1224 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

15.1 Vector Fields

Figure 1 shows the airflow around an airfoil in a wind tunnel. The smooth curves, traced
by the individual air particles and made visible by kerosene smoke, are called stream-
lines.

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
A vector field associated with the A vector field associated with the flow
airflow around an airfoil of blood in an artery

To facilitate the analysis of this flow, we can associate a tangent vector with each
point on a streamline. The direction of the vector indicates the direction of flow of the
air particle, and the length of the vector gives the speed of the particle. If we assign a
tangent vector to each point on every streamline, we obtain what is called a vector field
associated with this flow.
Another example of a vector field arises in the study of the flow of blood through
an artery. Here, the vectors give the direction of flow and the speed of the blood cells
(see Figure 2).

DEFINITION Vector Field in Two-Dimensional Space

Let R be a region in the plane. A vector field in R is a vector-valued function
F that associates with each point (x, y) in R a two-dimensional vector
F(x, y)  P(x, y)i  Q(x, y)j
where P and Q are functions of two variables defined on R.
y

EXAMPLE 1 A vector field F in R2 (two-dimensional space) is defined by F(x, y) 

xi  yj. Describe F, and sketch a few vectors representing the vector field.

x Solution The vector-valued function F associates with each point (x, y) in R2 its posi-
tion vector r  xi  yj. This vector points directly away from the origin and has length
冟 F(x, y) 冟  冟 r 冟  2x 2  y 2  r
which is equal to the distance of (x, y) from the origin. As an aid to sketching some
FIGURE 3 vectors representing F, observe that each point on a circle of radius r centered at the
Some vectors representing the origin is associated with a vector of length r. Figure 3 shows a few vectors represent-
vector field F(x, y)  xi  yj ing this vector field.

EXAMPLE 2 A vector field F in R2 is defined by F(x, y)  yi  xj. Describe F,

and sketch a few vectors representing the vector field.
 15.1 Vector Fields 1225

y Solution Let r  xi  yj be the position vector of the point (x, y). Then
F ⴢ r  (yi  xj) ⴢ (xi  yj)
 yx  xy  0
and this shows that F is orthogonal to the vector r. This means that F(x, y) is tangent
x to the circle of radius r  冟 r 冟 with center at the origin. Furthermore,
冟 F(x, y) 冟  2(y)2  x 2  2x 2  y 2  r
gives the length of the position vector. Therefore, F associates with each point (x, y) a
vector of length equal to the distance between the origin and (x, y) and direction that
FIGURE 4 is perpendicular to the position vector of (x, y). A few vectors representing this vector
Some vectors representing the field are sketched in Figure 4. As in Example 1, this task is facilitated by first sketch-
vector field F(x, y)  yi  xj ing a few concentric circles centered at the origin.

The “spin” vector field of Example 2 is used to describe phenomena as diverse as

whirlpools and the motion of a ferris wheel. It is called a velocity field.
The definition of vector fields in three-dimensional space is similar to that in two-
dimensional vector fields.

DEFINITION Vector Field in Three-Dimensional Space

Let T be a region in space. A vector field in T is a vector-valued function F that
associates with each point (x, y, z) in T a three-dimensional vector
F(x, y, z)  P(x, y, z)i  Q(x, y, z)j  R(x, y, z)k
where P, Q, and R are functions of three variables defined on T.

Important applications of vector fields in three-dimensional space occur in the form

of gravitational and electric fields, as described in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 3 Gravitational Field Suppose that an object O of mass M is located at

the origin of a three-dimensional coordinate system. We can think of this object as
inducing a force field F in space. The effect of this gravitational field is to attract any
object placed in the vicinity of O toward it with a force that is governed by Newton’s
Law of Gravitation. To find an expression for F, suppose that an object of mass m is
located at a point (x, y, z) with position vector r  xi  yj  zk. Then, according to
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, the force of attraction of the object O of mass M on the
object of mass m has magnitude
GmM
冟 r 冟2
and direction given by the unit vector r> 冟 r 冟, where G is the gravitational constant.
Therefore, we can write
GM
F(x, y, z)   r
冟 r 冟3
GMx GMy GMz
 i j k
(x  y  z )
2 2 2 3>2
(x  y  z )
2 2 2 3>2
(x  y 2  z 2)3>2
2
1226 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

z The force exerted by the gravitational field F on a particle of mass m with position
vector r is mF. The vector field F is sketched in Figure 5.
Observe that all the arrows point toward the origin and that the lengths of the arrows
m decrease as one moves farther away from the origin. Physically, F(x, y, z) is the force
per unit mass that would be exerted on a test mass placed at the point P(x, y, z).

