Article

Modified Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregates with a Crystallizing

Agent as Standard Sand Replacement in Mortar
Daniel Suarez-Riera 1 , Luca Lavagna 2 , Devid Falliano 1 , Giuseppe Andrea Ferro 1 , Matteo Pavese 2 ,
Jean-Marc Tulliani 2, * and Luciana Restuccia 1, *

1 Department of Structural, Building and Geotechnical Engineering, Politecnico di Torino,

C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy; daniel.suarez@polito.it (D.S.-R.);
devid.falliano@polito.it (D.F.); giuseppe.ferro@polito.it (G.A.F.)
2 Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24,
10129 Torino, Italy; luca.lavagna@polito.it (L.L.); matteo.pavese@polito.it (M.P.)
* Correspondence: jeanmarc.tulliani@polito.it (J.-M.T.); luciana.restuccia@polito.it (L.R.)

Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate mortar performance by substituting part of standard sand
with recycled fine aggregates sourced from concrete waste, aiming to assess mechanical
properties and durability. Moreover, this study examined the use of crystallizing agents
to understand their impact on mortar properties. Four mortar series were prepared with
sand substitution percentages ranging from 25% to 100% while adhering to the diverse
fraction proportions within the standardized sand particle size distribution. Mechanical
results indicate that incorporating recycled concrete sand significantly enhances mechan-
ical properties with respect to standard sand. The study showed the technical feasibility
of producing mortars with up to 100% recycled fine concrete aggregate with enhanced
compressive strength, albeit requiring higher superplasticizer dosages. The addition of
crystallizing agents provided an increase in flexural strength in specific conditions, while
they did not provide a significant improvement to compressive strength.

Keywords: recycled concrete aggregate; waste recycling; mortar; crystallizing agents;

sustainable construction material; circular economy
Academic Editor: Carlos Leiva

Received: 31 July 2025

Revised: 26 August 2025
Accepted: 2 September 2025 1. Introduction
Published: 8 September 2025
The global economy is facing a significant challenge with its current linear model of
Citation: Suarez-Riera, D.; Lavagna,
production and consumption. A linear economy (LE), also known as the “take-make-waste”
L.; Falliano, D.; Ferro, G.A.; Pavese, M.;
model, is a traditional economic model where resources are extracted, processed into goods
Tulliani, J.-M.; Restuccia, L. Modified
Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregates
and products, and eventually discarded as waste after being used [1]. Consequently, LE
with a Crystallizing Agent as Standard generates a large amount of waste, which is simply viewed as a by-product of economic
Sand Replacement in Mortar. Materials growth, including non-biodegradable materials, and consumes finite resources that are
2025, 18, 4208. https://doi.org/ being depleted at an unsustainable rate [2,3]. Within this context, the construction sector
10.3390/ma18174208
is associated with the depletion of natural resources to manufacture building materials,
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. consuming up to 40% of global raw materials extracted every year, and generating enor-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. mous amounts of construction and demolition waste (CDW) [4–6]. Subsequently, there is
This article is an open access article
a growing interest in the circular economy approach to achieve sustainable development
distributed under the terms and
through the 3R principle (reduce, reuse, and recycle), creating a closed-loop system where
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
resources are kept in use for as long as possible [7,8].
(https://creativecommons.org/ Various measures are being taken to increase sustainability and to reduce the adverse
licenses/by/4.0/). environmental impact of building materials. Within the cement-based materials, this impact

Materials 2025, 18, 4208 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18174208

Materials 2025, 18, 4208 2 of 30

can be mitigated using alternative materials. For example, using recycled aggregates (RAs)
from construction and demolition practices in mortar and concrete production can decrease
the amount of landfilled waste and reduce the consumption of virgin materials since
the increasing amount of produced waste and its disposal step negatively impacts the
environment and society. This category of waste represents around 40% of the total solid
waste, with a global recovery rate ranging from 20% to 30% [9–11]. In the European Union,
for example, approximately 3 billion tons of waste are produced each year, with one-third of
this amount due to construction and demolition activities [12,13], with an average recovery
rate of almost 50%. However, the average recovery rate falls short of the 70% target of the
Waste Directive 2008/98/EC set for 2020 [14].
Therefore, in recent years, researchers put a lot of effort into studying the properties
of RAs obtained from CDW and its potential application in mortar production. Many
papers have shown that RAs can be used effectively in place of virgin aggregates in cement-
based materials despite some technical problems, mainly in mechanical strength and
workability areas [15,16]. Materials finer than 0.08 mm in the dry mix can be used to assess
the workability of mortars, as they alter the water requirement and potential shrinkage of
mortars with natural sand, recycled sand, or a mix of them [17,18].
In this context, Stefanidou et al. [19] investigated the use of three different mortars
(with hydrated lime, a mix of lime and natural pozzolan, or a mixture of lime, natural
pozzolan, and cement) with standard sand (SS), natural sand, or recycled sand (RS) for
repair works. They found that adding RS to lime-based mortars, with 1 wt% of super-
plasticizer with respect to cement, can enhance compressive strength, especially at early
ages. This improvement may be due to pozzolanic reactions between lime and the silica
constituents of the raw materials in the sand. Braga et al. [20] demonstrated the feasibility
of using up to 15% of fine concrete recycled aggregates in mortar production, resulting
in an improvement in most of the properties of the reference mortar. Additionally, Neno
et al. [21] produced mortars with partial (20% and 50%) and total substitution (100%) of
natural sand by recycled concrete aggregates and found compressive and flexural strength
improvements at 28 days in all the cases with respect to the standard mortar. Notwithstand-
ing, Ledesma et al. [22] studied the incorporation of RAs obtained from ceramic masonry
waste in eco-mortars at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% replacement rates. They found that
adding RAs decreased the compressive strength of the eco-mortars by almost 12%. How-
ever, this loss in compressive strength was acceptable for non-structural applications. They
also noted that using RAs increased the mortars water demand and air content. However,
the addition of a superplasticizer effectively increased the workability and strength of the
mortars while reducing the water demand. Additionally, some of the authors of this paper
studied the influence of washed recycled sand (to reduce the excess fine fraction) as a partial
replacement in mortars [23], evidencing that while washing the recycled aggregates does
lead to improved results compared to unwashed sand, the overall mechanical performance
still does not surpass that of mortars made with standard sand. Furthermore, the washing
process does not contribute to the overall sustainability of the system.
Thus, it is well-established that, generally, mortars incorporating RAs tend to exhibit
lower mechanical performance compared to those made with conventional aggregates,
primarily due to several inherent limitations of RAs, such as increased porosity, higher
water absorption, elevated crushing index, the presence of microcracks in the interfacial
transition zones (ITZ), contamination, and inconsistent quality [21,24,25]. Notably, the
microcracks in the ITZ significantly weaken the recycled aggregates, facilitating the ingress
of harmful substances, which react with cement hydration products. This reaction produces
expansive compounds, such as gypsum and ettringite, which increase internal stresses
and further compromise the structural integrity of the recycled concrete aggregates [26,27].
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 3 of 30

Consequently, fully saturating recycled aggregates before incorporating them into new
concrete is fundamental to guarantee the workability and consistency of the mix. Thus,
improving RA microstructural and mechanical properties is of paramount importance
to enhance its applicability and usefulness in producing recycled concrete [28–30]. The
current literature indicates that there are six significant methods to improve the prop-
erties of recycled aggregates. These methods can be classified into two groups. Firstly,
the “improve by removing” classification encompasses techniques focused on eliminating
residual mortar from recycled aggregate, incorporating chemical and thermal processes.
Conversely, the “improve by adding” category considers approaches centered on supple-
menting mineral admixtures, facilitating self-healing mechanisms, promoting carbonation
reactions, implementing sequential mixing protocols, and reinforcing through coating and
permeation methodologies [31–34]. In recent years, several recent reviews of the techniques
for modifying RAs and selecting the optimal method in function of the different types of
concrete are available in [35–42].
From the coating and permeation point of view, few research studies focus on identify-
ing techniques to enhance the microstructural properties of recycled aggregates. However,
research in this area is incomplete, leaving an extensive knowledge gap that needs fur-
ther investigation and filling [42]. In this respect, a way to enhance the properties of RAs
through the integration of crystallizing agents’ technology has been identified. This method,
denoted as crystalline waterproofing, has garnered widespread adoption within concrete
applications. It involves using active substances that react with hydration products or
unreacted cement particles in the concrete matrix. These reactions yield supplementary
reactants in crystalline form, thereby augmenting the overall performance and durability
of the material [43–46]. These crystallizing agents moreover effectively block off the pores
in concrete, decreasing their overall permeability [47,48].
This innovative approach was applied in a limited number of papers to recycled coarse
aggregates to fill in pores and cracks [49,50]. Thus, in this work, recycled fine aggregates
(RFAs) were soaked in an aqueous solution of a crystallizing agent called Admixplus (AD),
a commercial compound from Supershield Italia S.r.l., for the first time, to the best of our
knowledge. The porous and cracked nature of the RA powders allows for easy penetration
of the AD solution, generating an insoluble crystalline structure inside capillary pores. In
hardened concrete, this structure serves as a waterproof barrier against water and chemical
agents penetration inside the RA grains. The formation of crystals is also stimulated at a later
stage in case water or moisture seeps into the material. It is essential to highlight that the
producer keeps the chemical composition of the crystallizing agents strictly confidential.
Therefore, the present work proposes a novel approach for enhancing the environmen-
tal and mechanical performances of mortars containing recycled fine aggregates previously
consolidated by means of crystallizing agents. This study was conducted by replacing
standard sand with treated recycled concrete aggregates at varying rates: 25%, 50%, 75%,
and 100%. The focus on mortars is the first step of a broader study which aims at producing
concrete with either coarse and fine RAs modified with crystallizing agents.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The materials used to prepare the mortar specimens were Portland Cement Type I,
CEM I 52.5 (Buzzi Unicem, Casale Monferrato, Italy), tap water (W) for mixing, casting
and curing, a commercial superplasticizer—MasterEase 7000 (Master Builders Solutions
Italia Spa, Treviso, Italy)—(SP), and a commercial crystallizing agent AD produced by
Supershield Italia S.r.l. (Torino, Italy) for concrete waterproofing, protection, and enhancing
its durability. According to the producer, AD reacts with moisture in concrete and forms an
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 4 of 30

insoluble crystalline structure within the capillary pores, serving as a waterproof barrier
against water and chemicals. CEN standard sand, with the specific particle size distribution
shown in Table 1 was also used. Finally, RAs were provided by F.G. S.r.l., a construction
company based in Turin, Italy, which specializes in environmental sustainability, promi-
nently featuring the extraction and processing of both natural and recycled aggregates. In
particular, the provided material, called “Recycled 0–5”, is obtained by recycled concrete
and is characterized by a particle size lower than 5.6 mm. The company provides the RA
features shown in Table 2, according to UNI EN 126020:2002 + A1:2008 [51].

