

(x,y) F⃗ (x, y )
(0,1) −iˆ
(1,0) jˆ
(1,1) −i + jˆ
ˆ
(0,-1) iˆ
(-1,0) −jˆ
(-1,-1) i − jˆ
ˆ
(0,2) −2iˆ
(2,0) 2jˆ
(-2,0) −2jˆ
(0,-2) 2iˆ
(1,-1) iˆ + jˆ
(-1,1) −iˆ − jˆ

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 Figure 6: The vector field F (x, y ) = −y iˆ + x j.
ˆ

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 Recall
The gradient of a scalar function f (x, y , z) is defined as

∂f ∂f ∂f
grad(f ) = ∇f = iˆ + jˆ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example
Let f (x, y , z) denote the quadratic polynomial

f (x, y , z) = 2x 2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 − 2xz − 2x − 4y − 2z + 3

The gradient of f (x, y , z) is

∇(f ) = (4x − 2z − 2) iˆ + (4y − 4) jˆ + (−2x + 4z − 2) k̂

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 Conservative vector field and Potential function

Definition (Conservative vector field and Potential function)

A vector field F⃗ is called conservative vector field or gradient vector field if it is
the gradient of some scalar function, that is, if there exists a function f such that
F⃗ = grad(f ) = ∇f . In this situation, f is called the potential function for F⃗ .

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 Example
mMG
Gravitational force field F⃗ = − 3 ⃗r , where ⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂ and r = |⃗r | =
p r
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , around the earth is conservative because we define the potential
function
mMG mMG
f = =p
r x + y2 + z2
2

Then
∂f ∂f ∂f
grad(f ) = ∇f = iˆ + jˆ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
mMGx mMGy mMGz
=− 3 iˆ − 3 jˆ − 3 k̂
(x + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
2 (x 2 + y2 + z 2) 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2) 2
mMGx
=− 3 (x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂)
(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
mMG
= − 3 ⃗r = F⃗
r

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 Note
Not all vector fields are conservative vector fields.

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 Note
Not all vector fields are conservative vector fields.

Example
The vector field F⃗ (x, y ) = y iˆ − x jˆ is not a conservative vector field. Indeed, if

F⃗ (x, y ) = grad(f ) = ∇f = fx iˆ + fy jˆ

then
fx = y (1)
and
fy = −x (2)
Differentiating Equations (1) and (2) partially with respect to y and x respectively,
we get
fxy = 1 and fyx = −1
f is a smooth function therefore fxy = fyx , this gives −1 = 1, which is absurd.
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 Example
Find a potential function for the vector field,

F⃗ = 2xy 3 z 4 iˆ + 3x 2 y 2 z 4 jˆ + 4x 2 y 3 z 3 k̂

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 Solution
Let f (x, y , z) be a potential function of the vector field F⃗ i.e.

∂f ∂f ∂f
F⃗ = grad f = iˆ + jˆ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
which gives
∂f
= 2xy 3 z 4 (3)
∂x
∂f
= 3x 2 y 2 z 4 (4)
∂y
∂f
= 4x 2 y 3 z 3 (5)
∂z
Let’s integrate the first one with respect to x.
Z
f (x, y , z) = 2xy 3 z 4 dx = x 2 y 3 z 4 + g (y , z) (6)

Now, we differentiate this with respect to y . Doing this gives,

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 ∂f
= 3x 2 y 2 z 4 + gy (y , z) = 3x 2 y 2 z 4
∂y
which gives

gy (y , z) = 0 ⇒ g (y , z) = h (z) (say)

This means that we now know the potential function must be in the following
form.

f (x, y , z) = x 2 y 3 z 4 + h (z)
Differentiate with respect to z.
∂f
= 4x 2 y 3 z 3 + h′ (z) = 4x 2 y 3 z 3
∂z
So,
h′ (z) = 0 ⇒ h (z) = c
The potential function for this vector field is then,

f (x, y , z) = x 2 y 3 z 4 + c

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 Divergence

Definition (Divergence)
Let F⃗ (x, y , z) = F1 (x, y , z) iˆ + F2 (x, y , z) jˆ + F3 (x, y , z) k̂ be a vector field then
the divergence of F⃗ (x, y , z) is denoted by div F⃗ and is defined as
!
∂ ∂ ∂  
div F⃗ = ∇ · F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ + k̂ · F1 iˆ + F2 jˆ + F3 k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

The symbol “div F⃗ ” is read as “divergence of F” or “div F”. The notation ∇ · F⃗ is

read “del dot F⃗ .”

