QUESTION 1

a) With a labeled diagram show the different parts of the human digestive tract. (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
The human digestive tract is a continuous tube that runs from the mouth to the anus. It includes several major parts where food is
processed.

Here’s a simple labeled diagram:

Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum) → Large Intestine (Cecum, Colon,
Rectum) → Anus

Each part plays a role:

●​ Mouth: Chews food and mixes with saliva.

●​ Pharynx: Pathway from mouth to esophagus.
●​ Esophagus: Tube that moves food to stomach.
●​ Stomach: Breaks down food with acid and enzymes.
●​ Small intestine: Main site for digestion and nutrient absorption.
●​ Large intestine: Absorbs water and forms feces.
●​ Anus: Exit point for waste.

Simple labeled diagram for reference:

b) How does the stomach contribute to digestion? (1 mark)

Answer:​
The stomach helps digestion mainly by producing strong acids (like hydrochloric acid) and enzymes (like pepsin). These
substances break down proteins into smaller parts. The stomach also churns food physically, mixing it with digestive juices to form
a semi-liquid called chyme that moves into the small intestine.

c) In which part do most of the digestion and absorption occur? Write the name and functions of this part. (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Most digestion and absorption happen in the small intestine.

Functions of the small intestine:

●​ Digestion: Enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver help break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
●​ Absorption: Tiny finger-like structures called villi absorb nutrients (like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids) into the blood.

The small intestine has three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

QUESTION 2

a) What is the primary function of the human respiratory system? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
The primary function of the human respiratory system is to allow the exchange of gases—oxygen is taken into the body and
carbon dioxide is removed. Oxygen is essential for producing energy in cells, and removing carbon dioxide prevents harmful
buildup. The respiratory system ensures that oxygen reaches the blood and carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the lungs.
b) Name the main organs involved in the system. Write their functions. (2 marks)

Answer:​
The main organs in the human respiratory system include:

1.​ Nose/Nasal cavity: Filters, warms, and moistens air before it enters the lungs.
2.​ Pharynx: Connects the nose and mouth to the larynx; also helps in swallowing.
3.​ Larynx (voice box): Allows air passage to the trachea and produces sound.
4.​ Trachea (windpipe): A tube that carries air from the larynx to the bronchi.
5.​ Bronchi: Two branches that lead to each lung and further divide into bronchioles.
6.​ Lungs: Main organs where oxygen is absorbed into the blood and carbon dioxide is removed.
7.​ Alveoli: Tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. They are surrounded by capillaries for efficient gas
exchange.

Each of these organs works together to ensure a smooth pathway for breathing and proper oxygen supply to the body.

c) What is the role of alveoli in the respiratory system? Explain with a diagram. (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Alveoli are tiny balloon-like structures in the lungs where the exchange of gases occurs. Oxygen from inhaled air passes
through the thin alveolar walls into the blood, and carbon dioxide from the blood moves into the alveoli to be exhaled.

Diagram:

O2 → Alveoli → Capillaries (blood gets oxygen)

CO2 ← Capillaries ← Alveoli (carbon dioxide exits body)
Their thin walls and large surface area make gas exchange efficient.

QUESTION 3

a) Distinguish between mitosis and meiosis cell division? (2.5 marks)

Answer:

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Number of divisions One division Two divisions

Number of daughter cells Two identical cells Four genetically different cells

Chromosome number Same as parent (diploid) Half of parent (haploid)

Genetic variation No variation (clones) Increases variation (due to crossing

over)

Where it occurs Body (somatic) cells Reproductive (germ) cells

Purpose Growth, repair, asexual Sexual reproduction

reproduction

Mitosis helps in regular body growth and healing, while meiosis is essential for producing sperm and egg cells in humans.

b) How do bacterial cells divide? (1 mark)

Answer:​
Bacteria divide by a simple process called binary fission, where one cell splits into two identical cells after replicating its DNA.

c) Which germ cell of humans have flagellum? Why? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
The sperm cell is the only human germ cell that has a flagellum. This tail-like structure helps it swim toward the egg cell during
fertilization, making movement possible for reproduction.
QUESTION 4

a) What are enzymes and what is their function in cells? Are all enzymes proteins? Explain. (2 marks)

Answer:​
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells without being used up themselves. They are crucial
for processes like digestion, respiration, DNA replication, and more.​
Most enzymes are proteins, but some RNA molecules called ribozymes also have catalytic activity. Enzymes lower the energy
needed for a reaction, making cell processes faster and more efficient.

b) Write what these digestive enzymes do in our gastrointestinal tract: (3 marks)

i) Salivary amylase​
Breaks down starch (complex carbs) into maltose (simple sugar) in the mouth.

ii) Trypsin​
Works in the small intestine to break down proteins into smaller peptides. It is secreted by the pancreas.

iii) Lipase​
Also secreted by the pancreas, it helps digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol in the small intestine.