Table 1. CEN standard sand, retained% and retained mass.

Cumulative
Square Mesh Size [mm] Retained [%] Retained Mass [g]
Retained [%]
2.00 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.60 7.0 7.0 94.5
1.00 33.0 26.0 351.0
0.50 67.0 34.0 459.0
0.16 87.0 20.0 270.0
0.08 99.0 12.0 162.0
Filler 100.0 1.0 13.5

Table 2. Recycled 0–5.6 by F.G. S.r.l.

Purity
Density of Particles [g/cm3 ] Water Absorption [%]
Powders Content Sand Equivalent [%]
2.46 f22 48 4.73

2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Sieving Process
In order to substitute RS to SS without modifying the particle size distribution, the SS
was initially separated into six size fractions through sieving (<0.08, 0.08/0.16, 0.16/0.50,
0.50/1.00, 1.00/1.60, 1.60/2.00 mm). The recycled sand was also screened into the same
six particle size fractions. The fractions were successfully blended to obtain four sand
samples, called CON, with corresponding fractions of RS in specific ratios to match the
particle size distribution of the original SS. The sand mixes (Figure 1a) were created at four
different replacement ratios (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%). The composition of the new sand
blends is shown in Table 3. A comparison between the different size fractions of SS and RS
is shown in Figure 1b.

Table 3. Sand mixes’ compositions.

CON 25% CON 50% CON 75% CON 100%

Size [mm]
SS [g] RA [g] SS [g] RA [g] SS [g] RA [g] SS [g] RA [g]
1.6 70.90 23.60 47.30 47.30 23.60 70.90 0.00 94.50
1.0 263.30 87.80 175.50 175.50 87.80 263.30 0.00 351.00
0.5 344.30 114.80 229.50 229.50 114.80 344.30 0.00 459.00
0.16 202.50 67.50 135.00 135.00 67.50 202.50 0.00 270.00
0.08 121.50 40.50 81.00 81.00 40.50 121.50 0.00 162.00
Filler 10.10 3.40 6.75 6.75 3.40 10.10 0.00 13.50
Total 1350.00 1350.00 1350.00 1350.00
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 5 of 30

Figure 1. SS and SS-CON mixes (a) and comparison between standard sand (SS) and recycled
aggregate (RA) particles (b).

2.2.2. Recycled Sand Characterization

The recycled sand (RS) was analyzed by using pycnometry, thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), and X-ray Diffraction
and X-ray Fluorescence (XRD and XRF, respectively). To analyze the RS density through
pycnometry, an Anton Paar Ultrapyc 5000 (Anton Paar Italia S.r.l, Rivoli, Italy) was used.
Three SS and RA-CON samples were tested, using an approximate weight of 10 g. The TGA
was conducted using a Mettler Toledo 1600 (Mettler Toledo, Milan, Italy), in air atmosphere
up to 1000 ◦ C, with a heating ramp of 10 ◦ C/min. The FESEM observations were performed
with a Phenom ProX instrument (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Eindhoven, The Netherland),
both to assess the crystallization effects occurring in the RS, and to evaluate their impact
on the mortar. It provides information about the particle size and distribution within the
cement matrix, also enabling the analysis of crack development and fracture patterns. The
samples were platinum sputtered for 30 s before FESEM observations (Quorum Sputter
Coater, model Q150T S, Laughton, East Sussex, UK). Lastly, the XRD patterns were recorded
with a Pan’Analytical X’Pert Pro diffractometer (Malvern Pan’analytical, Worcestershire,
UK) equipped with a copper anticathode (λCuKα1 = 0.15406 nm) and a linear detector,
between 5◦ and 70◦ in 2θ, with a step width of 0.026◦ . The retained fraction at 0.16 mm
and the filler fraction of the RS were selected for XRD analysis. Additionally, the chemical
composition of the RA was assessed by X-ray Fluorescence using a Rigaku ZSX 100E
(Rigaku Holdings Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) instrument through the filler fraction.

2.2.3. Mortar Samples Preparation

For each ratio between RS and total sand, 4 series of mortar samples were prepared,
tested and analyzed (named CON, CON-X, CON-Y and CON-Z). For each series, at least
three samples were realized; in addition, three reference samples were made for each series.
Making mortar samples followed the mix design outlined in Table 4, using a water-
to-cement ratio of 0.5 and a cement-to-aggregate ratio of 1:3 following the EN 196-1 stan-
dard [52]. The procedure involved mixing water and superplasticizer with cement in a bowl
with an automatic mortar mixer at low speed for 30 s, then gradually adding sand for the
next 30 s while switching to high speed for another 30 s. The mixer was then stopped for
90 s, and any mortar on the bowl’s walls was scraped off and added to the mixture. After
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 6 of 30

the break, the mixing was resumed for 60 s at high speed. The first half of the mixture was
carefully transferred into steel molds allowing the preparation of three 40 × 40 × 160 mm3
prismatic specimens and compacted with 60 jolts. The remaining mixture was then poured
into the half-filled molds and compacted with another 60 jolts. The molds were then placed
in a room with relative humidity of 100% for 24 h. The samples were finally demolded and
placed in a water tank for curing at 24 ± 1 ◦ C for 7 or 28 days. Once the curing time was
finished, the samples underwent three-point bending and compression tests to evaluate
the mechanical performance following the EN 196-1 standard.

Table 4. Mix design for each series.

Sand
Series Specimen ID W/C Cement [g] Water [g] SP [%] AD [g]
SS [g] RS [g]
OPC 0.50 450.00 225.00 1350.00 0.25 -
CON 25 0.50 450.00 225.00 1012.50 337.50 1.25 -
1 CON 50 0.50 450.00 225.00 675.00 675.00 1.70 -
CON 75 0.50 450.00 225.00 337.50 1012.50 2.80 -
CON 100 0.50 450.00 225.00 - 1350.00 5.00 -

OPC-X 0.50 450.00 225.00 1350.00 - 0.25 4.50

CON-X 25 0.50 450.00 225.00 1012.50 337.50 1.25 4.50
2 CON-X 50 0.50 450.00 225.00 675.00 675.00 1.70 4.50
CON-X 75 0.50 450.00 225.00 337.50 1012.50 2.80 4.50
CON-X 100 0.50 450.00 225.00 - 1350.00 5.00 4.50

OPC-Y/Z 0.50 450.00 225.00 1350.00 - 0.10 13.50

CON-Y/Z 25 0.50 450.00 223.45 1012.50 337.50 2.00 13.50
3&4
CON-Y/Z 50 0.50 450.00 213.40 675.00 675.00 3.10 13.50
CON-Y/Z 75 0.50 450.00 200.85 337.50 1012.50 4.90 13.50
CON-Y/Z
0.50 450.00 188.30 - 1350.00 7.10 13.50
100

The different CON-X, CON-Y and CON-Z series differ by the way the AD crystallizing
agent was added. On the one hand, in the CON-X series, 1 wt% of AD with respect to
cement was added at the end of the mixing procedure (as per the recommendation of the
producer). Then, the mortar mix was mixed for another 60 s to obtain a homogenous paste.
In the case of CON-Y and CON-Z, on the other hand, the AD additive was used to pretreat
the sand before preparing the mortar. This approach was used to limit as much as possible
the greater absorption of water due to the RS porosity. Thus, in the case of CON-Y and
CON-Z, the SS+RS mixture was pretreated with a mix of water and AD (1% AD by weight
of sand). Water was added to AD since 1% of the crystallizing agent (13.5 g) would not be
always sufficient to reach the total saturation of the RS pores. The water used to pretreat
the sand was subtracted from the quantity of water needed in the mortar. The batches were
then cured in sealed bags to prevent humidity losses for 15 (CON-Y series) and 45 days
(CON-Z series); the mix design for the Y and Z series is also reported in Table 4.
Additionally, for each series, three cylindric specimens of 50 mm in height and 95 mm
in diameter, and three cubic specimens of 100 mm side were prepared to perform the rapid
chloride permeability test and the water penetration resistance test in accordance with
ASTM C1202 [53] and UNI EN 12390-8 [54], respectively, with the aim to evaluate the
durability of the specimens.
For all the mixes, it was decided to maintain an almost constant workability; con-
sequently, there is variability in the SP dosage to keep the mortar at the OPC standard
workability. The slump test results were reported in Table 5 for all the series of the mix de-
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 7 of 30

sign. As shown in Table 4, CON and CON-X series behaved similarly regarding workability,
while CON-Y and CON-Z required a higher amount of SP. In all cases, the SP requirement
grows with the RS fraction inside the mortar, due to the higher water uptake from the RS
porosity with respect to the mortar with only standard sand.

Table 5. Slump test for each series.

Series Specimen ID Slump [mm]

OPC 36
CON 25 35
1 CON 50 35
CON 75 36
CON 100 32
OPC-X 43
CON-X 25 45
2 CON-X 50 44
CON-X 75 44
CON-X 100 45
OPC-Y 42
CON-Y 25 40
3 CON-Y 50 42
CON-Y 75 40
CON-Y 100 43
OPC-Z 42
CON-Z 25 40
4 CON-Z 50 42
CON-Z 75 40
CON-Z 100 43

2.3. Mortar’s Characterization

2.3.1. Mechanical Behavior
To assess the mechanical behavior of mortar specimens, all the samples underwent a
three-point bending (TPB) and compression test following the UNI 196-1 Standard [52]. The
TPB test was carried out using a Zwick-Line Z050 single-column machine (ZwickRoell, Ulm,
Germany) with a cell load capacity of 50 kN, a pre-load of 5 N, a span of 100 mm, and a
testing rate of 50 N/s (Figure 2). The flexural strength was determined using Equation (1):
3Fmax L
σf = (1)
2bh2
where Fmax is the maximum applied force on the prism at the instant of failure, L is the
effective span, b is the prism width and h is the height of the specimen under the point of
the application of the load.
After flexural testing, the prisms’ broken portions were subjected to compression
testing using a Zwick–Baldwin single-column machine with a load cell capacity of 500 kN
and a test velocity rate of 2400 N/s (Figure 3). The compressive strength was calculated by
dividing the maximum load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen:
Fmax
σc,max = (2)
bh
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 8 of 30

Figure 2. Three-point bending test.