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 Example
Calculate the divergence of the following vector fields:

(i) F⃗ = x iˆ + y jˆ (ii) F⃗ = −x iˆ − y jˆ (iii) F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ

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 Example
Calculate the divergence of the following vector fields:

(i) F⃗ = x iˆ + y jˆ (ii) F⃗ = −x iˆ − y jˆ (iii) F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ

Solution
(i) For F⃗ = x iˆ + y j,
ˆ we have

∂x ∂y
div F⃗ = ∇ · F⃗ = + =1+1=2
∂x ∂y

(ii) For F⃗ = −x iˆ − y j,
ˆ we have

∂(−x) ∂(−y )
div F⃗ = ∇ · F⃗ = + = −1 − 1 = −2
∂x ∂y

(iii) For F⃗ = iˆ + j,
ˆ we have

∂1 ∂1
div F⃗ = ∇ · F⃗ = + =0+0=0
∂x ∂y
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 Remark
While going through the solution of above Example, you must have noted that
(i) the divergence of the vector field F⃗ = x iˆ + y j.
ˆ is positive,

(ii) the divergence of F⃗ = −x iˆ − y jˆ is negative whereas,

(iii) F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ has zero divergence.

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 Remark
While going through the solution of above Example, you must have noted that
(i) the divergence of the vector field F⃗ = x iˆ + y j.
ˆ is positive,

(ii) the divergence of F⃗ = −x iˆ − y jˆ is negative whereas,

(iii) F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ has zero divergence.

Plots of the two-dimensional vector fields of above Example are shown in Fig. 7.
These plots suggest that the vector field F⃗ = x iˆ + y jˆ has a source at the origin
(Fig. 7(a)), F⃗ = −x iˆ−y jˆ has a sink at the origin (Fig. 7(b)) and the field F⃗ = iˆ+ jˆ
has neither a source nor a sink (Fig. 7(c)).

In general, a point of positive divergence is a source and point of negative

divergence is a sink.

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 Figure 7: Plots of the vector fields a) F⃗ = x iˆ + y jˆ b) F⃗ = −x iˆ − y jˆ c) F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ

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 Definition
(i) A non-zero value of the divergence at any point of a vector field F⃗ signifies
the presence of a source or a sink at that point: ∇ · F⃗ > 0 for a source and
∇ · F⃗ < 0 for a sink.

(ii) A vector field F⃗ is called “divergence-free or “solenoidal” if its divergence

is zero: ∇ · F⃗ = 0

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 Example
Show that the vector field F⃗ = z iˆ + x jˆ + y k̂ is solenoidal.

Solution
Given F⃗ = z iˆ + x jˆ + y k̂. Then

∂z ∂x ∂y
div F⃗ = ∇ · F⃗ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
=0

Thus, F⃗ is a solenoidal vector field.

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 Example
If F⃗ = (x + 3y ) iˆ+ (y − 2z) jˆ + (x + λz) k̂ is solenoidal, then find the value of λ.

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 Example
If F⃗ = (x + 3y ) iˆ+ (y − 2z) jˆ + (x + λz) k̂ is solenoidal, then find the value of λ.

