X-Ray Equipment
T.A. Okhai
The Origin of X-rays
• In 1895 a German Physicists Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally stumbled
across x-rays while experimenting with electron beams in a gas discharge
tube.
• Noticing that a fluorescent screen in his lab began to glow when the
electron beam was pointed at it.
• This came as no surprise to Wilhelm except for the fact that the tube was
surrounded by a black screen which he thought would block off most of
the radiation.
• Intrigued by his observations, Wilhelm went on to place different other
objects between the tube and the screen.
• Finally, he placed his hand in front of the tube and saw the bony structure
of his hand projected on to the fluorescent screen.
• He called the rays from this unknown phenomenon “x” rays which is the
mathematical representation for the unknown.
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
• With the aid of this new energy, it was
possible to “see” pathologies within the
human body without the trauma of surgery.
This advancement in medicine greatly
enhanced the therapeutic treatment and
prognosis of patients.
The Nature of X-ray
• High energy waves (0.1 to 100Å) that pass
through the body and indicate relative tissue
density on a photosensitive plate.
• Bones are dense and pass less x-ray than soft
tissue, such as blood vessels, organs, and
muscle.
• X-ray that is not transmitted is absorbed and
stored within the body in accumulated doses.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Red UV
Visible Light
Infra- Ultra
Radio Radar X-Rays Gamma
red -violet
10^14 10^16
Frequency
10^4 10^8 10^10 10^17 10^20
Properties of Electromagnetic
Waves
• Can travel in a vacuum or in outer space.
• They obey the relationship V = Fλ , where V is
velocity, F is the frequency, and λ is the
wavelength.
• They propagate in a straight line.
• They obey the inverse square law (1/d2); their
intensity falls off inversely proportionally to
the square of the distance as they propagate
away from the source.
• They produce interference and diffraction
patterns
• They are not deflected by magnetic field.
What exactly are X-Rays?
• Essentially three types of radiation exist:
1. Alpha Rays : positively charged (ionized) particles. Penetration depth roughly 5cm
2. Beta Rays : Negatively charged electrons. Penetration depth small
3. Gamma & X-Rays : Electromagnetic waves whose penetration depends on wavelength
• X-Rays are wavelike forms of electromagnetic radiation carried by
particles known as photons.
• Now, what is a photon..? : A photon is simply the carrier of
electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths including gamma
rays, x-rays ,visible light etc. It has no charge and no mass. It has
both wave and particle properties.
• The difference between visible light and x-rays is the energy level
of each photon. Which can also be expressed as the wavelength.
• As the wavelength of light decreases it increases in energy. X-
Rays have small wavelengths and thus have higher energies
• A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths in the region of
380 to 750 nm, which is in the ‘visible spectrum’.
• This explains why we cannot see x-rays as
their wavelength is in the region of 0.1 to 100
x 10-10 m and frequency 1010 Mhz.
• X-Rays also have an energy of 20 to 150KeV
• X-Rays are measured in gray - unit of
radiation defined as 1J/Jg in air, and sievert –
the unit of exposure. The gray times the
biological effect factor.
Penetrating Powers…
How x-ray photons are produced
• X-ray photons are produced by the movement of electrons in an atom.
• In an atoms nucleus electrons occupy different energy levels or orbitals.
When an electron drops to a lower orbital it must release energy.
• It does this in the form of photons. The energy of this photon depends on
the drop and this energy determines the radiation.
• There are two different atomic processes that can produce X-Ray photons
:
• Bremsstrahlung (Braking radiation) – In this process electrons are
decelerated or “braked” when fired at a metal object giving off X-Rays.
• Characteristic X-Rays : Here a metal is bombarded with high speed
electrons which remove electrons from the inner shells and these holes
are then filled up by dropping electrons and energy is released.
X-ray Machines
• X-ray machines are devices that generate
exceedingly high frequency (short wavelength),
high-energy electromagnetic waves that
penetrate the body during medical procedures.
• X-ray machines are used for diagnostic
(investigative, measurement) & therapeutic
(treatment) purposes.
Other Uses of X-ray Machines
• Determine whether a bone has been fractured
or a joint dislocated
• Determine whether there is a build up of fluid
in or around a joint
• Guide orthopedic surgery e.g.. Spinal repair,
fracture reductions etc.
• Assist in the detection, diagnosis and
treatment of cancer.
• Etc.
X-RAY Machine
A. Lume
TYPES & USES OF X-RAYS
& NUCLEAR MEDICINE
EQUIPMENT
Diagnostic Still Picture X-ray
– Used to examine broken bones and to detect
tumours in internal organs & tissue structures.
– E.g., skull unit, mammogram.
– Wavelengths are usually 0.01 to 1Å.
– Energy levels vary with tissues to be observed.
Diagnostic Continuous Picture x-ray
(Fluoroscopy)
• Used to examine organ systems as they are
functioning.
• Contrast substances which are opaque to x-rays are
injected into body cavities to be examined.