Figure 3. Compressive test of mortar specimens.

2.3.2. Chloride Permeability Test

The chloride permeability test was used to evaluate the ability of mortar samples to
resist the penetration of chloride ions, which can cause corrosion of reinforcing steel in
structures [53]. For this work, the ASTM C1202 standard was followed. The underlying
concept of ASTM C1202 is that anions, when subjected to an electric field, will migrate
from the negative electrode to the positive one. When comparing various specimens under
identical experimental conditions, the extent of ions’ migration directly correlates with
the magnitude of the electrical flow observed. This relationship serves as an indicator of
the relative permeability of the tested samples. For the test, 28-day cured samples were
used. First, the specimens were allowed to air dry for at least 1 h. Next, a rapid setting
coating was applied onto the side surface of each cylindrical specimen and placed on a
suitable support to cure as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Once the coating was no
longer sticky to the touch (approximately 2 h later), the specimens were positioned inside
a vacuum desiccator under an absolute pressure of less than 6650 Pa for 3 h. De-aerated
water, previously prepared, was then added to the chamber with the vacuum pump still
running until all specimens were completely covered. The vacuum process continued for
an additional hour. Following that, the samples were left to soak in water for 18 h. Later,
the specimens were carefully positioned inside the designated test cells, as illustrated in
Figure 4. The test cells are composed of two containers into which 3% NaCl and 0.3 N
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 9 of 30

NaOH solutions were added. The mortar specimens were then securely held in place
between the two containers with the aid of vulcanized rubber gaskets. Then, the leads were
connected to a Perma 2 TM voltage applicator (Figure 4a). Finally, the testing phase started
and continued for 6 h (Figure 4b). The air temperature surrounding the specimens was
maintained within the 20 ◦ C to 25 ◦ C range throughout the test.

Figure 4. (a) Test cell and Perma 2TM voltage applicator. (b) Chloride permeability running test.

2.3.3. Water Penetration Resistance

In order to estimate the porosity of the mortar, the water penetration resistance was
evaluated; it is an important property, particularly in areas with high rainfall, high hu-
midity, or exposure to seawater [10]. The test on hardened cement-based materials for
determining the penetration depth of water under pressure is regulated by the UNI EN
12390-8 standard [54]. First, three cubic specimens of 100 mm in side, matured for 28 days,
were put in a Tecnotest A1 315 test machine (Tecnotest, Modena, Italy) to apply water
at a pressure of 500 kPa for 72 h (Figure 5a). After that, each specimen was split in half,
perpendicular to the face to which water pressure was applied (Figure 5b). Finally, water
penetration marks were drawn immediately after splitting (Figure 5c). The test result is
the maximum penetration depth expressed to the nearest millimeter. Notwithstanding, the
standard lacks particular indications for interpreting the test results. In this regard, the
prescription of the German standard DIN 1045 points 6.5.7.2 and 6.5.7.5 were followed:
waterproof concrete presents a water penetration lower than 50 mm, while concrete with a
high resistance to chemical attack displays a water penetration lower than 30 mm [55].
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 10 of 30

Figure 5. Example procedure for water penetration testing. (a) Testing machine for assessing water
permeation resistance. (b) Sample splitting. (c) Determination of water penetration depth.

3. Results
3.1. Recycled Sand Characterization
3.1.1. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
The TGA was performed on samples of RS untreated and treated with the crystallizing
agent (AD), and the results are shown in Figure 6. The weight loss between 25 ◦ C and
100 ◦ C is due to the evaporation of water. This mass loss was more prominent in specimens
previously treated with the crystallizing agent (CON-Y and CON-Z), since probably during
the pretreatment step water was trapped in the porous structure of the RA. Subsequently,
from 100 ◦ C to approximately 600 ◦ C, a slow dehydration process of the hydrated phases
of the cement occurred. Around 600 ◦ C, a weak signal due to the decomposition of port-
landite (Ca(OH)2 ) was observed, transforming it into calcium oxide (CaO). Furthermore, a
significant drop in mass between 700 ◦ C and 870 ◦ C indicated the thermal decomposition
of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), which was present in the aggregate and resulted from the
chemical reaction between calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide from air. This process
led to the formation of calcium oxide and the release of CO2 .

Figure 6. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of CON series.

Materials 2025, 18, 4208 11 of 30

3.1.2. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) Observations

FESEM observations were conducted on the recycled sand used for the CON and
CON-Z samples to examine its morphological features, ascertain its capacity for optimal
bonding with the cement matrix, and analyze the AD effect (Figure 7). FESEM observations
were performed in the retained fractions at 0.16 and 1.00 mm.

Figure 7. CON particles—FESEM analysis. (a) reveals extensive porosity spreads across the particle’s
surface; (b) showcases the presence of finer particles intricately layered on the surface; (c) captures
the formation of distinct ettringite structures; (d) highlights the formation of AD crystals resulting
from the application of the crystallizing agent.

In general, the particles exhibit a mixture of sharper edged and angular fractions, as
expected for milled aggregates, which have the potential to facilitate enhanced adhesion
with the cement matrix. A small fraction of the sand is instead characterized by a rounded
shape similar to standardized sand grains. Furthermore, a very fine powder is observed
on the particle surfaces, that could have an impact on the mortar preparation process
(Figure 7b). In fact, this fine fraction could contribute to the higher water demand observed
in mixes incorporating recycled sand. Furthermore, Figure 7c depicts the presence of
ettringite. Similarly, in Figure 7d, the formation of AD crystals is readily visible.

3.1.3. X-Ray Diffraction and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRD and XRF)

XRD analysis of the recycled sand is depicted in Figure 8. The first three curves, (a),
(b), and (c), present the XRD pattern of RA sand without treatments, in order to have
an estimation of the homogeneity of this material. The XRD patterns were rather similar,
revealing the presence of quartz and calcite as major constituents. However, several minor
compounds are also present, in different amounts in the different samples, belonging to
different mineral families. Clinochlores (magnesium iron aluminosilicates), phyllosilicates
(aluminum and magnesium silicates), feldspars (alumino-silicates), dolomite (calcium
magnesium carbonate) were observed. The identification of some of these minority phases
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 12 of 30

is uncertain since the corresponding peaks are very low. Moreover, it must be stressed that
X-ray diffraction cannot identify amorphous or poorly crystalline phases. Finally, gypsum
was never found in the samples investigated. Most of these phases, i.e., clinochlores, come
from the aggregates fraction, while calcite could have different origins: from aggregates, as
a cement filler, and from the concrete carbonation process. Curves (d), (e), and (f) show
instead the samples after treatment with AD for 15, 45, and 90 days, respectively. No
significant modification of the XRD spectra can be observed, the slight variations observed
in all the tests are probably related to the non-perfect homogeneity of the sand samples.

Figure 8. XRD pattern of CON samples before and after treatment with AD. (a–c) untreated RS;
(d–f) RS samples after treatment with AD for 15, 45, and 90 days, respectively.

Table 6 shows the composition of the RA powder from XRF analysis. The high presence
of silica, more than 40%, is due to silicates and quartz. Calcium, magnesium, aluminum,
and iron are consistent with the typical cement and aggregate composition. The presence
of quartz and calcite is also confirmed by the XRD pattern (Figure 8).

Table 6. XRF pattern of RA samples (in mass percentage).

Component Mass%
LOI-Flux 12.000
Na2 O 1.380
MgO 4.750
Al2 O3 9.100
SiO2 42.800
P2 O5 0.157
SO3 3.420
Cl 0.079
K2 O 1.730
CaO 19.300
TiO2 0.392
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 13 of 30

Table 6. Cont.

Component Mass%
Cr2 O3 0.067
MnO 0.169
Fe2 O3 4.490
NiO 0.033
CuO 0.011
ZnO 0.017
As2 O3 0.009
Rb2 O 0.010
SrO 0.037
Y2 O3 0.002
ZrO2 0.035

3.2. Mechanical Behavior

3.2.1. CON Series
The three-point bending and compression test results for the CON series, i.e., the case
where RAs replace SS without any addition of AD, are depicted in Figure 9. As previously
reported, using RAs in mortars necessitated a higher water content during the mixing phase
than SS due to RA’s intrinsic porosity. To overcome this challenge, an SP agent was used for
all specimens where SS was replaced, allowing the same workability as the standard mortar
and easy casting of all the mixes. The SP acts as a lubricant, reducing internal friction
within the mortar matrix. This reduction in friction allows for better particle packing and
increases interparticle contact, resulting in enhanced load transfer and improved overall
strength [56]. However, mixes with 75% and 100% SS replacement rates required very high
SP dosages, as reported in Table 4.

Figure 9. Flexural (A) and compressive strength. (B) Average value at 7 and 28 days of CON series
(bars represent the standard deviation value of each series).

The three-point bending results (Figure 9A) present a similar strength than the control
mixture, while there is a marked increase in compressive strength (Figure 9B). The observed
enhancement in the compressive strength of the specimens made with RAs can be attributed
to its inherent characteristics: as a porous aggregate, the RA can absorb free water present
in the mixture. This water absorption process reduces the effective water-to-cement ratio
and leads to notable and promising improvements in the mechanical performance of the
mortars, even at high SS replacement rates. After 7 days, the compressive strength is
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 14 of 30

increased by at least 12.5% for all the samples, and 26.9% for the best one (CON 50), while
after 28 days, the increment is at least 11.5% for all the samples, and 14.6% for the CON 50
sample. A high RA fraction seems to slow down the development of compressive strength,
but after 28 days the strength is comparable for all the samples.

