BBOK407/BBOC407| BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

Module4
NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS & MECHANISMS

Topics,
Echolocation -Ultrasonography, sonar’s
Photosynthesis -Photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf
Bird flying - GPS and aircrafts,
Lotus leaf effect - Super hydrophobic and
selfcleaning surfaces
Plant burrs - Velcro,
Shark skin - Friction reducing swim suits
Kingfisher beak - Bullet train
Human Blood substitutes - Hemoglobin-
based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and
perflourocarbons (PFCs).

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Echolocation
Echolocation is a biological or technological process that involves emitting sound
waves and listening to the echoes that bounce back off of objects in the environment to
determine their location, distance, and shape.
In biology, the use of echolocation by animals has been well documented for
centuries. Ancient Greeks, for example, observed bats using echolocation to navigate & find
food in the dark. The scientific study of echolocation in animals, however only began the
early 20th century, with the pioneering work of British naturalist Donald Griffin's research
showed that bats were using echolocation to navigate and hunt and helped to lay the
foundation for the modem study of biological echolocation.
In technology, the use of echolocation can be traced back to the early days of
submarine warfare. During World War Ist, the British navy developed a primitive form of
sonar (known then as "ASDIC") to detect submarines.
A comparison of biological echolocation and technological echolocation is given below:
Biological Echolocation
• Found in various animals such as bats, dolphins ,and some species of whales.
• Relies on the emission of waves, usually in the form of clicks or vocalizations.
• Animals emit sound waves and listen for the echoes produced when the sound waves
bounce off objects around them.
• By analyzing the echoes, animals can determine the location, distance and even the shape
of objects around them.
• This ability is mainly used for navigation, hunting and communication in the animal
kingdom.
• Biological echolocation is a natural adaptation that has evolved over millions of years.

Technological Echolocation
• Replicates the concept of biological echolocation using technological devices.
• Utilizes sound waves, typically generated by artificial sources such as sonar or
ultrasonic sensors.
• These devices emit sound waves and analyze the echoes that bounce back from
objects.
• The information from the echoes is processed and interpreted by the technology to
generate useful data, such as distance, location, and object recognition.
• Technological echolocation has applications in various fields including navigation,
robotics, obstacle detection and medical imaging.
• It is a human-engineered solution inspired by the natural abilities of animals.

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Principle of Echolocation
Both biological and technological echolocations rely on the same basic
principles and have the same underlying purpose: to determine the location, distance
and shape of objects in the environment using sound waves and their echoes.
Fig: representing echolocation in bats and dolphins

The principle of echolocation is based on the emission of sound waves

and the interpretation of the echoes that bounce back from objects in the
environment.

Mechanics :
Vision and hearing are akin in that each interprets detections of reflected
waves of energy. Vision processes light waves that travel from their source, bounce
off surfaces throughout the environment and enter the eyes. Similarly, the auditory
system processes sound waves as they travel from their source, bounce off surfaces,
and enter the ears. Both neural systems can extract a great deal of information about
the environment by interpreting the complex patterns of reflected energy that their
sense organs receive. In the case of sound, these waves of reflected energy are
referred to as echoes.

A concise explanation of the principle of echolocation is given below :

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❖ Sound Emission: The echo locating organism, whether biological or technological, emits
sound waves into its surroundings. hi biological echolocation, this is typically achieved through
vocalizations or clicks, while in technological echolocation, it is usually done using artificial
sources such as sonar or ultrasonic sensors.

❖ Propagation of Sound Waves: The emitted sound waves travel through the environment,
spreading out in all direction.

❖ Object Interaction: When the sound waves encounter objects in the environment, such
as obstacles or prey, they interact with these objects. The interaction can involve reflection,
scattering. or absorption of the sound waves.

❖ Echo Reception: Some of the sound waves that interact with objects bounce back or echo
off them. These echoes carry information about the objects' distance, shape, composition, and
other characteristics.

❖ Sensory Reception: The echolocating organism, whether biological or technological, has

sensory receptors capable of detecting and processing the returning echoes. In biological
echolocation, this is typically specialized organs or structures, such as bat ears or dolphin melon,
while in technological echolocation, it is achieved through sensors and receivers.

❖ Echo Interpretation: The information contained in the echoes is analyzed and

interpreted by the organism or technology. This interpretation involves extracting relevant
features from the echoes and making sense of the spatial and temporal patterns present.

❖ Perception and Response: Based on the interpretation of the echoes, the organism or
technology can perceive and understand the surrounding environment. This perception enables
the organism to navigate, locate objects, detect obstacles, or perform other relevant tasks.

