Chapter 2:

Network Access

2.1 Describe the protocols,

services, and network
media that facilitate
communications across
data networks at the
physical layer.
 2.1.1 Describe physical layer components,
encoding and signalling.
2.1.2 Describe bandwidth, latency,
throughput and goodput.

Chapter 2.1.3 Describe the characteristics of Copper

Cabling.
Outline 2.1.4 Describe three main copper cabling
used in networking.
2.1.5 Describe fibre optic cabling and its main
advantages over other media.
 2.1.1 Describe physical layer components, encoding and signalling.

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 Physical Components
Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:
• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling

The Physical Components are the hardware devices, media, and

other connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.

• Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors,

cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards
associated with the physical layer.

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 The Physical Connection
• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local
network must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple NICs (Wired
and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.

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 Encoding

• Encoding converts the stream

of bits into a format
recognizable by the next
device in the network path.
• This ‘coding’ provides
predictable patterns that can
be recognized by the next
device.
• Examples of encoding
methods include Manchester
(shown in the figure), 4B/5B,
and 8B/10B.

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 Signaling

• The signaling method is how the bit Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable
values, “1” and “0” are represented
on the physical medium.
• The method of signaling will vary
based on the type of medium being
used.

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Microwave Signals Over Wireless

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 2.1.2 Describe bandwidth, latency, throughput and goodput.

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 Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a
second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a
role in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviatio Equivalence

n
Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps
Megabits per Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps
second
Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps
Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

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 Bandwidth Terminology

Latency
• Amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given
point to another
Throughput
• The measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given
period of time
• There are many factors that influence throughput:
✓ The amount of traffic
✓ The type of traffic
✓ The latency created by the number of network devices encountered between
source and destination

Goodput
• The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time
• Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead (for establishing sessions,
acknowledgments, encapsulation, and retransmitted bits)

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 2.1.3 Describe the characteristics of Copper Cabling.

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 Characteristics of Copper Cabling
Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. It is
inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current flow.
Limitations:
• Attenuation – the longer the electrical signals have to travel, the weaker
they get.
• The electrical signal is susceptible to interference from two sources, which
can distort and corrupt the data signals (Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and Crosstalk).
Mitigation:
• Strict adherence to cable length limits will mitigate attenuation.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate EMI and RFI by using metallic shielding
and grounding.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate crosstalk by twisting opposing circuit
pair wires together.

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 Characteristics of Copper Cabling
The timing and voltage values of the electrical pulses are also
susceptible to interference from two sources:

•Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI) –

EMI and RFI signals can distort and corrupt the data signals being carried
by copper media. Potential sources of EMI and RFI include radio waves
and electromagnetic devices, such as fluorescent lights or electric motors.

•Crosstalk – Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic

fields of a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire. In telephone
circuits, crosstalk can result in hearing part of another voice conversation
from an adjacent circuit. Specifically, when an electrical current flows
through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire,
which can be picked up by an adjacent wire

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Cisco Public 13
 • To counter the negative
effects of EMI and RFI,
some types of copper
cables are wrapped in
metallic shielding and
require proper
grounding connections.

• To counter the negative

effects of crosstalk,
some types of copper
cables have opposing
circuit wire pairs twisted
together, which
effectively cancels the
crosstalk.

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 2.1.4 Describe three main copper cabling used in
networking.

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 Copper Media

- conducts electrical signals very well but it has its

limitation

- data travels on copper cables as small pulses of

electrical voltage cause it easily distorted by outside
noise and signal attenuation

- cable type with shielding or twisting of the pairs

wires are designed to minimize signal degradation

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Copper Cabling
Types of Copper Cabling

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 Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP is the most common
networking media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with
intermediary network devices.

Key Characteristics of UTP

1. The outer jacket protects the
copper wires from physical damage.
2. Twisted pairs protect the signal
from interference.
3. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair.

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UTP Cabling Standards

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UTP Connectors

RJ-45 UTP Plugs

RJ-45 UTP Socket

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Types of UTP Cable

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Testing UTP Cables

UTP Testing Parameters:

Wire map
Cable length
Signal loss due to attenuation
Crosstalk

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Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• Better noise protection than UTP
• More expensive than UTP
• Harder to install than UTP
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary network devices

Key Characteristics of STP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper wires from physical damage
2. Braided or foil shield provides EMI/RFI protection
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires provides EMI/RFI protection
4. Color-coded plastic insulation electrically isolates the wires from each other
and identifies each pair

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Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield
for the inner conductor.
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
4. A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic signals.

There are different types of connectors used with coax cable.

Commonly used in the following situations:
• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises wiring

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Copper Media Safety

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2.1.5 Describe fiber optic cabling and its main advantages
over other media.

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 Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Not as common as UTP because of the expense involved
• Ideal for some networking scenarios
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth
than any other networking media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to
EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light
between the two ends with minimal signal loss

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Fiber Media Cable Design

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 Fiber-Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media
Multimode Fiber
Single-Mode Fiber

• Larger core
• Very small core
• Uses less expensive LEDs
• Uses expensive lasers
• LEDs transmit at different angles
• Long-distance applications
• Up to 10 Gbps over 550 meters

Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion
means increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF, with a
the maximum cable distance for MMF is 550 meters.

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 Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and
interconnecting infrastructure devices
2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services
to homes and small businesses
3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and
cities
4. Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-
capacity solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up
to transoceanic distances.

Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within the enterprise.

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 Submarine Cable Network

Long-haul
networks
Fiber to the home (FTTH)

Enterprise networks

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 Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Connectors

Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

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 Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber Patch Cords

SC-SC MM Patch Cord LC-LC SM Patch Cord ST-LC MM Patch Cord ST-SC SM Patch Cord

A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for
multimode fiber cables.

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Testing Fiber Cables

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 Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.

Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s
Relatively short (1 - 100 Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000
Distance
meters) meters)
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)
Immunity to electrical
Low High (Completely immune)
hazards
Media and connector
Lowest Highest
costs
Installation skills required Lowest Highest
Safety precautions Lowest Highest
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