3.2.2. CON-X Series

In the second mortar series, CON-X, the crystallizing agent was incorporated at the
end of the mixing process. The mechanical testing results of this series are presented in
Figure 10, showcasing the notable impact of AD on the early-stage flexural strength capacity
(observed after 7 days). However, after 28 days, a significant decrease in this property is
observed compared to the 7-day specimens, bringing it back to a value similar to the CON
series. In fact, as the composition of the crystallizing agent is unknown, only hypothesis
can be proposed to explain the trend of the observed mechanical results. Usually, crys-
talline admixtures contain Portland cement, silica sand (reactive silica), and other reagents
(reactive components, like sodium silicate, for example) [57]. This chemical admixture
then reacts with Ca(OH)2 to produce insoluble crystals such as calcium silicate hydrates
(C–S–H). However, the influence of AD on the mechanical strength of the cementitious
matrix is rather clear: in the CON series (without the use of AD), the flexural strength
increases with the curing time, whatever the untreated recycled aggregates content, while
in the CON-X series, with the crystallizing agent added to the cementitious matrix, the
28-day flexural strength is lower than the 7-day one. As the portlandite content in the
cementitious matrix increases over time during the curing step, one can suppose that the
reaction of the crystallizing agent is not completed after 7 days and will proceed in the
hardened cementitious matrix, causing some possible microcracks. This interpretation is
supported by the observation of these microcracks by FESEM (Figure 11, yellow arrows).
Both after 7 and 28 days, the RA to SS substitution ratio seemed to have no significant effect
on flexural strength, as also observed in the case of the CON samples.
Regarding compressive strength, the presence of the AD agent did not cause the same
improvement at 7 days, as it did on the flexural strength. Instead, notable improvements
with respect to OPC-X were observed across all cases. The best case was CON-X 25, with
improvements of 23% and 33.9% at 7 and 28 days, respectively. However, no significant
improvement is observed with respect to the CON samples, on the contrary a small decrease
is generally observed with respect to the samples without AD at 7 days, while at 28 days
the strength is similar to the CON case, and higher in the case of CON-X 25.

Figure 10. Flexural (A) and compressive strength (B). Average value at 7 and 28 days of CON-X series
(bars represent the standard deviation value of each series).
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 15 of 30

Figure 11. AD crystal growth in pores in the standard mortar (OPCX) at 28 days (FESEM × 2k;
arrows indicate microcracks probably due to AD).

3.2.3. CON-Y Series

The Y series addresses the issues encountered with the mortars in the CON-X series,
wherein an alternative approach involving the direct utilization of AD in the aggregate was
employed. According to the producer, AD activation occurs upon contact with the cement
hydration compounds that are present in the recycled aggregate, prompting a decision
to subject the treated sand to a 15-day curing period to allow for the reaction to happen,
and fill in the RA pores, before the preparation of mortar. The flexural and compressive
strength results of the CON-Y samples are represented in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Flexural (A) and compressive strength (B). Average value at 7 and 28 days of CON-Y series
(bars represent the standard deviation value of each series).

Regarding flexural strength, it is evident that the OPC-Y and CON-Y cases exhibit a
similar pattern, wherein a significant increase in strength at 7 days is observed, while the
strength is reduced after 28 days. The same hypothesis proposed for CON-X series can
be proposed also in this case: the chemical reactions of the crystallizing agent were not
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 16 of 30

completed after 15 days and led to local microcracking. This effect, however, is smaller
than in the OPC-X and CON-X cases. At 28 days, the CON-Y samples had similar flexural
strength to CON-X, but smaller than in the CON series.
Regarding compression strength, the improvement of strength of the CON-Y samples
with respect to OPC-Y is still observed, but the strength of the samples where the RA
substituted for SS is smaller than in the CON case, both at 7 days and at 28 days.

3.2.4. CON-Z Series

Since the crystallization reactions of the AD agent could require a long time to happen,
a fourth set of samples, Z-series, was realized with a higher permanence time of AD agent
in the RA pores (45 days).
The results of mechanical testing of CON-Z series are presented in Figure 13. The
significant improvement in flexural strength at 28 days is particularly noteworthy, with
an enhancement from 33 to 53% with respect to the CON samples. The flexural strength
at 7 days is instead in line with the CON samples. The highest improvement in bending
performance compared to the standard mortar was observed in the CON-Z 100 sample.
This enhancement could be attributed to the long-term AD crystal growth inside the matrix
and aggregate’s porosity, enhancing the material resistance: the chemical reactions can be
considered as almost completed and no microcracking can be expected in the cementitious
matrix, leading to a 28-day flexural strength higher than the 7-day one. The FESEM analysis
corroborates this hypothesis, showing crystal growth inside the matrix and aggregate pores
in Figures 14 and 15, respectively (yellow arrows). These results suggest that a longer
pretreatment and a longer curing time was needed to observe the AD influence, even if
this mechanism did not match perfectly with the one observed for the CON-X and CON-Y
samples, where a short-term strength improvement was observed. Regarding compressive
performance, the results closely align with the previous series, where the mechanical
strength is smaller than in the case of the CON samples. It is worth noting that also in this
case all the mortars containing RAs exhibited superior strength compared to the reference.
Regarding compressive strength, it can be observed that results at 7 and 28 days are very
similar, suggesting an acceleration of strength development. Again, this result is not very
consistent with the results on flexural strength.

Figure 13. Flexural (A) and compressive strength (B). Average value at 7 and 28 days of CON-Z series
(bars represent the standard deviation value of each series).
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 17 of 30

Figure 14. AD crystal growth inside the matrix’s pores (FESEM ×3.5k—OPCZ at 28 days; arrows
indicate crystals grown in pores).

Figure 15. AD crystal growth inside the aggregate’s pores (FESEM ×30k; arrows indicate crystals
grown in pores).

3.3. Chloride Permeability Test

The specimens for the chloride permeability test were chosen on the basis of the
mechanical results presented in the previous section. Also, the amount of waste material
used, the amount of superplasticizer utilized, and the evaluation of the crystallizing agent’s
influence were kept into account. Given these considerations, the samples substituted at
50% with RA were chosen since they presented good mechanical properties and required
an acceptable amount of SP. Also, their mechanical properties were not uncommon within
their sets. Therefore, the study’s samples included OPC, OPC-X, OPC-Z, CON 50, CON-X
50, and CON-Z 50. The Y-series was excluded in favor of the Z-series.
The results obtained from the ASTM C1202-19 test are shown in Figure 16. The OPC
samples exhibited a “high” rapid chloride permeability index (RCPI), indicating elevated
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 18 of 30

electrical conductivity and chloride ion permeability. Very interestingly, CON 50 specimens,
including 50% RA, showed a lower RCPI, i.e., a reduced electrical conductivity and chloride
ion permeability compared to the standard mortar. This result is probably due to the
presence of recycled aggregates, which reduce the water-to-cement ratio, allowing the
formation of a more compact cement matrix and thus a less porous material.

Chloride permeation
6000
5431.3 5470.8
5209.0
5000 4719.6 High level
4471.5

4000
3377.9
Medium
Qs

3000
level

2000

1000 Low level

0
OPC CON 50 OPC-X CON-X 50 OPC-Z CON-Z 50

Figure 16. Rapid chloride permeability index results.

Conversely, all the samples treated with AD (both X and Z series) displayed an RCPI
higher than OPC, indicating increased electrical conductivity and chloride ion permeability.
This would suggest that the AD treatment did not significantly improve the chloride ion
permeability. However, Liang and Ji [58] proposed that when the specimens are submerged
in water before the test, any surplus free alkaline components persist in dissolving. Since
AD contains alkaline elements (mainly sodium), it is probable that the addition of AD
brings to the presence of additional ions in the system that increase the electrical conduc-
tivity of the solution and thus give a false result for the RCPI. In practice, it is probably
incorrect to compare OPC with the OPC-X or OPC-Z samples. Furthermore, the observed
results contrast the findings reported by Yang et al. [59], who assert that incorporating a
crystallizing agent improves chloride resistance performance. However, the authors did
not adhere to the ASTM standard followed in this work.
In any case, an observation can be conducted regarding the comparison between
samples with and without recycled aggregates; in all the cases, samples containing RAs
present a lower RCPI than samples with only SS, suggesting a beneficial effect of the
introduction of recycled aggregates, due to abovementioned effect of the reduction in the
effective water-to-cement ratio.

3.4. Water Penetration Resistance

The depths of water penetration under pressure results obtained following the UNI
EN 12390-8 standard are depicted in Figure 17. The test was again performed on OPC,
OPC-X, OPC-Z, CON 50, CON-X 50, and CON-Z 50 samples. A lower depth of water
penetration generally indicates improved water resistance and reduced permeability of the
mortar. The OPC and CON 50 samples exhibited the lowest penetration depths of 6 and
5 mm, respectively. The X-series samples showed penetration depths of 6 and 8 mm for
OPC-X and CON-X 50 specimens, respectively. The OPC-Z and CON-Z 50 samples showed
the highest penetration depths of 13 mm and 9 mm, respectively.
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 19 of 30

Figure 17. Water penetration resistance results.

It is interesting to compare the mechanical results of OPC, OPC-X, and OPC-Z with
the water penetration results, since the reduction in compressive strength corresponds to
an increased water penetration, as expected. The samples OPC and OPC-X are both made
with standard sand, but the latter containing the crystallizing agent added to the cement,
showed the same value of water penetration depth. In this case, the cementitious matrix
is probably already compact, and the crystallizing agent does not make any contribution.
In the case of the OPC-Z samples, while standard sand was still used, the AD content
was higher and could explain the difference in the water penetration depth with respect
to the two previous samples, considering that the crystallizing agent should react with
portlandite which is not present in standard sand. This could lead to a weaker interface
with the cementitious paste. However, in the case of OPC-X, cracks were observed at
28 days causing a reduction in flexural strength, while in the case of OPC-Z, flexural
strength increased. Nevertheless, FESEM images show that the crystallizing agent initiates
a pore-filling process (Figures 18 and 19).
In the case of the CON, CON-X, and CON-Z samples, one can again consider mechan-
ical strength, which is similar for CON 50 and CON-X 50 and lower for the CON-Z 50
samples. The CON-X 50 and CON-Z 50 samples showed close water penetration depths,
only slightly higher than the OPC and OPC-X samples. The possible cracks in CON-X 50
probably have a limited extension and make only a slight contribution to water penetration.
More surprising is the water penetration depth of the sample CON 50, which showed the
lowest value while containing the same content of recycled aggregates and of superplas-
ticizer as the sample CON-X 50. This could be since the crystallizing agent reacts with
portlandite; in systems with a high recycled fines content, the availability/redistribution of
Ca(OH)2 in the interfacial transition zone may be unfavorable, leading to a weaker or more
porous transition zone [60].
This partially justifies the trend of the values of water penetration, even if also in this
case the AD agent seems to have a negative effect.
Since the UNI EN 12390-8 standard does not provide specific guidelines for interpret-
ing the test results, the German standard DIN 1045 was followed, specifically in points
6.5.7.2 and 6.5.7.5. According to the German standard, a water penetration depth of less
than 50 mm indicates a material with waterproof properties, suggesting excellent water
resistance. Furthermore, a water penetration depth of less than 30 mm indicates a high
resistance to chemical attacks, implying enhanced durability in aggressive environments.
All the tested samples presented water penetration values much lower than 30 mm.
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 20 of 30

Figure 18. OPC sample without any treatment (FESEM ×80).