• X-rays are taken to show the anatomical shape.
• Used to detect tumours and blockages.
• Wavelengths similar to still picture exposures (0.01
to 1Å).
• Energy levels much less than still picture exposures
due to long exposure time.
Fluoroscopy
• In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of
an x-ray source, and a fluorescent screen
between which a patient is placed.
• A continuous x-ray beam is passed through
the body part being examined.
• The screen is coupled to an x-ray image
intensifier and CCD video camera allowing the
image to be played and recorded on a
monitor.
Simplified Block Diagram of a
Fluoroscope Machine
Some Uses of Fluoroscopy
• Barium x-ray; used to see the movement of the
intestines as the barium moves through them.
• Cardiac catheterization; to see the flow of blood
through coronary arteries to detect arterial blockage.
• Lumbar puncture; to locate end of spinal cord below
L3 and draw CSF.
• Placement of intravenous (IV) catheters (hollow
tubes inserted into veins or arteries) into specific
locations inside the body.
• Image-guided anaesthetic injections into joints or the
spine.
Diagnostic Motion Picture X-ray
(Angiography)
• Used to examine circulatory system as they are
functioning.
• Uses an injection of a contrast liquid dye to make the
arteries easily visible on x-ray.
• The contrast fluids are introduced into the blood
circulation of the heart (cardio angiography), kidney
(renal angiography), or brain (cerebroangiography).
• X-ray still pictures are taken every 5s or faster, played
back on a motion picture machine to give the effect
of dynamic circulation through the blood vessels.
Angiogram
Coronary arteries perfused with radiopaque dye
Some Uses of Angiography
• To visualize blockages in blood vessels.
• To reveal aneurysms (a bulge on an artery
caused by a blood vessel wall becoming
weaker).
• To view the carotid artery and its branched in
the neck and head. This is done to identify a
bleed in the brain or to identify blood supply to
a tumour.
• To examine coronary arteries that supply the
heart to show if arteries have narrowed.
Diagnostic Still Picture X-ray Scans
(Tomography)
• Used to examine body structures (bones, organs &
tissues) from many different angles.
• E.g. brain scans, whole body scans and x-ray
computed tomography (CT) scanning.
• Brain scans are radiographs taken through successive
scanning by highly collimated x-ray beams.
• They provide more information than simple cranial x-ray
exposures.
• Computed Tomography (CT) scanning is a
technique of recording and processing a set of
image projections that represent a
reconstruction of the image scanned.
• Many 3-D projection scans are stored in a
computer.
• Through a complex algorithm (program), the
object is redrawn on a CRT screen by the
computer.
CT Scanning
• Whole-body scanners present views of whole
body areas.
• Pros:
– Much higher diagnostic quality.
– Show more details and resolution.
• Cons:
– More costly than regular x-ray patterns.
Therapeutic X-ray
• Used to eradicate & destroy cancerous tissues and tumours.
• Healthy tissue is destroyed along with abnormal tissue.
• Healthy tissues regenerate while abnormal tissues do not.
• Before x-ray exposure, a scanning device is used to pinpoint
boundaries of the tumour.
• Special lead forms are also used to prevent exposure to
nearby tissue
• Wavelength range up to 100Å
• Energy levels depend on radiosensitivity of tissue being
treated.
Nuclear Medicine Equipment
• Similar to x-ray scanning machines in the way it uses
scintillation counters in radiation detection.
• Small amounts of short-lived radioactive isotopes (iodine 131)
are introduced into the CVS.
• They accumulate in various target organs.
• The radioactivity given off by radioactive materials used is
measured with a scintillation counter.
• Diagnosis is made by determining physiological function of
gland through the amount of substance taken up by the
specific gland.
• The small quantity of substance used & their very short
emission life ensures minimal danger to patient.
Categories of Nuclear Medicine
Machines
1. Diagnostic low-level radiation (isotopes) tracer
detection devices used to measure target organ
function.
radiopharmaceuticals injected and taken up by
target organs are measured for concentration by
gamma-ray cameras, rectilinear scanners, fixed
detectors or scintillation counters, etc.
2. Therapeutic low-level localized radiation isotope
source used to treat tumourous growths.
Diagnostic vs Therapeutic X-ray
• Diagnostic • Therapeutic
• Power intensity-medium to • High
low
• Hardness -Medium to low • High -Very short wave
length
• Normally large exposure • Limited exposure area-
area --Lead sheet
--Perspex mask
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
• X-rays are produced when highly energetic
electrons interact with matter and convert
their kinetic energy into electromagnetic
radiation.
• A device that accomplishes such a task consist
of an electron source (cathode), an evacuated
path for electron acceleration (vacuum), a
target electrode (anode) and an external
energy source to accelerate the electrons.
Basic requirements…
• High voltage - external energy source
• Cathode - filament, electron source
• Electron beam - moving at high velocity
• Vacuum - for electron acceleration
• Anode - rotating target
• Lead shielded glass/metal envelop
Produced by the bombardment of atoms by high energy
particles
X-rays
Here’s how it works
• The high voltage supply (Up to 100 kV) passes current through the filament
(Cathode), heating it up.