Each of these enzymes plays a unique role in breaking down different food types for absorption.

QUESTION 5

a) What causes Arteriosclerosis? (2 marks)

Answer:​
Arteriosclerosis is caused by the hardening and thickening of arterial walls, which occurs due to the buildup of plaque—made
of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances. This narrows the arteries, reduces blood flow, and increases the risk of heart
attacks or strokes.​
Major causes include:

●​ High cholesterol
●​ Smoking
●​ High blood pressure
●​ Diabetes
●​ Over time, the arteries lose flexibility, making the condition worse.

b) What causes Heart attack? (1 mark)

Answer:​
A heart attack occurs when blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked, usually due to a blood clot in a narrowed coronary
artery, causing damage to the heart muscle.

c) What causes Stroke? (2 marks)

Answer:​
A stroke happens when the blood supply to a part of the brain is interrupted, either by a blockage (ischemic stroke) or a burst
blood vessel (hemorrhagic stroke). Without oxygen, brain cells start dying within minutes.

Main causes:

●​ Arteriosclerosis in brain arteries

●​ High blood pressure
●​ Blood clots
●​ Brain aneurysms​
Lifestyle factors like smoking, obesity, and lack of exercise increase the risk.

QUESTION 6

a) What is cellular respiration, and where does it occur in the cell? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Cellular respiration is the process where cells break down glucose to produce energy (ATP). This occurs mainly in the
mitochondria of cells. Oxygen is used in this process, and carbon dioxide and water are produced as byproducts.
b) How cellular respiration is different from breathing? (1 mark)

Answer:​
Breathing is a physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide. Cellular respiration is a chemical process
where cells use oxygen to make energy from glucose.

c) Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of energy output and end products. Where do these respirations
occur? (2.5 marks)

Answer:

Feature Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen needed? Yes No

Energy produced High (36-38 ATP per glucose) Low (2 ATP per glucose)

End products CO₂ + H₂O Lactic acid (animals) or ethanol + CO₂ (yeast)

Occurs in Mitochondria of cells Cytoplasm of cells

Aerobic respiration is more efficient and occurs when oxygen is available. Anaerobic happens during intense exercise or in
oxygen-poor environments like yeast fermentation.

QUESTION 7

a) Write down the differences between photosynthesis and respiration. (3 marks)

Answer:​
Photosynthesis and respiration are opposite but connected processes in living organisms. Here's a detailed comparison:

Feature Photosynthesis Respiration

Occurs in Chloroplasts (only in plants & algae) Mitochondria (in all living cells)

Reactants used CO₂ + Water + Light Energy Glucose + Oxygen

Products formed Glucose + Oxygen CO₂ + Water + Energy (ATP)

Energy flow Stores energy in glucose Releases energy from glucose

Light required? Yes (light-dependent) No (can occur in dark too)

Role in ecosystem Produces food and oxygen Uses food and oxygen for energy

Photosynthesis occurs during daytime when sunlight is available, while respiration happens all the time. In short, photosynthesis
captures energy, respiration uses it.

b) How is respiration different from breathing? Explain with a cellular reaction. (2 marks)

Answer:​
Respiration is a chemical process inside cells where glucose is broken down using oxygen to release energy (ATP). In
contrast, breathing is a physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide through the lungs.

Cellular reaction of aerobic respiration:​

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy (ATP)

So, breathing brings oxygen into the body, and respiration uses that oxygen in cells to make energy.
QUESTION 8

a) What is a balanced diet? (1 mark)

Answer:​
A balanced diet is a meal plan that includes all essential nutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water, and
fiber—in the right amounts for proper growth and health.

b) Write down the important criteria for a balanced diet. (2 marks)

Answer:​
A good balanced diet must:

1.​ Provide all six classes of nutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
2.​ Match the age, gender, and physical activity level of a person.
3.​ Include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and healthy fats.
4.​ Be low in sugar, salt, and saturated fat.
5.​ Supply enough energy to perform daily tasks but avoid excess to prevent obesity.
6.​ Be culturally appropriate, affordable, and sustainable.

A proper balanced diet helps maintain body functions, boosts immunity, and prevents diseases.

c) What is BMI? Calculate your BMI. (2 marks)

Answer:​
BMI (Body Mass Index) is a number used to determine if a person has a healthy body weight for their height.