Figure 19. Pore sealing detail (FESEM ×1k—OPCZ at 28 days).

Table 7 compares the results obtained in this work with those from the literature
published in the last 18 months. Only the methods describing the strengthening of the
adhered mortar on recycled aggregates were considered, for the sake of comparison with
the method proposed in this paper. Thus, all the works including a mechanical/thermal
grinding step aimed at removing the old cement paste were voluntarily omitted. Finally,
articles dealing with fine, coarse, or both kinds of aggregates were reported, because the
proposed solution can be applied to all aggregates, independently of their size. Even when
taking into consideration some limitations, as mentioned above, a high number of papers
were found, highlighting the interest of this topic in the scientific literature.

Table 7. Comparison of the proposed solution with the literature results.

Aggregates’ Treatment Water Absorption or Porosity Mechanical Strength Ref.

6.05% increase in concrete’s
Enzyme-induced carbonate
7.01% water absorption reduction compressive strength with respect to
precipitation (EICP) [61]
with respect to untreated RA untreated RAs (50.85 MPa, w:c = 0.39,
modified RAs
100% replacement rate)
Nano-silica (NS) solution 5.13% water absorption for 34.9% increase in concrete’s
(2 wt%) immersion + hydrophobic NS treated and compressive strength with respect to
[62]
carbonation treatment carbonated RAs (1.42% for untreated RAs (40.29 MPa, w:c = 0.46,
modified RCAs natural aggregates) 50% replacement rate)
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 21 of 30

Table 7. Cont.

Aggregates’ Treatment Water Absorption or Porosity Mechanical Strength Ref.

After 50 freeze–thaw cycles, the mass
Soaked 3% bacterial liquid 32% increase in concrete’s
loss of concrete made with treated
+ 0.1 mol/L calcium acetate compressive strength with respect to
aggregates was 0.49%, while that of [63]
and 20% CO2 carbonation untreated RAs (31.48 MPa, w:c = 0.6,
concrete made with untreated
modified RAs 100% replacement rate)
aggregates was 4.99%
Same compressive strength
40% reduction in water absorption resistance as concrete made with NA.
Bacillus cereus modified
for treated coarse aggregates with 11% higher split tensile strength [33]
coarse aggregates
respect to untreated ones (39.59 MPa, w:c = 0.44,
40% replacement rate)
Pozzolan (silica fume, fly
Up to 55.2% increase in compressive
ash, nano-silica) slurry 3.9–4.2% water absorption for
strength for silica fume treated
impregnation or treaded aggregates against 5.3% for [64]
mortar (w:binder = 0.5 and
carbonation of untreated ones
RCA:binder = 2.5)
coarse aggregates
Microbial-induced Flexural strength of mortar made
carbonate precipitation 50.47% reduction in water absorption with modified aggregates increased
[65]
(MICP)-modified after 4 cycles of modification by 23.3% compared to untreated one
fine aggregates (w:c = 0.5)
Compressive strength of
Sulfate penetration depth reduced by
NS-modified RAs after 28 days of
NS soaking + carbonation over 30% for modified RAs [66]
sulfate attack increased by 15% with
compared to untreated ones
respect to unmodified RA
Compressive strength of concrete
Calcium carbonate
32% water absorption reduction for decreased by 2.2%, 3.5%, 8.4%, and
precipitation from urea and
soaked RAs kept at 80 ◦ C for 5 days 10.2% for replacement ratios of 30%, [67]
calcium acetate
with respect to untreated RA 50%, 70%, and 100%, respectively,
upon heating
compared to control made with NAs
17.7% increase in compressive
Up to 17.9% reduction in water
MICP-modified strength compared to untreated
absorption for treated aggregates [68]
coarse aggregates aggregates (w:c = 0.5, 100% coarse
with respect to untreated ones
aggregates replacement)
Up to 31.43% reduction in water
Carbonation + coating with absorption for aggregates first
58.6% increase in concrete’s
an alkali-activated fly carbonated under 20% CO2 and [69]
compressive strength (45.68 MPa)
ash–slag slurry 70 RH%, then impregnated with a
saturated lime solution
10.5% increase in compressive
strength for concrete made with
5.4–7.1% water absorption for treated
treated RAs compared to the one
RAs with respect to 6.8–8.4% for
made with untreated RA; only ≈80%
Carbonation of coarse RA untreated RA. Coarser RA [70]
of compressive strength with respect
(10–20 mm) absorbed less water than
to concrete made with NAs
smaller RA (5–10 mm).
(w:c = 0.38 for NA, w:c = 0.5 for
treated RA, 100% replacement)
Increase in average flexural fatigue
life by 28.5, 36.9, and 44.2 times at the
RA pre-soaked in 5%
65.2% water absorption reduction stress levels of 0.6, 0.7, and 0.8 after [71]
silane emulsion
140 freeze–thaw cycles (w:c = 0.5,
100% replacement)
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 22 of 30

Table 7. Cont.

Aggregates’ Treatment Water Absorption or Porosity Mechanical Strength Ref.

When the ratio of CaP to RA was
0.001 g/g, compressive strength
increased by 31.52% with pre-spray
When CaP to RA was 0.003 g/g, the
Pre-impregnation or treatment (100% replacement).
water absorption of pre-sprayed and
pre-spraying of RAs with In samples with 50% RA and 50%
pre-impregnated treated RAs was [72]
calcium phosphate NA, when the unit weight ratio of
18.02% and 21.61% lower than that of
(CaP) solutions CaP to RA was 0.003 g/g, the
untreated RA, respectively.
compressive strength increased by
16.52% with pre-impregnation
(w:c = 0.35 in all tests).
Accelerated carbonation
(101 kPa, 99.99%, 24 h) and 26.4% reduction in water absorption n.e. [73]
NS solution (2%) immersion
14.3% and 22.1% decrease in
23.3% water absorption reduction for
compressive strength and elastic
Accelerated carbonation treated aggregates (4.86%) compared
modulus, respectively, with respect [74]
(150 kPa, 99.9%, 72 h) to non-treated ones (6.34%)
to NAs (w:c = 0.53, 100%
(NA = 0.8%)
replacement of coarse aggregates)
Immersion in a slurry with Saturated surface–dry water
54.5% increase in compressive
15% fly ash, 3% gypsum, absorption rate decreased from 15.0%
strength (w:c = 0.4, 100% [75]
and 22% polyacrylate to 9.5% for treated aggregates with
replacement of coarse aggregates)
emulsion for 180 s respect to untreated ones
18.39% increase in compressive
strength compared to non-treated
2.81% porosity for treated aggregates aggregates: 55.97 and
Vacuum impregnation
compared to 4.2% for untreated 47.3 MPa, respectively [76]
with a 4% NS slurry
aggregates (estimated by X-CT) (w:c = 0.45, 100% replacement of
coarse aggregates; 57.9 MPa for the
concrete made with NA)
41.68 MPa and 34.56 MPa, 52.35 MPa
36.96% porosity reduction with a and 44.16 MPa, and 63.22 MPa and
Impregnation with a 3% decrease of 14.35% of average pore 54.25 MPa for treated and untreated
[77]
NS solution size for treated aggregates with aggregates (100% replacement of
respect to untreated ones coarse aggregates) for w:c = 0.51,
0.41, and 0.36, respectively
5.4% water absorption for 24 h
Soaking in cement fly ash
soaked aggregates in a 70%
slurries (30% and n.e. [78]
concentrated solution compared to
70% concentration)
8.7% for untreated aggregates
The water absorption of carbonated
aggregates was reduced by 19.16%,
Accelerated carbonation
21.8%, and 16.3%, for the fractions n.e. [79]
(20%) of coarse aggregates
5–10 mm, 10–20 mm and
20–25 mm, respectively
Sodium alginate microbial
32.85% decrease in water absorption
induced calcium carbonate n.e. [80]
after CaCO3 precipitation
precipitation on RA
Accelerated carbonation Up to 20% reduction in water
(20%) of coarse aggregates absorption for carbonated RAs from
from different concrete C50-strength concrete (5–10, 10–20, n.e. [81]
strength classes (C30, C40, and 20–25 mm) compared to
and C50) non-treated aggregates
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 23 of 30

Table 7. Cont.

Aggregates’ Treatment Water Absorption or Porosity Mechanical Strength Ref.

RCAs incorporating 56.4 MPa, 42.7 MPa and 32.9 MPa for
air-entraining agents 0, 50 and 100% coarse aggregates
n.e. [82]
(AEAs) and nano-silica replacement with 0.05% of AEA
solution (30 wt%) (w:c = 0.4)
RA first immersed in a
slurry with a
water-to-binder ratio of 0.8,
When the replacement rate of RAs is
in which 20% of the OPC Compared with untreated aggregates,
50% and 100%, the compressive
(ordinary Portland cement) the total pore volume of C30 concrete
strengths of recycled concrete with
was replaced by FA (fly with RAs with WG and SA decreased
the strength grade of C30 are 36.0 [83]
ash) and SF (silica fume). by 30.3% and 32.9%, while the
and 29.6 MPa, 15.1% and 30.2%
Next, the coated RAs were average pore diameter decreased by
lower than that of the ordinary
immersed in sodium 12.5% and 24.7%, respectively
concrete, respectively.
silicate (waterglass, WG)
and silicon-based
additive solutions
Compressive strength increased by
8.3%, 18.1%, and 30.8% at 7 days, and
Compared with untreated 9.5%, 14.4% and 23.5% at 90 days, for
Pre-soaked or pre-sprayed aggregates, the total porosity of RAs RAs pre-soaked in a solution with
RAs in a graphene oxide pre-soaked in a solution with 0.01, 0.03, and 0.05 wt% of GO,
(GO) solution (0, 0.01, 0.03, 0.05 wt% of GO decreased by 27.8%. respectively, compared to untreated [84]
and 0.05 wt% of GO with The detrimental pores with an aggregates. With 5 wt% addition of
respect to cement) equivalent diameter larger than GO, the compressive strength was
50 nm was reduced by 35.5%. very close to that of concrete made
with NAs (w–binder = 0.55, 100%
coarse aggregates replacement).
Increase in the compressive strength
up to 8% in function of the diatoms’
Hydrophobicity
Bio-deposition of biogenic growth conditions (indoor or
close to that observed in nano-silica [85]
silica by means of diatoms outdoor) compared to non-treated
(50 nm) coatings (50 wt%)
aggregates (w:c = 0.59, 50% coarse
aggregates replacement)
The compressive strengths of
concrete made with RAs treated with
Compared to untreated RA, the
NS solutions at different
water absorption of RAs treated with
concentrations (2%, 5%, 10%, and
Immersion in 2, 5, 10 and 2%, 5%, 10%, and 30% NS solution
30%) were, respectively, 14.5%, 17.2%,
30 wt% NS solutions for decreased by 18.2%, 21.1%, 22.6%,
25.9%, and 28.8% higher compared to [86]
24 h of RA (5–10 and and 27.6%, respectively; 2%
the concrete manufactured with
10–20 mm) concentration of NS solution is
untreated RA. Further improvement
sufficient to consume portlandite
of 5.4%, 6.4%, 5.1%, and 6.9%,
of RA
respectively, if excess NS not
removed from the surface
Soaking in 3% bacterial
4.72% water absorption for the 3%
solution and 0.1 mol/L
concentrated bacterial solution,
calcium acetate solution n.e. [87]
compared to 9% for
followed by carbonation
untreated aggregates
with 20% CO2 (101 kPa)
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 24 of 30

