Fluid Mechanics

Internal and External Flows

Semester March 2025

Mohd Al-Fatihhi Mohd Szali Januddi

Plant Engineering Technology (PETech)
UniKL MITEC
1
 Outline
• Review of Viscous Pipe Flow
• Laminar Pipe Flow
• Overview of External Flows
• Turbulent Pipe Flow
• Boundary Layer Characteristics
• Pressure Gradients Effects
• Lift and Drag

2
‘Scientists investigate that which already is; Engineers
create that which has never been’
 Viscous Pipe Flow: Review
Pipe flow versus Open-channel flow:
Open-Channel Flow:
Pipe Flow:

•Pipe is completely filled with fluid •Pipe is not full of fluids

•Pressure gradients drive the flow •Pressure gradient is constant
•Gravity can also be important •Gravity is the driving force

i.e., flow down a concrete spill way.

4
 Internal versus External Flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or

external, depending on whether
the fluid flows in a confined space or over a
surface.

The flow of an unbounded fluid over a

surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is
external flow.

The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if

the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal

flow, and airflow over a ball or over an
exposed pipe during a windy day is external
flow (Fig).
5
 Viscous Pipe Flow: Flow Regime
Osborne Reynolds Experiment to show the three regimes Laminar, Transitional,
or Turbulent:

Laminar

“Experiment”:

Transitional

Turbulent

6
 Viscous Pipe Flow: Flow Regime
If we measure the velocity at any given point with respect to time in the pipe:

Re > 4000

Reynolds Number
Dependency: 2100< Re < 4000

Re < 2100

1. Turbulence is characterized by random fluctuations.

2. Transitional flows are relatively steady accompanied by occasional burst.
3. Laminar flow is relatively steady.

For laminar flow there is only flow direction:

For turbulent flow, there is a predominate flow direction, but there are
random components normal to the flow direction:
7
The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes
turbulent is called critical Reynolds number, Recr

The value of the critical

Reynolds number is different
for different geometries and
flow conditions.

For internal flow in a circular

pipe, the generally accepted
value of the critical Reynolds
number is Recr = 2300.

For flow through noncircular

pipes, the Reynolds number
is based on the hydraulic
diameter Dh defined as (Fig.) 8
 Viscous Pipe Flow: Entrance and Fully Developed
The entrance region in a pipe flow is quite complex (1) to (2):
The fluid enters the pipe with nearly uniform flow.
The viscous effects create a boundary layer that merges.
When they merge the flow is fully developed.

There are estimates for determining the entrance length for pipe flows:

and

9
 Laminar Flow in Pipe

Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped differential

fluid element of radius r, thickness dr, and
length dx oriented coaxially with a horizontal
pipe in fully developed laminar flow.
(The size of the fluid element is greatly
exaggerated for clarity.)

The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow

in a circular pipe is expressed as:

1
0
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss
The relation for pressure loss
(and head loss) is one of the
most general relations in fluid
mechanics, and it is valid for
laminar or turbulent flows,
circular or noncircular pipes, and
pipes with smooth or rough
surfaces.

Substituting Eq. 14–19 into the Vm @ Vavg

expression in Eq. 14–16, the pressure
drop is expressed as

11
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss (cont.)

It is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor.

Setting Eqs. 14–20 and 14–21 equal to each other and solving for f gives
the friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe:

12
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss (cont.)

The pipe head loss is obtained by dividing PL by g to give

Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the required
pumping power to overcome the pressure loss is determined
from

Where 𝑽ሶ is the volume flow rate and 𝒎ሶ is the mass flow rate.

13
 Pressure Drop and Head Loss (cont.)

The average velocity for laminar flow in a horizontal pipe is, from Eq. 14–20

Then the volume flow rate for laminar flow through a horizontal pipe of
diameter D and length L becomes

14
Pressure Drop and Head Loss (cont.)

15
Pressure Drop and Head Loss (Inclined Pipes)

Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped

differential fluid element of radius r,
thickness dr, and length dx oriented
coaxially with an inclined pipe in fully
developed laminar flow.

16
Pressure Drop and Head Loss (Inclined Pipes)

Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped

differential fluid element of radius r,
thickness dr, and length dx oriented
coaxially with an inclined pipe in fully
developed laminar flow.