Solution
Given that F⃗ = (x + 3y ) iˆ + (y − 2z) jˆ + (x + λz) k̂ is solenoidal. Hence

div F⃗ = 0
∂(x + 3y ) ∂(y − 2z) ∂(x + λz)
=⇒ + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
=⇒ 1 + 1 + λ = 0
=⇒ λ = −2

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 Curl of a vector field

Definition(Curl)
Let F⃗ (x, y , z) = F1 (x, y , z) iˆ + F2 (x, y , z) jˆ + F3 (x, y , z) k̂ be a vector field then
the curl of F⃗ (x, y , z) is denoted by curl F⃗ and is defined as
!
⃗ ⃗ ∂ ∂ ∂  
curl F = ∇ × F = i ˆ +jˆ + k̂ × F1 iˆ + F2 jˆ + F3 k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
iˆ jˆ k̂ ! ! !
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F3 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F1
= = − iˆ − − jˆ + − k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
F1 F2 F3

The symbol “ curl F⃗ ” is read as “curl of F⃗ ”. The notation ∇ × F⃗ is read “del cross
F⃗ .”

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 Example
Calculate the curl of the following vector field

F⃗ = xe y iˆ + ye z jˆ + ze x k̂

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 Example
Calculate the curl of the following vector field

F⃗ = xe y iˆ + ye z jˆ + ze x k̂

Solution
Given that F⃗ = xe y iˆ + ye z jˆ + ze x k̂. Then

iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F⃗ = ∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
xe y ye z ze x
= −ye z iˆ − ze x jˆ − xe y k̂

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 Definition (Irrotational vector field)
If the curl of a vector field F⃗ is zero, i.e.,

∇ × F⃗ = 0,

then the vector field F⃗ is called Irrotational.

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 Example
Show that the vector F⃗ = (6xy + z 3 )iˆ + (3x 2 − z)jˆ + (3xz 2 − y )k̂ is irrotational.

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 Example
Show that the vector F⃗ = (6xy + z 3 )iˆ + (3x 2 − z)jˆ + (3xz 2 − y )k̂ is irrotational.

Solution
Given that F⃗ = (6xy + z 3 )iˆ + (3x 2 − z)jˆ + (3xz 2 − y )k̂. Therefore

iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F⃗ = ∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
6xy + z 3 3x 2 − z 3xz 2 − y
= (−1 + 1)iˆ − (3z 2 − 3z 2 )jˆ + (6x − 6x)k̂
=0

∴ F⃗ is irrotational vector field.

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 Example
Find the constants a, b, c so that the following vector field is irrotational

F⃗ = (x + 2y + az) iˆ + (bx + 3y − z) jˆ + (4x + cy + 2z) k̂

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 Example
Find the constants a, b, c so that the following vector field is irrotational

F⃗ = (x + 2y + az) iˆ + (bx + 3y − z) jˆ + (4x + cy + 2z) k̂

Solution
Given that F⃗ = (x + 2y + az) iˆ+ (bx + 3y − z) jˆ+ (4x + cy + 2z) k̂ is irrotational.
Therefore
curl F⃗ = 0
=⇒ ∇ × F⃗ = 0
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
=⇒ =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
x + 2y + az bx + 3y − z 4x + cy + 2z
=⇒ (c + 1)iˆ − (4 − a)jˆ + (b − 2)k̂ = 0

=⇒ c + 1 = 0 4−a=0 b−2=0
=⇒ a = 4 b=2 c = −1
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 Theorem
If F⃗ is defined on all of R3 whose components have continuous first order partial
derivative then F⃗ is a conservative vector field iff curl F⃗ = ⃗0.

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 Example
Determine if the following vector field is conservative.

3x 2 y ⃗ x3 2x 3 y ⃗
     
F⃗ = 4y 2 + 2 i + 8xy + 2 ⃗j + 11 − 3 k
z z z

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 Solution
We know all we need to do here is compute the curl of the vector field.

⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
∂ ∂ ∂
curlF⃗ = ∇ × F⃗ = ∂x ∂y ∂z
3x 2 y x3 2x 3 y
4y 2 + 2 8xy + 11 − 3
z z2 z
2x 3 2x 3 6x 2 y 6x 2 y 3x 2 3x 2
   
= − 3 + 3 iˆ − − 3 + jˆ + 8y + 2 − 8y − 2 k̂
z z z z3 z z
=0

So, we found that curl F⃗ = 0 for this vector field and so the vector field is conser-
vative.