Table 7. Cont.

Aggregates’ Treatment Water Absorption or Porosity Mechanical Strength Ref.

MICP based on 48 MPa compressive strength for the
hydrolyzing urea concrete made with treated
10% decrease in water absorption for
(best results when the ratio aggregates (+19.5% with respect to
treated aggregates with respect to [88]
of bacterial solution concrete made with untreated
untreated ones
concentration to urea aggregates) (w:c = 0.49, 100% coarse
concentration = 5) aggregates replacement)
20% increase in compressive strength
RA soaking in slurries
Increase in water absorption with for the concrete with the aggregates
based on OPC and
increase in DE in the slurry (up to soaked in the slurry with 5% DE,
diatomaceous earth (DE) [89]
20%): from 2.32% for untreated with respect to non-treated
((OPC + DE):water = 1:2
aggregates to 5.15% for 20%DE slurry aggregates (w:c = 0.5, 100% coarse
by weight)
aggregates replacement)
The average compressive strength of
concrete made with carbonated RAs
16.3–21.8% lower water absorption
was 52.47 MPa, compared to
for carbonated aggregates in function
Carbonation of coarse RA 54.37 MPa for the concrete
of their size (5–10, 10–20, and
(20% CO2 ) from manufactured with natural [90]
20–25 mm). About +160% water
C40-strength concrete aggregates and 47.43 MPa for
absorption with respect to natural
samples with non-treated RAs
aggregates with the same size
(w:c = 0.4, 100% coarse
aggregates replacement)
Compressive strength of concrete
Immersion of coarse RA in
made with impregnated RAs
an 8% solution of sodium 8.12% water absorption for RA,
increased from 33.75 to 38.09 MPa [91]
silicate and a 12% solution compared to 3.83% for treated RA
(+12.86%) with respect to that made
of silane
of pristine RAs (w:c = 0.5)
Compared to cast samples, the loss
ranges in compressive strength of
About 22% reduction in water printed specimens were 15.37–19.41%
Presoaking for 24 h in a
absorption for treated RA. Limited in the X direction,
1.5 wt% NS solution
variations in function of the studied 21.61–25.62% in the Y direction, and [92]
combined with carbonation
fractions (4.75–7, 7.5–9, and 28.65–33.04% in the Z direction, in
(99%, 300 kPa) of coarse RA
9.5–12 mm) function of the replacement rates (30,
70, and 100%) (w:c = 0.41–0.61,
higher for higher replacement rates)
Mortars prepared with RFAs
carbonated at 0.5 M-45 ◦ C for 10 min
acquired comparable strength to the
reference mortar prepared with RFAs
Carbonation (20% CO2 ) of 9.1% for fine RAs carbonated at carbonated at 25 ◦ C for 6 h in absence
RFA in 0.5 M and 1.0 M 0.5 M-45 ◦ C, with respect to 10.1% of NaOH. The highest compressive [93]
NaOH solutions for pristine RA strength was 48.8 MPa,
corresponding to an increase of 17.0%
with respect to the mortar made with
natural sand (binder–water = 0.5,
100% replacement of RFAs)
46.9 MPa compressive strength for
Immersion of coarse RA in 24.82% water absorption reduction
concrete made with 7 days immersed
a commercial crystallizing after 1 day of immersion, 58.49%
RA, compared to 47.7 MPa for [47]
agent solution for 1 day or water absorption reduction after
concrete made with NAs (w:c = 0.4,
7 days 7 days of immersion
100% coarse aggregates replacement)
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 25 of 30

Table 7. Cont.

Aggregates’ Treatment Water Absorption or Porosity Mechanical Strength Ref.

Immersion of coarse RA The compressive strength of the
(5–10 and 10–25 mm) in a samples decreased with the
Whatever the WGP content, the CA
commercial crystalline increasing WGP content, whatever
controls the water absorption [48]
admixture (CA) solution the CA content (1 or 2%)
(≈0.25–0.5% after 11 days)
with waste glass (w–binder = 0.53, 100% coarse
powder (WGP) aggregates replacement)
About 65 MPa compressive strength
Water penetration under pressure =
for 100% replacement of fine
Immersion of RFAs in a 6 mm for mortar made with SS, while
aggregates with treated RFAs This
commercial crystallizing mortar made with treated RFAs
(CON-Y, cured 15 days), compared to work
agent solution (cured for 15 days) showed a
about 55 MPa for mortars made with
penetration of 9 mm
standard sand
n.e.: not evaluated; X-CT: X-ray computed tomography. All mechanical properties reported in the table were
determined after 28 days of curing unless specified.

4. Conclusions
In recent decades, effective management of construction and demolition waste (CDW)
has emerged as a significant challenge for the construction industry, which is increasingly
recognizing the imperative to safeguard the natural environment and optimize the utiliza-
tion of natural resources. Furthermore, with the adoption of new building materials, there
is a pressing need for these materials to match or exceed the performance standards of
existing ones, both structurally and in terms of sustainability.
This study advances the understanding of recycled aggregates (RAs) derived from
waste concrete and explores their potential application in mortar formulations, focusing
on evaluating their mechanical, physical, and durability properties. Untreated and treated
sand, modified with a crystallizing agent to enhance its performance, were investigated.
Physical characterization of RAs through techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), and Field Emission Scanning
Electron Microscopy (FESEM) indicated similarities between untreated and treated recycled
sand, both predominantly composed of quartz and calcite. Additionally, the optimal dosage
of a superplasticizer was examined.
Mechanical testing revealed that substituting standard sand with fine recycled ag-
gregates while maintaining consistent workability significantly impacted compressive
strength. In fact, in most of the cases the strength of samples containing RAs was higher
than samples with only SS. Particularly interesting the 25% and 50% substitutions with
RA, where the strength improved up to 15% with respect to a standard mortar, and the
superplasticizer dosage did not exceed standard values. Mortars utilizing recycled sand
treated with crystallizing agent AD imposed higher superplasticizer dosages to maintain
equivalent workability to standard mortar, reducing their interest in application. Further-
more, the addition of a crystallizing agent failed to improve strength over the samples
where this agent was not employed. However, some interesting effects were observed both
in flexural strength and in compressive strength when the crystallizing agent was added.
First, in the series X and Y (AD added during the preparation of the mortar paste, or RAs
saturated with AD agent for 15 days prior to mortar paste preparation, respectively) the
7-day flexural strength improved significantly, while in series Z (RA saturated with AD
agent for 45 days prior to mortar paste preparation) the flexural strength increased at 28
days. Second, compressive strength in series Z seems to develop faster, even if the final
strength is smaller than in the case of mortar without AD agent.
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 26 of 30

Finally, the mortar durability was not positively affected by the addition of AD agent,
as evidenced by inferior performance in chloride permeability and water penetration
resistance tests.
Overall, the study presents promising findings, demonstrating the potential to achieve
comparable or enhanced mechanical properties to standard mortar through substantial
sand replacement with recycled concrete aggregates modified by a simple process involving
commercial products. It underscores the feasibility of integrating sustainable practices
into the construction sector, aligning with the principles of a circular economy. Finally,
this research contributes to advancing clean production by advocating for the efficient
utilization of natural resources. Further work will explore the modification of coarse
aggregates and their incorporation in concrete in combination with modified RFAs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, all authors; methodology, all authors; validation, all
authors; formal analysis, all authors; investigation, D.S.-R. and D.F.; data curation, D.S.-R., D.F. and
L.L.; writing—original draft preparation, D.S.-R., D.F. and L.L.; writing—review and editing, all
authors; visualization, D.S.-R.; supervision, L.L., D.F., G.A.F., M.P., J.-M.T. and L.R. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in this study are included in the
article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude to F.G. S.r.l., Master Builders
Solutions, and Supershield S.r.l. for their support in making this research possible.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

AD Admixplus
CA Crystalline admixture
CDW Construction and demolition waste
DE Diatomaceous earth
FA Fly ash
ITZ Interfacial transition zone
LE Linear economy
MICP Microbial induced carbonate precipitation
NA Natural aggregate
NS Nano-silica
OPC Ordinary Portland cement
RA Recycled aggregate
RCA Recycled concrete aggregate
RCPI Rapid chloride permeability index
RFA Recycled fine aggregate
RS Recycled sand
SF Silica fume
SP Superplasticizer
SS Standard sand
TBP Three-point bending
W:c Water to cement ratio
WG Waterglass
WGP Waste glass powder
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 27 of 30