Comparing the Sound Emission and Reception in Biological Ecosystem and

Technological Ecosystem

In biological systems, sound emission and sensory reception organs are specialized
adaptations that allow animals to engage in echolocation. Technological systems, on the other hand,
employ devices designed to replicate and enhance these abilities. Here's a concise comparison of
sound emission and sensory reception organs/devices in biological and technological systems :

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Biological System Technological System

Sound Biological organism such as bats, and cetaceans Technological System rely on Artificial sound
Emission have specialized sound emission organs to emission devices such as speakers or
produce sound for echolocation. transducers to generate sound waves for
Bats Emits sound using their larynx and modify echolocation.
the emitted sounds using structures like the Ultrasonic sensors or sonar systems emits
nose leaf or mouth cavity. sound waves through these devices typically
Dolphins and whales emit sounds through their using piezoelectric elements transducers.
blowholes, producing clicks or vocations.
Sensory Biological organism posses specialized sensory Technologically System use Sensors and
Reception reception organs that allow them to detect & receivers to capture and process the returning
interpret the returning echoes. echoes.
Bats have Highly Sensitive ears designed to detect
Ultrasonic sensors are commonly employed
and analyze ultrasonic frequencies.
which consist of a transducer that emits sound
Dolphins and some whales also receive echoes waves and receivers the echoes.
through their lower jaw. The jawbone conducts
sound vibrations to the middle ear where they are Sonar system often incorporate hydrophones or
converted into nerve impulse for interpretations other specialized underwater microphones to
by the brain detect and interpret the echoes.
History of Technological Ecolocation
The history of technological echolocation can be traced back to the early
development of sonar (sound navigation and ranging) technology.

Here's a concise overview of the history of technological echolocation:

❖ Early Sonar Development (late 19th century): The foundations of

technological echolocation were laid with the invention of the first practical underwater
sound detection device called the hydrophone. Developed by Reginald Fessenden in the
late 19th century, the hydrophone allowed for the detection of underwater sounds.

❖ World War I (early 20th century): During World War I, the need for detecting
submarines led to significant advancements in sonar technology. Active sonar systems
were developed, which involved the transmission of sound waves and the reception of
echoes to detect submerged objects.

❖ Further Advancements (mid-20th century): The mid-20th century saw

continued advancements in sonar technology, driven by military and Scientific research.
Sonar System were refined and improved for application such as submarine detection,
underwater mapping and marine research.

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❖ Ultrasonic Application (mid-20th century): In parallel with underwater sonar ultrasonic

technology began to find application in fields such as medicine nodestructive testing,
and industrial imaging. Ultrasonic sensors were developed for detecting and ranging
objects based on the principle of echolocation.

❖ Evolution of Echolocation Technologies (late 20th century present): As Technology

advanced more sophisticated echolocation system emerged Advancement in Signal
processing, sensors and algorithm allowed for improved resolution, accuracy and
interpretation of echoes. Echolocation technologies found application in various fields
including robotics autonomous vehicles healthcare and environmental monitoring.

4.1.1 Ultrasonography
Ultrasound: Ultrasound refers to sound above the human audible limit of 20 kHz. Ultrasound of
frequencies upto 10 MHz and beyond is used in medical diagnosis, therapy, and surgery. In
investigative applications, an ultrasound source (transmitter) directs pulses into the body.

When the pulse encounters a boundary between organs or between two tissue regions of different
densities, reflections of sound occur. By scanning the body with Ultrasound and detecting echoes
generated by various organs, a sonogram of the internal structure(s) can be generated. The
method is called diagnostic imaging by echolocation.

Figure: Representing working principle of ultra sonography

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Diagnostic ultrasound, also called sonography or diagnostic medical sonography, is an

imaging method that uses sound waves to produce images of structures within your body. The
images can provide valuable information for diagnosing and directing treatment for a variety
of diseases and conditions.

❖ Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves

to produce images of the internal organs and tissues of the body.

❖ It is also known as ultrasound imaging or sonography.

❖ The ultrasound machine emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the range of 2 to
18 MHz) that travel through the body and bounce back off of the internal organs and
tissues.

❖ The returning echoes are captured by the ultrasound machine and used to create images
of the internal structures.

Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, safe, and painless imaging method that can be

used to visualize a wide range of structures within the body, including the organs of the
abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus, and other soft tissues.

It is commonly used in prenatal care to monitor the growth and development of the fetus and
to diagnose any potential problems. Ultrasonography has several advantages over other
imaging methods, including its low cost, ease of use, and lack of ionizing radiation. It is also
portable and can be used in a variety of settings, making it a valuable tool for medical
professionals.

Uses of Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a versatile imaging method that is used it a wide range of medical
applications. Some of the most coalition uses of ultrasonography include:

❖ Obstetrics and gynecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to Monitor the

growth and development of a fetus during pregnancy, as well as to evaluate the reproductive
organs and female pelvic organs for conditions such as ovarian cysts, fibroids, and
endometrial cancer.

❖ Abdominal imaging : Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the abdomen,

such as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys. to diagnose conditions such as
liver disease, gallstones, pancreatitis, and kidney stones.

❖ Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tendons,

and ligaments to diagnose conditions such as muscle strains, tendonitis, and ligament sprains.

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❖ Vascular Imaging : Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tenders and

ligaments to diagnose condition such as blood clots, blockages, and aneurysms.

❖ Eye and neck imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the eyes and neck to
diagnose condition such as cataracts, glaucoma and thyroid nodules. Emergency medicine:
Ultrasonography is often used in emergency medicine to quickly and accurately diagnose
condition such as appendicitis, pneumothorax, and fluid buildup in the abdomen or chest.
Working Principle of Ultrasonography
The working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-frequency sound waves.