M EXAMPLE 4 Electric Field Suppose that a charge of Q coulombs is located at the

y origin of a three-dimensional coordinate system. Then, according to Coulomb’s Law,
the electric force exerted by this charge on a charge of q coulombs located at a point
(x, y, z) with position vector r  xi  yj  zk has magnitude
x
k 冟 q 冟冟 Q 冟
FIGURE 5
A gravitational force field (where k, the electrical constant, depends on the units used) and direction given by the
unit vector r> 冟 r 冟 for like charges Q and q (repulsion). Therefore, we can write the elec-
tric field E that is induced by Q as
kQ
E(x, y, z)  r
冟 r 冟3
kQx kQy kQz
 i j k
(x 2  y 2  z 2) 3>2 (x 2  y 2  z 2)3>2 (x 2  y 2  z 2) 3>2
The force exerted by the electric field E on a charge of q coulombs, located at (x, y, z),
is qE. Physically, E(x, y, z) is the force per unit charge that would be exerted on a test
charge placed at the point P(x, y, z).

Conservative Vector Fields

Recall from our work in Section 13.6 that if f is a scalar function of three variables,
then the gradient of f, written §f or grad f, is defined by
§f(x, y, z)  fx (x, y, z)i  fy (x, y, z)j  fz (x, y, z)k
If f is a function of two variables, then
§f(x, y)  fx (x, y)i  fy (x, y)j
Since §f assigns to each point (x, y, z) the vector §f(x, y, z), we see that §f is a vec-
tor field that associates with each point in its domain a vector giving the direction of
greatest increase of f. (See Section 13.6.) The vector field §f is called the gradient
vector field of f.

EXAMPLE 5 Find the gradient vector field of f(x, y, z)  x 2  xy  y 2z 3.

Solution The required gradient vector field is given by

f f f
§f(x, y, z)  i j k
x y z
 2  2  2
 (x  xy  y 2z 3)i  (x  xy  y 2z 3)j  (x  xy  y 2z 3)k
x y z
 (2x  y)i  (x  2yz 3)j  3y 2z 2k
 15.1 Vector Fields 1227

Before we proceed further, it should be pointed out that vector fields in both two-
and three-dimensional space can be plotted with the help of most computer algebra
systems. The computer often scales the lengths of the vectors but still gives a good
visual representation of the vector field. The vector fields of Examples 1 and 2 and two
examples of vector fields in 3-space are shown in Figures 6a–6d.

y y
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
x x
2 2
4 4
6 6
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 6 4 2 0 2 4 6

(a) F(x, y)  xi  yj (b) F(x, y)  yi  xj

24
0
2
4
4
2
2

1 0

1 2
0
0 4
1 1 4 2
0 0 2
FIGURE 6 1 4
Some computer-generated
z xi  yj  zk
graphs of vector fields (c) F(x, y, z)  yi  xj  _ k (d) F(x, y, z)  _____________
2 (x 2 y 2  z 2 )3/2

Not all vector fields are gradients of scalar functions, but those that are play an
important role in the physical sciences.

DEFINITION Conservative Vector Field

A vector field F in a region R is conservative if there exists a scalar function f
defined in R such that
F  §f
The function f is called a potential function for F.

The reason for using the words conservative and potential in this definition will be
apparent when we discuss the law of conservation of energy in Section 15.4.
1228 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

Vector fields of the form

k
F(x, y, z)  r
冟 r 冟3
are called inverse square fields. The gravitational and electric fields in Examples 3
and 4 are inverse square fields. The next example shows that these fields are conser-
vative.

EXAMPLE 6 Find the gradient vector field of the function

k
f(x, y, z)  
2x  y 2  z 2
2

and hence deduce that the inverse square field F is conservative.

Solution The gradient vector field of f is given by

§f(x, y, z)  fx (x, y, z)i  fy (x, y, z)j  fz (x, y, z)k
kx ky kz
 i j k
(x  y  z )
2 2 2 3>2
(x  y 2  z 2)3>2
2
(x 2  y 2  z 2) 3>2
k
 r
冟 r 冟3
where r  xi  yj  zk. This shows that the inverse square field
k
F(x, y, z)  r
冟 r 冟3
is the gradient of the potential function f and is therefore conservative.

Note In Example 6 we were able to show that an inverse square field F is conserva-
tive because we were given a potential function f such that F  §f. In Section 15.4 we
will learn how to find the potential function f for a conservative vector field. We will
also learn how to determine whether a vector field is conservative without knowing its
potential function.