References
1. Lieder, M.; Rashid, A. Towards circular economy implementation: A comprehensive review in context of manufacturing industry.
J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 115, 36–51. [CrossRef]
2. Riffat, S.; Powell, R.; Aydin, D. Future cities and Environmental Sustainability. Future Cities Environ. 2016, 2, 1. [CrossRef]
3. European Commission. End-of-Waste Criteria for Iron and Steel Scrap: Technical Proposals; Publications Office of the European Union:
Luxembourg, 2010.
4. Ghisellini, P.; Ji, X.; Liu, G.; Ulgiati, S. Evaluating the transition towards cleaner production in the construction and demolition
sector of China: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 195, 418–434. [CrossRef]
5. Duan, H.; Miller, T.R.; Liu, G.; Tam, V.W.Y. Construction debris becomes growing concern of growing cities. Waste Manag. 2019,
83, 1–5. [CrossRef]
6. Oluleye, B.I.; Chan, D.W.M.; Saka, A.B.; Olawumi, T.O. Circular economy research on building construction and demolition
waste: A review of current trends and future research directions. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 357, 131927. [CrossRef]
7. Geissdoerfer, M.; Savaget, P.; Bocken, N.M.P.; Hultink, E.J. The Circular Economy—A new sustainability paradigm. J. Clean. Prod.
2017, 143, 757–768. [CrossRef]
8. Stahel, W.R. The circular economy. Nature 2016, 531, 435–438. [CrossRef]
9. Ye, B.; Yuan, H. An Overview of C&D Waste Management Regulations in Central China. In Proceedings of the ICCREM 2014,
Kunming, China, 27–28 September 2014; American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, VA, USA, 2014; pp. 45–52. [CrossRef]
10. Duan, H.; Wang, J.; Huang, Q. Encouraging the environmentally sound management of C&D waste in China: An integrative
review and research agenda. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 43, 611–620. [CrossRef]
11. World Economic Forum, Shaping the Future of Construction. A Breakthrough in Mindset and Technology. 2016. Available online:
https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Shaping_the_Future_of_Construction_full_report__.pdf (accessed on 13 March 2022).
12. Jin, R.; Yuan, H.; Chen, Q. Science mapping approach to assisting the review of construction and demolition waste management
research published between 2009 and 2018. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 140, 175–188. [CrossRef]
13. Nasir, M.H.A.; Genovese, A.; Acquaye, A.A.; Koh, S.C.L.; Yamoah, F. Comparing linear and circular supply chains: A case study
from the construction industry. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2017, 183, 443–457. [CrossRef]
14. European Parliament. Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste and
Repealing Certain Directives. Off. J. Eur. Union 2008. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/
?uri=CELEX:32008L0098 (accessed on 6 September 2025).
15. Westerholm, M.; Lagerblad, B.; Silfwerbrand, J.; Forssberg, E. Influence of fine aggregate characteristics on the rheological
properties of mortars. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2008, 30, 274–282. [CrossRef]
16. Restuccia, L. Fracture properties of green mortars with recycled sand. Frat. Integrità Strutt. 2019, 13, 676–689. [CrossRef]
17. Lahuerta Vargas, J.; Monterde Comba, G.J. Estudio teórico y experimental sobre los morteros para muros resistentes de fábrica de
ladrillo para la actualización de la Norma Básica MV 201-1972. Mater. Constr. 1984, 34, 3–41. [CrossRef]
18. Miranda, L.F.R.; Selmo, S.M.S. CDW recycled aggregate renderings: Part I—Analysis of the effect of materials finer than 75 µm on
mortar properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2006, 20, 615–624. [CrossRef]
19. Stefanidou, M.; Anastasiou, E.; Georgiadis Filikas, K. Recycled sand in lime-based mortars. Waste Manag. 2014, 34, 2595–2602.
[CrossRef]
20. Braga, M.; de Brito, J.; Veiga, R. Incorporation of fine concrete aggregates in mortars. Constr. Build. Mater. 2012, 36, 960–968.
[CrossRef]
21. Neno, C.; de Brito, J.; Veiga, R. Using fine recycled concrete aggregate for mortar production. Mater. Res. 2013, 17, 168–177.
[CrossRef]
22. Ledesma, E.F.; Jiménez, J.R.; Ayuso, J.; Fernández, J.M.; de Brito, J. Maximum feasible use of recycled sand from construction and
demolition waste for eco-mortar production—Part-I: Ceramic masonry waste. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 87, 692–706. [CrossRef]
23. Restuccia, L.; Spoto, C.; Ferro, G.A.; Tulliani, J.-M. Recycled Mortars with C&D Waste. Proc. Struct. Integrity 2016, 2, 2896–2904.
[CrossRef]
24. Chen, H.J.; Yen, T.; Chen, K.H. Use of building rubbles as recycled aggregates. Cem. Concr. Res. 2003, 33, 125–132. [CrossRef]
25. Cabral, A.E.B.; Schalch, V.; Molin, D.C.C.D.; Ribeiro, J.L.D. Mechanical properties modeling of recycled aggregate concrete. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2010, 24, 421–430. [CrossRef]
26. Ollivier, J.P.; Maso, J.C.; Bourdette, B. Interfacial transition zone in concrete. Adv. Cem. Based Mater. 1995, 2, 30–38. [CrossRef]
27. Prokopski, G.; Halbiniak, J. Interfacial transition zone in cementitious materials. Cem. Concr. Res. 2000, 30, 579–583. [CrossRef]
28. Collepardi, M. A state-of-the-art review on delayed ettringite attack on concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2003, 25, 401–407. [CrossRef]
29. He, R.; Zheng, S.; Gan, V.J.L.; Wang, Z.; Fang, J.; Shao, Y. Damage mechanism and interfacial transition zone characteristics of
concrete under sulfate erosion and Dry-Wet cycles. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 255, 119340. [CrossRef]
30. Zhao, G.; Li, J.; Shi, M.; Fan, H.; Cui, J.; Xie, F. Degradation mechanisms of cast-in-situ concrete subjected to internal-external
combined sulfate attack. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 248, 118683. [CrossRef]
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 28 of 30

31. Shi, C.; Li, Y.; Zhang, J.; Li, W.; Chong, L.; Xie, Z. Performance enhancement of recycled concrete aggregate—A review. J. Clean.
Prod. 2016, 112, 466–472. [CrossRef]
32. Castellote, M.; Fernandez, L.; Andrade, C.; Alonso, C. Chemical changes and phase analysis of OPC pastes carbonated at different
CO2 concentrations. Mater. Struct. 2009, 42, 515–525. [CrossRef]
33. Shi, C.; Wu, Z.; Cao, Z.; Ling, T.C.; Zheng, J. Performance of mortar prepared with recycled concrete aggregate enhanced by CO2
and pozzolan slurry. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2018, 86, 130–138. [CrossRef]
34. Wang, L.; Wang, J.; Xu, Y.; Cui, L.; Qian, X.; Chen, P.; Fang, Y. Consolidating recycled concrete aggregates using phosphate
solution. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 200, 703–712. [CrossRef]
35. Liang, T.; Ahmed, W.; Duan, Z.; Qu, Z.; Zhang, B.; Jiao, D. A critical review on the applications of modified recycled coarse
aggregate in conventional concrete and high-performance concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2025, 106, 112601. [CrossRef]
36. Li, Z.; Bian, Y.; Zhao, J.; Wang, Y.; Qiu, X.; Liu, Q. Sustainable building materials-recycled aggregate and concrete: A systematic
review of properties, modification techniques, and environmental impacts. Environ. Sci. Poll. Res. 2024, 31, 20814–20852.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Wu, L.; Sun, Z.; Cao, Y. Modification of recycled aggregate and conservation and application of recycled aggregate concrete: A
review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 431, 136567. [CrossRef]
38. Wang, Y.; Liao, J.; Zhang, B. A Review of Chloride Penetration of Recycled Concrete with Enhancement Treatment and Service
Life Prediction. Materials. 2024, 17, 1349. [CrossRef]
39. Nikmehr, B.; Kafle, B.; Al-Ameri, R. A review of the advanced treatment techniques for enriching the recycled concrete aggregates
for recycled-based concrete: Economic. environmental and technical analysis. Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 2024, 3, 560–583.
[CrossRef]
40. Han, S.; Zhao, S.; Lu, D.; Wang, D. Performance Improvement of Recycled Concrete Aggregates and Their Potential Applications
in Infrastructure: A Review. Buildings 2023, 13, 1411. [CrossRef]
41. Su, Y.; Yao, Y.; Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Li, L.; Zhang, J. Modification of Recycled Concrete Aggregate and Its Use in Concrete: An
Overview of Research Progress. Materials 2023, 16, 7144. [CrossRef]
42. Tam, V.W.Y.; Wattage, H.; Le, K.N.; Buteraa, A.; Soomro, M. Methods to improve microstructural properties of recycled concrete
aggregate: A critical review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 270, 121490. [CrossRef]
43. Al-Kheetan, M.J.; Rahman, M.M.; Chamberlain, D.A. A novel approach of introducing crystalline protection material and curing
agent in fresh concrete for enhancing hydrophobicity. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 160, 644–652. [CrossRef]
44. Teng, L.-W.; Huang, R.; Chen, J.; Cheng, A.; Hsu, H.-M. A Study of Crystalline Mechanism of Penetration Sealer Materials.
Materials 2014, 7, 399–412. [CrossRef]
45. Al-Kheetan, M.J.; Rahman, M.M.; Chamberlain, D.A. Optimum Mix Design for Internally Integrated Concrete with Crystallizing
Protective Material. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2019, 31, 4019101. [CrossRef]
46. Al-Kheetan, M.J.; Rahman, M.M.; Chamberlain, D.A. Development of hydrophobic concrete by adding dual-crystalline admixture
at mixing stage. Struct. Concr. 2018, 19, 1504–1511. [CrossRef]
47. Al-Kheetan, M.J.; Rahman, M.M.; Chamberlain, D.A. Influence of early water exposure on modified cementitious coating. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2017, 141, 64–71. [CrossRef]
48. Reiterman, P.; Pazderka, J. Crystalline Coating and Its Influence on the Water Transport in Concrete. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2016, 1–8.
[CrossRef]
49. Wang, X.; Yang, X.; Ren, J.; Han, N.; Xing, F. A novel treatment method for recycled aggregate and the mechanical properties of
recycled aggregate concrete. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2021, 10, 1389–1401. [CrossRef]
50. Wang, Y.; Fan, X.; Wu, R.; Lin, H.; Feng, W. Experimental study on long-term impermeability of recycled aggregate concrete
mixed with crystalline admixture and waste glass powder. J. Clean. Prod. 2024, 458, 142551. [CrossRef]
51. EN 12620:2002+A1:2008; Aggregates for Concrete. European Standard: Brussels, Belgium, 2008.
52. UNI EN 196-1:2016; Methods of Testing Cement—Part 1: Determination of Strength. Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione:
Milan, Italy, 2016.
53. ASTM C1202-19; Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration. ASTM
International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2019.
54. UNI EN 12390-8:2019; Prove sul Calcestruzzo Indurito—Parte 8: Profondità di Penetrazione dell’acqua Sotto Pressione. Ente
Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione: Milan, Italy, 2019.
55. DIN 1045-1:2008-08; Concrete, Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Structures—Part 1: Design and Construction. German
Standard: Berlin, Germany, 2008.
56. Chandra, S.; Björnström, J. Influence of cement and superplasticizers type and dosage on the fluidity of cement mortars—Part I.
Cem. Concr. Res. 2002, 32, 1605–1611. [CrossRef]
57. Dario, A.; Suwondo, R. The influence of crystalline technology as concrete admixture on compressive strength and permeability.
IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2024, 1324, 012009. [CrossRef]
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 29 of 30