• The heat sputters electrons off the filament’s surface.
• The positively charged rotating Tungsten anode draws the electrons across the
tube at high velocities as the potential difference between anode and cathode is
extremely high.
• When a speeding electron collides with the tungsten anode energy is released in
the form of radiation. This is accomplished by the processes of Bremsstrahlung
(Braking radiation) and by Characteristic X-Rays.
• The anode rotates at around 10000 rpm and can get very hot. Nowadays the x-ray
machines have an oil filled housing where if the oil heats up too much and
expands a micro switch which turns off the power. In that way the tubes lifespan is
lengthened.
• These x-rays are released from the target at right angles out of the glass window.
• They are then focused by the collimator.
• They are pass onto a photographic film or fluoroscopic screen to form an image.
X-Ray tube
X-ray Tube Enclosure Protection
1. High voltage protection – grounded metal
housing with electrical insulation & oil-filled
housing to withstand 10 to 150 kV.
2. Heat dissipation – properly constructed
anode with oil-filled housing to absorb excess
heat. Microswitch to activate a control circuit
& turn high-voltage off during excessive
heating.
3. Radiation shielding – provided by leaded
metal casing.
X-RAY Systems
A. Lume
Rotating Anode
Exposure Area
•Increase Exposure Area
•Less Heat Produced
•Rotate at ± 9000 rpm
Collimators
How a Soller
collimator works:
Only rays that are nearly parallel
to the collimator lead plates
will pass through, the rest
will be absorbed by the
metal so the rays will be
recorded in the proper
place.
Major Sections of an X-ray Machine
1 Multitap ac line autotransformer – allows
voltage selection for different applications.
2 X-ray tube filament circuit & transformer –
for filament ac power supply, different taps
for variable x-ray energy delivery to patient.
3 X-ray tube high-voltage circuit, transformer,
& bridge rectifier – supplies variable high dc
voltage for accelerating electrons from
cathode to anode.
4 Timing circuit – controls turn-on, turn-off & x-
ray exposure time.
Filament
transformer
Multitap Autotransformer
Input Ac line
Timing
Circuit
Ground
Rectifier
Bridge
High voltage X-Rays
Transformer
Viewing of X-Rays
X-ray Film Processing
The x-ray tube releases radiation.
The film becomes exposed to radiation, typically light, which activates the
emulsion material but produces no visible change.
The exposure creates a so-called latent image.
The film becomes exposed & is processed in a series of chemical solutions that
convert the invisible latent image into an image that is visible as different optical
densities or shades of gray.
The darkness of the film increases as the exposure is increased.
The developer solution supplies electrons that migrate into
the sensitized grains & convert the other silver ions into
black metallic silver.
This causes the grains to become visible black specks in
the emulsion.
Radiographic film is developed in an automatic processor.
When a film is inserted into a processor, it is transported
by means of a roller system through a chemical developer.
Measurement and protection
Heavy metals
embedded in concrete
X-ray
beam
Lead glass
X-ray machine
Typical Faults of X-ray Equipment
X-RAY MACHINE
Occurs mostly in the mechanical device servo-
mechanisms for positioning the patient tables.
Wires break, cables snap & jams occurs.
Most problems are electromechanical not
electronic.
Occasionally, high-voltage rectifiers open, x-ray
tube filaments open or rotating anodes become
pitted.
The electronics in modern machines are highly
reliable.
Operator error occurs occasionally & can result in
injury or death to the patient & operator.
Radiation exposure is checked & minimized by
periodically measuring exposure tags worn by
employees.
• NUCLEAR MEDICINE MACHINE
Faults are also mostly electromechanical.
The scanning mechanisms malfunction &
recorder occasionally fail.
The electronics are reliable & computers are
serviced by manufacturer personnel.
CALIBRATION
• X-RAY MACHINE
Check timing against known standards & verifying kV &
mA settings on the operating panel.
To verify mechanical timing for (1/120)s, observe one
pulse on an oscilloscope while synchronizing to the 50-Hz
ac power line.
A digital timer is triggered when the x-ray strikes a
transducer.
When the x-ray pulse has passed, the digital timer is
placed on hold.
The readout indicates elapsed time or x-ray pulse
duration.
A penetrometer is used to calibrate the kV & mA.
• NUCLEAR MEDICINE EQUIPMENT
Verifying of proper operation of the lower-level
discriminator or pulse height analyzer, proper
amplification & display results.
A standard nuclear radiation module can be
placed under the scanning mechanism & scanned
as usual.
Observation on the display of a proper map is
testimony of proper calibration.
Adjustments in the collimator, pulse height &
synchronous scanning display unit can be made.
Cat-Scanner
Photo-
multiplier
tubes
Collimator
X-Ray To
Machine Multiplexer
and
computer