17
 Effect of Gravity on Velocity and Flow Rate in Laminar
Flow

• Relations for inclined pipes can be obtained in a similar manner from a

force balance in the direction of flow.

• The only additional force in this case is the component of the fluid weight
in the flow direction, whose magnitude is

The average velocity and the volume flow rate relations for laminar flow through
inclined pipes are, respectively,

18
Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes
Example: Laminar Flow in Horizontal and Inclined Pipes

Consider the fully developed flow of

glycerin at 40C through a 70-m-long, 4-
cm-diameter, horizontal, circular pipe. If
the flow velocity at the centerline is
measured to be 6 m/s, determine the
velocity profile and the pressure
difference across this 70-m-long section
of the pipe, and the useful pumping
power required to maintain this flow.

For the same useful pumping power input,

determine the percent increase of the flow
rate if the pipe is inclined 15 downward
and the percent decrease if it is inclined
15 upward. The pump is located outside
this pipe section. The density and
dynamic viscosity of glycerin at 40C are
 = 1252 kg/m3 and  = 0.3073 kg/m.s,
respectively.
Solution: Laminar Flow in Horizontal and Inclined Pipes

The velocity profile in fully developed

laminar flow in a circular pipe is
expressed as
Solution: Laminar Flow in Horizontal and Inclined Pipes
(Continued)
The energy balance for steady,
incompressible one-dimensional flow is
given

For fully developed flow in a constant diameter

pipe with no pumps or turbines, it reduces to
Solution: Laminar Flow in Horizontal and Inclined Pipes
(Continued)
The elevation difference and the pressure
difference for a pipe inclined upwards 15
is

P upward

Then the flow rate through the upward inclined

pipe becomes
 Example: Pressure Drop and Head Loss in a Pipe

Water at 40F ( = 62.42

lbm/ft3 and  = 1.038 x 10-3
lbm/ft·s) is flowing steadily
through a 0.12-in-(=0.010 ft)
diameter 30-ft-long horizontal
Fig. 2
pipe at an average velocity of
3.0 ft/s (Fig. 2).

Determine (a) the head loss,

(b) the pressure drop, and (c)
the pumping power
requirement to overcome this
pressure drop.
Solution: Pressure Drop and Head Loss in a Pipe

Re = ??

Fig. 2
 Solution: Pressure Drop and Head Loss in a Pipe
(Continued)
(b) the pressure drop in the pipe is due
entirely to the frictional losses and is
equivalent to the pressure loss

Fig. 2

(c) The volume flow rate and the pumping power requirements are
TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Water exiting a tube:
• (a) laminar flow at low flow
rate, (b) turbulent flow at
• high flow rate, and (c) same
as (b) but with a short shutter
exposure to capture
individual eddies.

29
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
• The intense mixing in turbulent flow
brings fluid particles at different
momentums into close contact and
thus enhances momentum transfer.

Turbulent Velocity Profile

The velocity profile in this layer is very nearly

linear, and the flow is streamlined. Next to the
viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which
turbulent effects are becoming significant, but
the flow is still dominated by viscous effects.
Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or
transition) layer, also called the inertial
sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are
much more significant, but still not dominant.
Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer
in the remaining part of the flow in which
turbulent effects dominate over molecular
diffusion (viscous) effects
30
The Moody Chart and the Colebrook Equation
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe
flow depends on the Reynolds number and the
relative roughness ε/D.

The Colebrook equation

The Moody Chart and the Colebrook Equation
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent
pipe flow depends on the Reynolds number
and the relative roughness ε/D.
 The Moody chart
• For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and
it is independent of surface roughness.

• The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe (but still not zero because of the
no-slip condition) and increases with roughness (Fig below).

Fig: The friction factor is minimum for a smooth

pipe and increases with roughness.
 The Moody chart (Full)
• For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and
it is independent of surface roughness.

• The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe (but still not zero because of the
no-slip condition) and increases with roughness (Fig below).