Formula:​
BMI = Weight (kg) ÷ Height² (m²)

Example: If someone weighs 60 kg and is 1.65 meters tall:​

BMI = 60 ÷ (1.65 × 1.65) = 22.03

Interpretation:

●​ Below 18.5 = Underweight

●​ 18.5–24.9 = Normal
●​ 25–29.9 = Overweight
●​ 30+ = Obese

BMI helps assess risk for diseases linked to body weight.

QUESTION 9

a) What are essential amino acids? Name the essential amino acids in humans. (2 marks)

Answer:​
Essential amino acids are amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own, so they must be taken through food.

There are 9 essential amino acids in humans:

1.​ Histidine
2.​ Isoleucine
3.​ Leucine
4.​ Lysine
5.​ Methionine
6.​ Phenylalanine
7.​ Threonine
8.​ Tryptophan
9.​ Valine

These are vital for protein building, enzyme functions, growth, and repair.

b) Why is milk termed as an ideal drink for human babies? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Milk is called an ideal drink for babies because it contains all essential nutrients in the correct balance—carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and especially essential amino acids. It also has antibodies that strengthen the baby’s
immune system and enzymes that help digestion.
c) Rice and lentils together make a more nutritious food than separately taken. Explain in terms of supplementation of
essential amino acids. (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Rice lacks lysine but is rich in methionine, while lentils are rich in lysine but low in methionine. When eaten together, they
complement each other’s amino acid profile, giving a complete protein similar to animal protein. This combination is
especially important in vegetarian diets.

QUESTION 10

a) What are the accessory organs in the human digestive system? Write their functions. (3 marks)

Answer:​
The accessory organs of the digestive system are not part of the digestive tract but help in digestion by producing and storing
digestive substances. These include:

1.​ Salivary glands: Secrete saliva which contains amylase to break down starch.
2.​ Liver: Produces bile to break down fats and detoxifies harmful substances.
3.​ Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile into the small intestine.
4.​ Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes (lipase, amylase, trypsin) and bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid.
5.​ Teeth & tongue: Help chew and mix food with saliva to form a bolus for swallowing.

Together, these organs assist in breaking down food into absorbable forms and regulating digestion.

b) Among them, which one is called the ‘chemical factory’? Explain. (2 marks)

Answer:​
The liver is called the ‘chemical factory’ of the body because it performs over 500 chemical functions, including:

●​ Producing bile for fat digestion

●​ Detoxifying harmful substances
●​ Storing vitamins, minerals, and glucose
●​ Breaking down old red blood cells
●​ Making blood proteins and clotting factors​

It manages most of the body’s chemical activities and keeps the internal environment balanced.

QUESTION 11

a) What are the phases of the Cell Cycle? (2 marks)

Answer:​
The cell cycle has two main phases:

1.​ Interphase (growth phase)

○​ G₁ phase: Cell grows and performs normal functions
○​ S phase: DNA replication occurs
○​ G₂ phase: Cell prepares for division
2.​ Mitotic phase (division phase)
○​ Mitosis: Nucleus divides
○​ Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides

This cycle ensures proper growth, DNA copying, and cell reproduction in living organisms.

b) Name the phase where DNA gets doubled. (0.5 marks)

Answer:​
DNA is doubled during the S phase of interphase.

c) In which phase cytoplasm gets divided? (0.5 marks)

Answer:​
Cytoplasm is divided in the cytokinesis phase.
d) What are the checkpoints in the cell cycle? What do they do? (2 marks)

Answer:​
Checkpoints are control systems in the cell cycle that monitor and regulate progress. They prevent cell division if there are
errors.

Main checkpoints:

1.​ G₁ Checkpoint: Checks for cell size, nutrients, and DNA damage before replication.
2.​ G₂ Checkpoint: Ensures DNA replication is complete and correct before mitosis.
3.​ M Checkpoint (Spindle checkpoint): Ensures chromosomes are properly attached to spindle fibers before division.

These checkpoints ensure healthy, accurate cell division and prevent diseases like cancer.

QUESTION 12

a) How do you define homeostasis? (1 mark)

Answer:​
Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment (like body temperature, water level, and
pH) despite changes in the external surroundings.

b) Name the three parts of feedback mechanism that controls homeostasis. (2 marks)

Answer:​
The three parts of a feedback mechanism are:

1.​ Receptor (Sensor): Detects changes in the environment (like temperature change).
2.​ Control Center: Usually the brain (especially the hypothalamus); decides what to do.
3.​ Effector: Organs like sweat glands or muscles that act to bring back balance.