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 Exercise 1:
Find the constants a, b, c so that the following vector field is irrotational

F⃗ = (x + 2y + az) iˆ + (bx + 3y − z) jˆ + (4x + cy + 2z) k̂

Ans.: a = 4, b = 2, c = −1

Exercise 2:
If F⃗ = (x 2 − yz)iˆ + (y 2 − zx)jˆ + (z 2 − xy )k̂, then
(i) Prove that F⃗ is irrotational.
(ii) Find its scalar potential function.

Exercise 3:
If F⃗ = (x + 3y ) iˆ+ (y − 2z) jˆ + (x + λz) k̂ is solenoidal, then find the value of λ.
Ans.: λ = −2

Exercise 4:
Find the values of a and b so that the following surfaces ax 3 − by 2 z = (a + 3)x 2
and 4x 2 y − z 3 = 11 may cut orthogonally at (2, −1, −3).
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 Exercise 5:
Find a potential function for the vector field,
F⃗ = 2x cos (y ) − 2z 3 iˆ + 3 + 2y e z − x 2 sin (y ) jˆ + y 2 e z − 6xz 2 k̂

Ans.: f (x, y , z) = y 2 e z − 2xz 3 + x 2 cos (y ) + 3y + c

Exercise 6:
Show that the following force field F⃗ is conservative.
F⃗ = (2xy + z 3 )iˆ + x 2 jˆ + 3xz 2 k̂.
Also, find the corresponding scalar potential function.

Exercise 7:
For the following problems determine if the vector field is conservative.
3x 2 y ˆ x3 2x 3 y
     
1 F⃗ = 4y 2 + 2 i + 8xy + 2 jˆ+ 11 − 3 k̂ Ans.: Conservative
z z z
F⃗ = 6x iˆ + 2y − y 2 jˆ + 6z − x 3 k̂



2 Ans.: Not Conservative
⃗ ˆ 3 3 ˆ
3 2



3 F = x − 4xy + 2 i + 6x − 7y + x y j Ans.: Not Conservative
F⃗ = 2x sin (2y ) − 3y 2 iˆ + 2 − 6xy + 2x 2 cos (2y ) jˆ



4 Ans.: Conservative
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 Exercise 8:
A vector field is given by F⃗ = (x 2 + xy 2 )iˆ + (y 2 + yx 2 )j.
ˆ Show that the field is
irrotational and find the scalar potential.

Exercise 9:
For the following exercises, determine whether the statement is True or False.
(1.) If the coordinate functions of F⃗ : R3 → R3 have continuous second partial
derivatives, then curl (div F⃗ ) equals zero.
⃗ · (x î + y ĵ + z k̂) = 1.
(2.) ∇
Answer
(3.) All vector fields of the form F⃗ (x, y , z) = f (x) î+g (y ) ĵ+h(z) k̂ are conservative.
(4.) If curl F⃗ = ⃗0, then F⃗ is conservative.
Answer
(5.) If F⃗ is a constant vector field then div F⃗ = 0.
(6.) If F⃗ is a constant vector field then curl F⃗ = ⃗0.

Dr. Juhi Kesarwani & Dr. Ashish Kesarwany (VITB) Vector fields October 25, 2024 40 / 41
 Exercise 10:
Determine if the following vector field

F⃗ = 2xy 3 z 4 iˆ + 3x 2 y 2 z 4 jˆ + 4x 2 y 3 z 3 k̂

is irrotational. If yes, find the potential function.

Exercise 11:
Find a unit normal to the surface x 2 y + 2xz = 4 at the point (2, −2, 3).

Exercise 12:
Verify the fact that div (curl F⃗ ) = 0 for the vector field F⃗ = yz 2 iˆ + xy jˆ + yz k̂.

Dr. Juhi Kesarwani & Dr. Ashish Kesarwany (VITB) Vector fields October 25, 2024 41 / 41