Example: Water flows through a straight 10-cm-diameter pipe at a diameter

Reynolds number of 250,000. If the pipe roughness is 0.06 mm, what is the
approximate Moody friction factor?
 Types of Fluid Flow Problems
• In the design and analysis of piping systems that involve the use
of the Moody chart (or the Colebrook equation), we usually
encounter three types of problems (the fluid and the roughness
of the pipe are assumed to be specified in all cases)
 Types of Fluid Flow Problems
• Swamee and Jain proposed the following explicit relations that
are accurate to within 2 percent of the Moody chart:
 Example 1:
• Water at 60°F (ρ = 62.36 lbm/ft3 and µ = 2.713 lbm/ft·h) is
flowing steadily in a 2-in-diameter horizontal pipe made of
stainless steel at a rate of 0.2 ft3/s (Fig. 1). Determine the
pressure drop, the head loss, and the required pumping power
input for flow over a 200-ft-long section of the pipe.
 Example 2:
• Heated air at 1 atm and 35°C is to be transported in a 150-m-
long circular plastic duct at a rate of 0.35 m3/s (Fig. 2). If the
head loss in the pipe is not to exceed 20 m, determine the
minimum diameter of the duct.
 Example 3:
• Reconsider Example 2. Now the duct length is doubled while its
diameter is maintained constant. If the total head loss is to
remain constant, determine the drop in the flow rate through the
duct.
MINOR LOSSES
For a constant-diameter section of a
pipe with a minor loss component,
the loss coefficient of the component
(such as the gate valve shown) is
determined by measuring the
additional pressure loss it causes
and dividing it by the dynamic
pressure in the pipe.
MINOR LOSSES
Minor losses are usually
expressed in terms of the loss
coefficient KL (also called the
resistance coefficient),
MINOR LOSSES
Minor losses are also expressed
in terms of the equivalent length
Lequiv, defined as (Fig.)

The head loss caused by a component

(such as the angle valve shown) is
equivalent to the head loss caused by a
section of the pipe whose length is the
equivalent length.
MINOR LOSSES

The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is almost negligible for well-rounded inlets
(KL= 0.03 for r/D > 0.2) but increases to about 0.50 for sharp-edged inlets.
 Example:

The diagram shows a tank that drained by a horizontal pipe. Determine the
pressure head at point (2) when the valve is partly closed so that the flow
rate is reduced to 20 dm3/s. The pressure loss is equal to 2 m head.
{Ans: h2 = 7.72 m}
The loss coefficient

where Asmall and Alarge are the cross-

sectional areas of the small and large
pipes, respectively. Note that KL = 0
when there is no area change (Asmall =
Alarge) and KL = α when a pipe
discharges into a reservoir (Alarge >>
Asmall).
 Example 4:
A 6-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually to a 9-cm-diameter pipe
(Figure). The walls of the expansion section are angled 10° from the axis. The
average velocity and pressure of water before the expansion section are 7 m/s and
150 kPa, respectively. Determine the head loss in the expansion section and the
pressure in the larger-diameter pipe.
Solution:
The flow at sections 1 and 2 is
fully developed and turbulent with
α1 = α2 ≈ 1.06.

Then the irreversible head loss in the expansion section

 Example 4:
A 6-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe expands gradually to a 9-cm-diameter pipe
(Figure). The walls of the expansion section are angled 10° from the axis. The
average velocity and pressure of water before the expansion section are 7 m/s and
150 kPa, respectively. Determine the head loss in the expansion section and the
pressure in the larger-diameter pipe.
Solution:

Solving for P2 and substituting

Minor Losses
Minor losses are local energy losses caused by the disruption of the flow
due to the installation of appurtenances, such as valves, bends, and other
fittings.

Causes of minor losses:

• Fittings: Bends, valves, elbows, tees, and other fittings create

turbulence and flow disturbances, resulting in energy loss.
• Changes in cross-sectional area: Sudden expansions or contractions
in pipe diameter also disrupt the flow and cause losses.
• Pipe entrance and exit: The shape of the pipe entrance and exit can
influence the pressure drop as the fluid enters and exits the pipe.
• Impact of minor losses:
• Reduced efficiency: Minor losses require pumps to work harder to
maintain desired flow, reducing system efficiency.
• Increased energy consumption: Overcoming these losses leads to
higher energy usage.
• Pressure drop: Significant minor losses can decrease pressure
throughout the system, affecting delivery pressure at the end-use points.
• Flow rate reduction: Excessive losses can restrict flow, particularly in
systems near maximum capacity.