Example: When body temperature rises, sweat glands cool the body to restore balance.

c) How does skin help to keep the body at a steady temperature (around 37° C)? (2 marks)

Answer:​
The skin helps regulate body temperature using these methods:

1.​ Sweating: Sweat glands release sweat, which evaporates and cools the body.
2.​ Vasodilation: In hot conditions, blood vessels near the skin widen (dilate) to release heat.
3.​ Vasoconstriction: In cold, vessels narrow to keep heat inside.
4.​ Goosebumps: Hair stands up to trap warm air, providing insulation.

These actions are controlled by the hypothalamus and help maintain homeostasis at 37°C.

QUESTION 13

a) Why is brown rice better than polished rice? Why does soaking brown rice overnight enhance nutrition quality and
bioavailability? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Brown rice keeps the bran and germ, which contain fiber, vitamins (like B-complex), and minerals, unlike polished rice.
Soaking brown rice activates enzymes, reduces anti-nutrients like phytic acid, and makes minerals and vitamins more
absorbable, improving digestion and nutrient uptake.

b) Explain other factors why soaked brown rice after cooking is much superior to normal cooked rice in terms of
nutrition. (3.5 marks)

Answer:​
Soaked brown rice has many nutritional advantages over normal white rice:

1.​ Enzyme activation: Soaking triggers enzymes that help break down complex molecules, making nutrients easier to
absorb.
2.​ Reduction of phytic acid: Soaking reduces anti-nutrients like phytates, which normally block absorption of minerals like
zinc, calcium, and iron.
3.​ Improved fiber content: Brown rice is rich in fiber, which improves digestion and prevents constipation.
4.​ Better blood sugar control: It has a lower glycemic index than white rice, reducing blood sugar spikes—helpful for
diabetics.
5.​ Rich in antioxidants: The bran layer has antioxidants that protect cells from damage.
6.​ Better protein quality: It offers more amino acids than white rice.
 7.​ Enhanced texture and taste: Soaked brown rice is softer, tastier, and easier to cook.​

In short, soaked brown rice is a more wholesome, nutrient-rich, and digestive-friendly option than regular white rice.

QUESTION 14

a) What are major RNAs that are involved in protein synthesis? (0.5 marks)

Answer:​
The major RNAs are: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

b) Write the role played by each of the RNAs. (1.5 marks)

Answer:

●​ mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosome.

●​ tRNA (transfer RNA): Brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
●​ rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Forms the structure of ribosomes and helps link amino acids together.

All three work together to build proteins based on genetic code.

c) Name two hormones that play a vital role in glucose metabolism. Which organ produce these hormones? What do
they do? (3 marks)

Answer:​
The two key hormones are:

1.​ Insulin:
○​ Produced by beta cells of the pancreas.
○​ Lowers blood sugar by helping cells absorb glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen in the liver.
2.​ Glucagon:
○​ Produced by alpha cells of the pancreas.
○​ Raises blood sugar by breaking down stored glycogen in the liver into glucose and releasing it into the
bloodstream.

Together, insulin and glucagon maintain blood sugar balance (homeostasis) in the body.

QUESTION 15

a) What are the basic structures of the circulatory system? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
The circulatory system includes:

1.​ Heart: Pumps blood throughout the body.

2.​ Blood vessels:
○​ Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
○​ Veins bring blood back to the heart.
○​ Capillaries connect arteries and veins for exchange of gases and nutrients.
3.​ Blood: The fluid that carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste.

b) What are the three vital functions that the circulatory system performs? (1.5 marks)

Answer:

1.​ Transport: Carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells; removes waste products.
2.​ Protection: Contains white blood cells and antibodies that fight infections.
3.​ Regulation: Maintains temperature, pH, and fluid balance in the body.

c) What are the diastolic and systolic pressures? What is the normal range of pressures for them? In which of these
unidirectional valves are needed – explain. (2 marks)

Answer:

●​ Systolic pressure: Pressure when the heart contracts (pumps blood) – normal ~120 mmHg.
●​ Diastolic pressure: Pressure when the heart relaxes – normal ~80 mmHg.​
Valves (like mitral, tricuspid, aortic, and pulmonary) are needed during systole to keep blood flowing in one direction
and prevent backflow.​
QUESTION 16

a) What is blood? Write the composition of blood and briefly mention their functions. (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body.

Composition:

1.​ Plasma (55%): Yellow fluid that carries nutrients, hormones, and waste.
2.​ Red blood cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen using hemoglobin.
3.​ White blood cells (WBCs): Defend against infections.
4.​ Platelets: Help in blood clotting to stop bleeding.

Blood transports oxygen and nutrients to cells, removes waste, regulates temperature, and fights infections.

b) Write the functions of blood capillaries. (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
Blood capillaries are tiny vessels that connect arteries and veins and allow exchange of substances.