58. Liang, X.; Ji, Y. Experimental study on durability of red mud-blast furnace slag geopolymer mortar. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021,
267, 120942. [CrossRef]
59. Yang, Y.; Li, H.; Yang, X.; Chen, S.; Zhou, J. Experimental Study on the Influence of a Cementitious Permeable Crystallization
Admixture (CPCA) in Improving Concrete Durability. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2022, 2, 1–14. [CrossRef]
60. Memon, S.A.; Bekzhanova, Z.; Murzakarimova, A. A Review of Improvement of Interfacial Transition Zone and Adherent Mortar
in Recycled Concrete Aggregate. Buildings 2022, 12, 1600. [CrossRef]
61. Zhang, R.; Hou, F.; Xie, D.; Wang, J. Optimization of EICP-Based Treatment Process to Improve the Properties of Recycled
Aggregates. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2025, 37, 04025145. [CrossRef]
62. Yi, J.; Fu, S.; Huang, J.; Chen, Y. Synergistic modification of recycled aggregate using carbonation and hydrophobic Nano-Silica:
Effect on interfacial performance of recycled aggregate concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2025, 107, 112740. [CrossRef]
63. Guo, X.; Yi, H.; Hu, Z.; Rong, H. Study on improving the performance of recycled aggregate concrete by microorganism and
additional calcium source. J. Build. Eng. 2025, 110, 113010. [CrossRef]
64. Liu, X.; Si, Z.; Huang, L.; Zhao, P.; Zhang, L.; Li, M.; Yang, L. Research on the properties and modification mechanism of microbial
mineralization deposition modified recycled concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2025, 102, 11963. [CrossRef]
65. Zhao, Y.; Peng, L.; Feng, Z.; Lu, Z. Optimization of microbial induced carbonate precipitation treatment process to improve
recycled fine aggregate. Clean. Mater. 2021, 1, 100003. [CrossRef]
66. Chen, X.-F.; Zhang, X.-C.; Yan, G.-H. Multiscale Investigation of Modified Recycled Aggregate Concrete on Sulfate Attack
Resistance. Materials 2025, 18, 1450. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Ji, A.; Luo, M.; Zhao, Y.; Dai, J. Modification of recycled aggregate using calcium carbonate formed by homogeneous precipitation
and its application in concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2025, 462, 139998. [CrossRef]
68. Thaue, W.; Iwanami, M.; Nakayama, K.; Chijiwa, N. MICP using calcium-rich waste solution from acetic acid treatment as a
calcium source to improve the properties of recycled coarse aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 2025, 489, 142233. [CrossRef]
69. Luo, W.; He, X.; Li, R.; Zhong, H.; Dong, B.; Fang, G. Investigation of “internal-external” enhanced method for recycled aggregate.
Constr. Build. Mater. 2025, 467, 140405. [CrossRef]
70. Luo, M.; Zhao, Y.; Ji, A.; Ding, Z. Enhancing recycled aggregates quality through biological deposition treatment. J. Build. Eng.
2025, 100, 111681. [CrossRef]
71. Cheng, H.; Ahmad, I.; Shokouhian, M.; Radlínska, A. Enhancing flexural fatigue performance of recycled aggregate concrete
under freeze–thaw cycles through aggregate and cement matrix modification: Effects, prediction models, and mechanisms. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2025, 481, 141571. [CrossRef]
72. Wu, L.; Majid, A.; Tang, Q.; Sun, Z.; Cao, Y. Effect of calcium phosphate modification on the interfacial transition zone of recycled
aggregate and concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2025, 157, 105872. [CrossRef]
73. Lu, C.-G.; Zhang, X.-C.; Chen, X.-F. Maximizing Nano-Silica Efficiency in Laboratory-Simulated Recycled Concrete Aggregate via
Prior Accelerated Carbonation: An Effective Strategy to Up-Cycle Construction Wastes. Molecules 2024, 29, 5995. [CrossRef]
74. Li, W.; Hu, R.; Zhou, Y.; Xu, W.; Zhuang, J. Effect of carbonation on the cyclic behavior of recycled aggregate concrete: Test.
simulation and constitutive model. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 452, 138718. [CrossRef]
75. Li, H.; Li, C.; Wei, H.; Li, Q.; Lu, H.; Ge, J. Analysis of the Impact and Mechanism of Polyacrylate-Based Composite Paste on the
Performance of Recycled Aggregate. Materials 2024, 17, 5242. [CrossRef]
76. Wang, J.; Wu, M.; Zhou, H.; Ma, R.; Du, J.; Zhou, J.; Song, Y.; Wu, Y.; Ruan, S. Nano-modified recycled aggregates via vacuum
impregnation: Towards stronger and durable recycled concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2024, 94, 110006. [CrossRef]
77. Fan, C.; Zheng, Y.; Zhuo, J.; Du, C.; Hu, S. Study on mechanical and bonding properties of nano-SiO2 reinforced recycled concrete:
Macro test and micro analysis. J. Build. Eng. 2024, 94, 109877. [CrossRef]
78. Hoang Dao, X.; Trinh Bui, P.; Ogawa, Y.; Kawai, K. Properties and Microstructure of Low-Strength Recycled Concrete Aggregate
Treated Using Cement–Fly Ash Slurry with Various Concentrations and Soaking Durations. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2024, 36, 04024320.
[CrossRef]
79. Li, Y.; Long, J.; Chen, X. Property Enhancement of Recycled Coarse Aggregate and Its Concrete under CO2 -Accelerated Curing
Treatment. Materials 2024, 17, 4194. [CrossRef]
80. Wang, J.; Zhang, R.; Hou, F.; Ye, G. Influence of pore property and alkalinity on the bio-deposition treatment efficiency of recycled
aggregates. J. Build. Eng. 2024, 89, 109381. [CrossRef]
81. Qin, W.; Fan, X.; Jang, X. CO2 -Accelerated Carbonation Modification for Recycled Coarse Aggregate with Various Original
Concrete Strengths and Coarse Aggregate Sizes. Materials 2024, 17, 3567. [CrossRef]
82. Zhang, H.; Luo, G.; Bao, J.; Zhang, P.; Lv, H.; Li, Y.; Sun, J.; Song, Q. Improving the salt frost resistance of recycled aggregate
concrete modified by air-entraining agents and nano-silica under sustained compressive loading. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2024,
20, e03170. [CrossRef]
83. He, Z.; Shen, A.; Wang, X.; Wu, J.; Wang, L. Effect of Modification Treatment on Chloride Ions Permeability and Microstructure of
Recycled Brick-mixed Aggregate Concrete. J. Wuhan Univ. Technol.-Mater. Sci. Ed. 2024, 39, 728–737. [CrossRef]
Materials 2025, 18, 4208 30 of 30

84. Wang, Q.; Zhao, H.; Luo, Z.; Liu, S.; Zhou, C.; Liu, H. Properties evaluation of concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate
modified by graphene oxide. J. Build. Eng. 2024, 84, 108546. [CrossRef]
85. Merino-Maldonado, D.; Antolín-Rodríguez, A.; Blanco, S.; Morán-del Pozo, J.M.; García-González, J.; Juan-Valdés, A. Surface
protection of recycled concrete from different biogenic silica bio-deposition techniques: A sustainable approach. J. Build. Eng.
2024, 84, 108622. [CrossRef]
86. Zhou, Y.; Zhuang, J.; Xu, W.; Lin, W.; Xing, F.; Hu, R. Study on mechanical performance and mesoscopic simulation of nano-SiO2
modified recycled aggregate concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 425, 136053. [CrossRef]
87. Li, M.; Yi, H.; Su, Y. Study on Reducing Water Absorption of Recycled Aggregates (RAs) by Microbial Mineralization. Materials.
2024, 17, 1612. [CrossRef]
88. Sun, Y.; Liu, K.; Sun, D.; Jiang, N.; Xu, W.; Wang, A. Evaluation of urea hydrolysis for MICP technique applied in recycled
aggregate: Concentration of urea and bacterial spores. Constr. Build. Mater. 2024, 419, 135366. [CrossRef]
89. Zhang, H.; Wan, M.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, Y.; He, B.; Yao, J. Utilizing diatomaceous earth (DE) as a surface-treating agent of recycled
aggregate (RA) for the performance modification of recycled aggregate concrete. Mater. Struc. 2024, 57, 2. [CrossRef]
90. Jiang, H.; Wu, L.; Guan, L.; Liu, M.; Ju, X.; Xiang, Z.; Jiang, X.; Li, Y.; Long, J. Durability life evaluation of marine infrastructures
built by using carbonated recycled coarse aggregate concrete due to the chloride corrosive environment. Front. Mar. Sci. 2024,
11, 1357186. [CrossRef]
91. Li, J.; Chen, L.-L.; Wang, Z.-F.; Wang, Y.-Q. Effect of Modification and Replacement Rate of Recycled Coarse Aggregate on
Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete. Iran. J. Sci. Technol. Trans. Civ. Eng. 2023, 47, 3321–3332. [CrossRef]
92. Tong, J.; Ding, Y.; Lv, X.; Ning, W. Effect of carbonated recycled coarse aggregates on the mechanical properties of 3D printed
recycled concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 80, 107959. [CrossRef]
93. Jiang, Y.; Peng, L.; Ma, Z.; Lu, J.-X.; Shen, P.; Poon, C.S. Enhancing the treatment efficiency of recycled concrete fines with aqueous
carbonation. Cem. Concr. Res. 2023, 174, 107338. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.