15.1 CONCEPT QUESTIONS

1. a. What is a vector field in the plane? In space? Give exam- 2. a. What is a conservative vector field? Give an example.
ples of each. b. What is a potential function? Give an example.
b. Give three examples of vector fields with a physical
interpretation.
 15.1 Vector Fields 1229

15.1 EXERCISES
In Exercises 1–6, match the vector field with one of the plots labeled (a)–(f).
(a) (b)
y y
3
4
2 3

1 2
1

3 2 1 1 2 3 x 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
1
1
2
2 3
4
3
(c) (d)
y y

4
2 3
2
1
1

x 5 4 3 2 1 x
2 1 1 2 1
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
2 3
4

(e) (f)
y y

2
2
1
1
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 x
1
2 1 1 2 x
2
1

2

x x y
1. F(x, y)  yi 2. F(x, y)  i 5. F(x, y)   i j
冟x冟 2x  y 2 2
2x  y 22

y x 1
3. F(x, y)   i j 6. F(x, y)   xi  yj
x y
2 2
x  y2
2
2
y x
4. F(x, y)   i j In Exercises 7–18, sketch several vectors associated with the
2x  y
2 2
2x  y 22
vector field F.
7. F(x, y)  2i 8. F(x, y)  i  j
9. F(x, y)  xi  yj 10. F(x, y)  yi  xj

V Videos for selected exercises are available online at www.academic.cengage.com/login.

 1230 Chapter 15 Vector Analysis

11. F(x, y)  xi  2yj 12. F(x, y)  xi  3yj In Exercises 27–32, find the gradient vector field of the scalar
x y function f. (That is, find the conservative vector field F for the
13. F(x, y)  i j potential function f of F.)
2x 2  y 2 2x 2  y 2
27. f(x, y)  x 2y  y 3 28. f(x, y)  e2x sin 3y
y x
14. F(x, y)  i j 29. f(x, y, z)  xyz 30. f(x, y, z)  xy 2  yz 3
2x 2  y 2 2x 2  y 2
31. f(x, y, z)  y ln(x  z) 32. f(x, y, z)  tan1 (xyz)
15. F(x, y, z)  cj, c a constant
33. Velocity of a Particle A particle is moving in a velocity field
16. F(x, y, z)  zk 17. F(x, y, z)  i  j  k
V(x, y, z)  2xi  (x  3y)j  z 2k
18. F(x, y, z)  xi  yj  zk
At time t  2 the particle is located at the point (1, 3, 2).
In Exercises 19–22, match the vector field with one of the plots a. What is the velocity of the particle at t  2?
labeled (a)–(d). b. What is the approximate location of the particle at
19. F(x, y, z)  i  j  2k 20. F(x, y, z)  xi  yj  2k t  2.01?

21. F(x, y, z)  xi  yj  zk 34. Velocity of Flow The following figure shows a lateral section of
a tube through which a liquid is flowing. The velocity of flow
x y may vary from point to point, but it is independent of time.
22. F(x, y, z)  i j
2x  y  z
2 2
2x  y 2  z 2
2 2 a. Assuming that the flow is from right to left, sketch vec-
z tors emanating from the indicated points representing the
 k
2x 2  y 2  z 2 speed and direction of fluid flow. Give a reason for your
(a) (b) answer. (The answer is not unique.)

1 1
0 0
1 1

1 1

0 0

1 1
b. Explain why it is a bad idea to seek shelter in a tunnel
1 when a tornado is approaching.
0 1
1 0
1 35. Show that the vector field F(x, y)  yi is not a gradient
(c) (d) vector field of a scalar function f.
Hint: If F is a gradient vector field of f, then f> x  y and
0 1 0
1
1 1 f> y  0. Show that f cannot exist.
36. Is F(x, y)  yi  xj a gradient vector field of a scalar
1 1
function f ? Explain your answer.
0 0
In Exercises 37–40, determine whether the statement is true or
1 1 false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why or give
an example that shows it is false.
1 1
0
1 0 37. If F is a vector field in the plane, then G  cF defined by
1
G(x, y)  cF(x, y), where c is a constant, is also a vector
cas In Exercises 23–26, use a computer algebra system to plot the
field.
vector field. 38. If F is a velocity field in space, then 冟 F(x, y, z) 冟 gives the
1 1 speed of a particle at the point (x, y, z), and
23. F(x, y)  (x  y)i  (x  y)j F(x, y, z)> 冟 F(x, y, z) 冟, where 冟 F(x, y, z) 冟  0, is a unit vector
10 10
giving its direction.
24. F(x, y)  2xyi  2x 2yj
39. A constant vector field F(x, y, z)  ai  bj  ck is a gradi-
1 ent vector field.
25. F(x, y, z)  (yi  xj  zk)
5 40. All the vectors of the vector field F(x, y)  x 2i  y 2j point
xi  yj  zk outward in a radial direction from the origin.
26. F(x, y, z)  
2x 2  y 2  z 2