Functions:

1.​ Exchange of gases: Oxygen moves from blood to cells; CO₂ moves from cells to blood.
2.​ Nutrient delivery: Glucose, amino acids, and other nutrients pass into body tissues.
3.​ Waste removal: Waste products from cells enter the capillaries to be removed.
4.​ Hormone transport: Hormones enter or exit blood here to reach target cells.
5.​ Heat regulation: Capillaries help distribute heat and maintain temperature.

Their thin walls make them ideal for quick exchange between blood and body cells.

QUESTION 17

a) How do arteries get blocked? (1 mark)

Answer:​
Arteries get blocked when plaque (made of fat, cholesterol, and calcium) builds up inside the walls, narrowing them and reducing
blood flow—a process called atherosclerosis.

b) The walls of veins do not need to be as thick or elastic as those of arteries – explain. (1 mark)

Answer:​
Veins carry low-pressure blood back to the heart, so they don’t need thick or elastic walls like arteries, which handle
high-pressure blood from the heart.

c) Distinguish between Myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke. (2 marks)

Answer:

●​ Myocardial infarction (Heart Attack): Occurs when blood flow to the heart muscle is blocked, usually by a clot in
coronary arteries. It causes chest pain, shortness of breath, and heart tissue damage.
●​ Stroke: Happens when blood flow to the brain is blocked or a blood vessel bursts, leading to sudden brain cell death,
paralysis, slurred speech, or unconsciousness.

Both are medical emergencies caused by poor blood circulation but affect different organs.

d) Distinguish between LDL and HDL. (1 mark)

Answer:

●​ LDL (bad cholesterol): Builds up in arteries and increases heart disease risk.
●​ HDL (good cholesterol): Removes excess cholesterol from blood and protects the heart.
QUESTION 18

a) What are the various types of blood based on antigen? Write about each of them. Among these blood types, which is
the ‘Universal donor’ and which one is ‘Universal recipient’? (3 marks)

Answer:​
Blood groups are based on A and B antigens present on red blood cells:

1.​ Type A: Has an antigen and anti-B antibody.

2.​ Type B: Has B antigen and anti-A antibody.
3.​ Type AB: Has both A and B antigens, no antibodies.
4.​ Type O: Has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
●​ Universal Donor: Type O negative – no antigens to cause reaction.
●​ Universal Recipient: Type AB positive – can accept all blood types because it has no antibodies to attack incoming
antigens.

b) What is the Rh factor? How can Rh(-) cause complications during pregnancy? (2 marks)

Answer:​
Rh factor is a protein found on red blood cells. If present, a person is Rh(+); if not, they’re Rh(-).

Complication: If an Rh(-) mother carries an Rh(+) baby, her immune system may produce antibodies against the baby’s blood,
especially during the second pregnancy, leading to a condition called hemolytic disease of the newborn.

This can be prevented by giving the mother an Rh immunoglobulin injection (RhoGAM).

QUESTION 19

a) Describe the two phases of gas exchange. (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
Gas exchange involves two main phases:

1.​ External respiration (lungs):

○​ Happens in the alveoli of lungs.
○​ Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses into the blood.
○​ Carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into alveoli to be exhaled.
2.​ Internal respiration (tissues):
○​ Happens between blood and body cells.
○​ Oxygen leaves red blood cells and enters tissues.
○​ Cells release carbon dioxide as waste, which enters the blood for removal.

Both phases rely on diffusion across thin membranes and are vital for delivering oxygen to cells and removing CO₂.

b) With a schematic diagram differentiate between breathing and cellular respiration. (2.5 marks)

Answer:

Breathing (external process):

●​ Physical movement of air in and out of lungs.

●​ Involves inhalation and exhalation.
●​ Provides oxygen for respiration and removes carbon dioxide.

Cellular respiration (internal process):

●​ Happens inside cells.

●​ Breaks down glucose using oxygen to produce energy (ATP).

Diagram:

Breathing:

[Inhalation] → Lungs → Oxygen → Blood → Cells

Cellular Respiration:

Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Energy (ATP)

So, breathing is how oxygen enters the body; cellular respiration is how cells use that oxygen for energy.
QUESTION 20

a) Describe the following in reference to the human respiratory system: (5 marks)

Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Alveoli

Answer:​
The respiratory system has several important parts that work together to move air in and out of the lungs and enable gas
exchange:

1.​ Pharynx:
○​ Also known as the throat, it is a muscular tube connecting the nose and mouth to the larynx.
○​ It allows passage of air to the larynx and food to the esophagus.
○​ Divided into three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
2.​ Larynx (Voice box):
○​ Located below the pharynx, it contains vocal cords for sound production.
○​ Acts as a passageway for air and also prevents food from entering the windpipe through the epiglottis.
3.​ Trachea (Windpipe):
○​ A tube made of cartilage rings that prevent collapse.
○​ Connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows passage of air to and from the lungs.
○​ Lined with cilia and mucus to trap dust and microbes.
4.​ Bronchi:
○​ The trachea divides into two bronchi (right and left), each entering one lung.
○​ They branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles inside the lungs.
○​ Help distribute air evenly to both lungs.
5.​ Alveoli:
○​ Tiny air sacs at the end of bronchioles where gas exchange occurs.
○​ Surrounded by capillaries; oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
○​ Large surface area and thin walls make them efficient for gas exchange.

Together, these structures filter, moisten, warm, and transport air, ensuring the body gets sufficient oxygen and removes waste
gases like carbon dioxide.

QUESTION 21

a) How does the hypothalamus, in conjunction with thermoreceptors (TRCs), regulate body temperature to maintain
homeostasis? (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
The hypothalamus is the body’s thermostat located in the brain. It works with thermoreceptors (TRCs) in the skin and blood
vessels to maintain a stable internal temperature (around 37°C).

●​ When temperature rises:

○​ Thermoreceptors detect heat.
○​ Hypothalamus triggers sweating and vasodilation (blood vessels widen) to lose heat.
●​ When temperature drops:
○​ Thermoreceptors sense cold.
○​ Hypothalamus triggers shivering and vasoconstriction (blood vessels narrow) to conserve heat.

This feedback loop ensures the body stays in a healthy range even if the outside environment changes.

b) How do the kidneys and hormones regulate fluid and electrolyte balance in homeostasis? (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
The kidneys maintain fluid and electrolyte balance by:

1.​ Filtering blood: Removing waste, excess water, and ions.

2.​ Reabsorbing necessary electrolytes: Like sodium, potassium, and calcium, depending on the body’s needs.
3.​ Producing urine: To excrete excess fluids and maintain proper volume.

Hormones involved:

●​ ADH (Antidiuretic hormone): Made by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. It tells kidneys to reabsorb
more water, reducing urine output.
●​ Aldosterone: From adrenal glands, it increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, helping retain water
and maintain blood pressure.

Together, kidneys and hormones adjust the balance of water and salts to keep internal conditions stable.
QUESTION 22

a) What are the different parts of the kidney? Write the functions of the kidney. (3 marks)

Answer:​
The kidney is a bean-shaped organ made up of several important parts:

1.​ Cortex: The outer layer; contains nephrons where blood filtration begins.
2.​ Medulla: The inner region contains renal pyramids that collect urine from nephrons.
3.​ Renal pelvis: Funnel-shaped area that collects urine and passes it to the ureter.
4.​ Ureter: Carries urine from kidney to bladder.
5.​ Nephrons (functional units): Each kidney has over a million nephrons that filter blood and form urine.

Functions of kidney:

●​ Filtration: Removes waste like urea, uric acid, and creatinine from blood.
●​ Reabsorption: Returns essential substances (like glucose, amino acids, water) back to the blood.
●​ Secretion: Transfers extra ions and toxins from blood into the urine.
●​ Regulation: Controls blood pressure, water balance, salt concentration, and pH level.
●​ Hormone production: Makes erythropoietin (stimulates RBC production) and activates vitamin D.

Thus, kidneys maintain overall internal balance (homeostasis) and help excrete waste.

b) Discuss how kidneys clean blood. (2 marks)

Answer:​
The kidney cleans blood using nephrons, which perform three steps:

1.​ Filtration: Blood enters the glomerulus where water, urea, salts, and glucose are filtered out into the Bowman’s capsule.
2.​ Reabsorption: Useful substances like glucose, amino acids, and water are reabsorbed into the bloodstream through the
tubules.
3.​ Secretion: Extra ions, hydrogen, and toxins are added to the filtrate.

The final product is urine, which contains waste and is passed to the bladder. This process keeps blood clean and maintains
chemical balance.

QUESTION 23

a) Name the water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins in the human body. Which category of vitamins can be stored in the
body? Among the various vitamins which play antioxidant roles? (3.5 marks)

Answer:​
Water-soluble vitamins:

●​ Vitamin B-complex (B₁, B₂, B₃, B₆, B₁₂, folic acid, etc.)
●​ Vitamin C

Fat-soluble vitamins:

●​ Vitamin A, D, E, K

Which can be stored?

●​ Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissues.

●​ Water-soluble ones are not stored and must be taken regularly in diet.

Antioxidant vitamins:

●​ Vitamin A: Protects eyes and immune function.

●​ Vitamin C: Neutralizes free radicals and boosts immunity.
●​ Vitamin E: Protects cells from oxidative stress and aging.

These antioxidants protect the body from damage by harmful molecules called free radicals.

b) Write function of the following minerals in the body: (1.5 marks)

Calcium, Sodium, Iron

Answer:

●​ Calcium: Builds strong bones and teeth, helps muscle contraction and blood clotting.
●​ Sodium: Maintains fluid balance, nerve signals, and muscle function.
●​ Iron: Forms hemoglobin in RBCs, carries oxygen in the blood to body tissues.
QUESTION 24

a) What is diabetes mellitus? What are the different types of diabetes? What are the root causes of these different
diabetes? (2 marks)

Answer:​
Diabetes mellitus is a disease where the body cannot properly regulate blood sugar (glucose) levels due to problems with
insulin production or usage.

Types of diabetes:

1.​ Type 1: Body doesn’t produce insulin; autoimmune cause (mostly in children).
2.​ Type 2: Body cells become insulin-resistant; usually linked to obesity and lifestyle.
3.​ Gestational diabetes: Occurs during pregnancy due to hormonal changes.

Causes:

●​ Type 1: Immune system destroys insulin-producing cells.

●​ Type 2: Poor diet, inactivity, overweight, and genetics.
●​ Gestational: Hormones from placenta interfere with insulin function.

b) How does gestational diabetes affect the baby? (0.5 marks)

Answer:​
It can cause high birth weight, breathing issues, or increased risk of diabetes later in life for the baby.

c) What is insulin? With a schematic diagram discuss the response of insulin in normal cells and in Type I and Type II
diabetes cells. (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas that helps body cells absorb glucose from the blood to use as energy or store it.

Normal condition:

●​ Insulin binds to receptors → opens channels → glucose enters cells → blood sugar lowers.

Type I diabetes:

●​ No insulin is produced → glucose cannot enter cells → blood sugar remains high.

Type II diabetes:

●​ Insulin is present but cells don’t respond (resistance) → less glucose enters → high blood sugar.

Diagram (text version):

Normal Cell:

[Insulin] → [Receptor] → [Glucose enters cell]

Type I Diabetes:

[No Insulin] → [No signal] → [Glucose stays in blood]

Type II Diabetes:

[Insulin present] → [Receptor not working] → [Less glucose enters]

Insulin helps regulate energy and without it, sugar builds up in the blood causing health problems.

QUESTION 26

a) What is Body Mass Index (BMI)? How is BMI calculated? (2 marks)

Answer:​
BMI is a measure to assess whether a person has a healthy body weight for their height. It helps identify underweight, normal,
overweight, or obesity status.

Formula:​
BMI = Weight (kg) ÷ Height² (m²)
BMI interpretation chart:

●​ < 18.5 = Underweight

●​ 18.5–24.9 = Normal
●​ 25–29.9 = Overweight
●​ 30+ = Obese​

It gives a quick overview of weight-related health risks.

b) What is calorie? How do you calculate how many kilocalories you need? (3 marks)

Answer:​
A calorie is a unit of energy. It measures how much energy food gives to the body.

Technically, 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.

How to calculate your calorie need:

Use BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) and activity level:

1. Harris-Benedict Formula (for BMR):​

For males:​
BMR = 66 + (13.7 × weight in kg) + (5 × height in cm) − (6.8 × age in years)​
For females:​
BMR = 655 + (9.6 × weight) + (1.8 × height) − (4.7 × age)

2. Multiply BMR by activity factor:

●​ Sedentary: × 1.2
●​ Light activity: × 1.375
●​ Moderate: × 1.55
●​ Very active: × 1.725
●​ Super active: × 1.9

This gives your daily calorie needs, based on lifestyle. Extra calories are stored as fat, and fewer calories can lead to weight
loss.

QUESTION 27

a) What is nutrient and nutrition? Name the various classes of nutrients. Among them, which ones provide energy? (2
marks)

Answer:

●​ A nutrient is a chemical substance found in food that the body needs to grow, repair, and function properly.
●​ Nutrition is the science of how the body uses these nutrients from food for energy, growth, and repair.

Classes of nutrients:

1.​ Carbohydrates
2.​ Proteins
3.​ Fats
4.​ Vitamins
5.​ Minerals
6.​ Water
7.​ Fiber

Energy-providing nutrients:

●​ Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats provide energy.

○​ 1g carbohydrate = 4 kcal
○​ 1g protein = 4 kcal
○​ 1g fat = 9 kcal

These nutrients fuel the body and are vital for all physical activities and body processes.
b) What is malnutrition? How does it affect the body? (3 marks)

Answer:​
Malnutrition means poor nutrition, which can be due to not eating enough, eating too much, or eating the wrong kind of
food lacking essential nutrients.

It includes two types:

●​ Undernutrition: Lack of calories or nutrients.

●​ Overnutrition: Excess intake of calories or unhealthy foods.​

Effects on the body:

1.​ Stunted growth in children, delayed development.

2.​ Weakened immune system, frequent infections.
3.​ Muscle weakness and fatigue due to protein deficiency.
4.​ Anemia from lack of iron; poor wound healing from low protein.
5.​ Obesity and lifestyle diseases (e.g., diabetes, heart disease) due to overnutrition.
6.​ Mental issues: Difficulty concentrating, depression in severe cases.

Proper diet is necessary to avoid malnutrition and ensure physical and mental well-being.

QUESTION 28

a) How does the circulatory system interact with the respiratory system to ensure oxygen delivery and carbon dioxide
removal? (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to supply oxygen to body cells and remove carbon dioxide.

Process:

1.​ The lungs (respiratory system) take in oxygen during inhalation.

2.​ Oxygen enters alveoli, then diffuses into capillaries.
3.​ Red blood cells carry oxygen via hemoglobin through arteries to all body cells.
4.​ Cells use oxygen to produce energy and release carbon dioxide.
5.​ CO₂ is carried by blood back to the lungs via veins.
6.​ CO₂ diffuses into alveoli and is exhaled from the lungs.

This partnership maintains gas exchange, supports cellular respiration, and keeps the body alive and active.

b) What is systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation? (1 mark)

Answer:

●​ Systemic circulation: Carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the body and returns oxygen-poor blood to the heart.
●​ Pulmonary circulation: Carries oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygen-rich blood back to the
heart.

c) Draw a labeled diagram to show the systemic and pulmonary circuit. (1.5 marks)

Answer:

Text-based Diagram:

[Body] ← O₂ ← [Heart - Left Side] ← [Lungs]

↑ ↓

CO₂ → [Heart - Right Side] → CO₂ → [Lungs]

Pulmonary Circuit: Heart → Lungs → Heart

Systemic Circuit: Heart → Body → Heart

Label the chambers:

●​ Right atrium & ventricle (deoxygenated blood)

●​ Left atrium & ventricle (oxygenated blood)
●​ Arteries (red for oxygenated), veins (blue for deoxygenated)

This shows how blood flows through both systems for gas exchange and body supply.

QUESTION 29

a) Briefly discuss with examples what are asexual and sexual reproductions? (1.5 marks)

Answer:

●​ Asexual reproduction: Involves only one parent. Offspring are genetically identical.
○​ Example: Bacteria divide by binary fission, hydra by budding.
●​ Sexual reproduction: Involves two parents. Offspring are genetically different.
○​ Example: Humans reproduce sexually with sperm and egg combining to form a zygote.

b) Write the cell divisions in meiosis. How is it different from mitotic cell division? Use diagrams to explain. (3.5 marks)

Answer:

Meiosis has two stages:

●​ Meiosis I:
○​ Homologous chromosomes pair and exchange genes (crossing over).
○​ Cell divides into two haploid cells.
●​ Meiosis II:
○​ Like mitosis; sister chromatids separate.
○​ Ends with four non-identical haploid gametes.

Differences from mitosis:

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Cell division One Two

Daughter cells Two identical diploid Four different haploid

Genetic variation No Yes (due to crossing over)

Function Growth, repair Formation of gametes

Diagram idea (text form):

Mitosis: 1 cell → 2 identical cells

Meiosis: 1 cell → 2 cells → 4 unique cells

Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction, while mitosis is used for growth and tissue repair.

QUESTION 30

a) Why is water an ideal solvent? (1.5 marks)

Answer:​
Water is an ideal solvent because it can dissolve many substances, including salts, sugars, gases, and proteins, due to its
polar nature. It surrounds charged particles and separates them easily, making it essential for chemical reactions in the body.
b) Write five important functions of water in the human body? (2.5 marks)

Answer:​
Water performs many essential roles in the human body:

1.​ Transport medium: Carries nutrients, oxygen, and waste in blood and cells.
2.​ Temperature regulation: Sweating and heat absorption regulate body temperature.
3.​ Digestion and absorption: Helps in enzyme function, digestion, and moving food through the intestines.
4.​ Lubrication: Keeps joints, eyes, and tissues moist (synovial fluid, saliva, tears).
5.​ Cellular function: Involved in all metabolic reactions, maintains pH and electrolyte balance.

Water makes up 60–70% of body weight and is vital for survival.

c) What happens when the supply of water to the body is very low? (1 mark)

Answer:​
Low water intake leads to dehydration, causing dry mouth, dizziness, low blood pressure, fatigue, and in severe cases,
organ failure or death.