❖ Transducers: ultrasonography machine consists of a transducer that is used to emit

and receive high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is placed in direct contact with the
skin or inserted into the body through a gel.

❖ Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound waves (usually
in the range of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound waves travel through the body and
encounter different tissues and organs, which have different acoustic properties.

❖ Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter boundaries between different
tissues and organs and bounce back, creating echoes. The strength of the echoes depends on
the acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as density and stiffness.

❖ Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography machine receives the

echoes and sends the information to a computer, which processes the data to create images.

❖ Image formation: The computer uses the information from the echoes to create
images of the internal organs and tissues of the body. The images are displayed on a screen,
allowing the operator to see the structure and movement of the internal organs and tissues.

Advantages of Ultrasonography
• Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or injections, making it a
safe and convenient imaging method.

• No ionizing radiation: Ultrasonography does not use ionizing radiation making it a

safer option for patients, especially pregnant women and children. option for patients,
especially pregnant women and children.

• Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images t can be used to

monitor the movement and function of internal organs and tissues in real time.

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• Portable: Ultrasonography machines are portable an making it a valuable tool for

emergency and can be used in a variety of settings, making it a valuable tool for emergency and
rural medicine.

• Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method that does not

require any special preparation or recovery time

• Versatile: Ultrasonography can be used to image a wide range of structures within the
body, including the organs of the abdomen pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus, and
other soft tissues.

Limitation of Ultrasonography

❖ Limited depth: Ultrasonography has limited depth and is not as effective at imaging
deep structure or those obscured by bones or gas.

❖ Operator dependence: The Quality of the images produced by ultrasonography depends

heavily on the skills and experience of the operator.

❖ Limited Resolution: Ultrasonography has limited resolution compared to other imaging

methods making it less effective at visualizing small structures or detecting small changes in
tissue.

❖ Limitations in overweight patients: Ultrasonography may have limited usefulness in

overweight patients due to the difficulty in obtaining clear images through the layers of fat.

❖ Limitation in detecting some types of cancer: Ultrasonography may not be as effective

at detecting certain types of cancer, such as pancreatic cancer, due to lack of characteristic signs
on ultrasound images.

4.1.2 Sonar’s
Sonar, which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a technology that uses sound waves to
detect and locate underwater objects.

Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging or Sonic Navigation and Ranging) is a technique that uses
sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, measure
distances (ranging), communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water,
such as other vessels.

“sonar” can refer to one of two types of technology:

1.Passive sonar means listening for the sound made by vessels.

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2.Active sonar means emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes.

Fig: Representing working principle of sonar

Uses of Sonar
Sonar’s are commonly used for a variety of purposes, including;

• Naval applications: Sonar’s are used by naval vessels to detect and locate other ships,
submarines, and underwater obstacles, allowing them to navigate safely and avoid potential
collisions.

• Fishery: Sonar’s are used in the fishing Industry to locate schools of fish and determine
the depth of the water, allowing fishermen to more efficiently target their catch.

• Oceanography: Sonar’s are used in oceanography to study the physical and biological
properties of the ocean, including the structure of the ocean floor, the movement of currents, and
the distribution of marine life.

• Environmental monitoring : Sonar’s are used to monitor the health of marine

ecosystems, track the migration patterns of whales and other marine mammals, and assess the
impact of human activities on the ocean environment.

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Sonar technology works by emitting a series of sound pulses and listening for the
echoes that bounce back from underwater objects. The time it takes for the echoes to return is
used to calculate the distance to the objects, and the frequency and pattern of the echoes are used
to determine their size and shape.

Working Principle of Sonar’s

The working principle of sonar technology is based on the reflection of sound waves. Here's how
it works:

• Transmitter: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a series of
sound pulses into the water. These sound pulses are typically in the form of high frequency,
lowpower acoustic signals, known as "ping."

• Propagation of sound waves: The sound pulses propagate through the water, traveling to
the target object and bouncing back as echoes. The speed of sound in water is slower than in air,
and it depends on the temperature, pressure, and salinity of the water.

• Receiver: The sonar system also includes a receiver that listens for the returning echoes.
The receiver is typically placed far away from the transmitter to minimize interference from the
transmitted signals.

• Calculation of range: The time it takes for the echoes to return to the receiver is used to
calculate the range to the target object. The range is simply the product of the speed of sound in
water and the time it takes for the echoes to return.

• Determination of target properties: The Frequency and pattern of the echoes are used
to determine the properties of the target object, such as it’s size, shape, and composition. For
example, a large, solid object will produce a strong, low-frequency echo, while a small, porous
object will produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.

• Display of Results: The Results of the sonar measurements are typically displayed on a
screen or other output device, allowing the operator to visualize the target object and its location.

Advantages of Sonar Technology

• Versatility: Sonar technology is versatile and can he used in a variety of applications
such as underwater navigation, mapping, and imaging, as well as for military and scientific
purposes.

• Cost-effective: Compared to other underwater imaging technologies, sonar is relatively

costeffective and affordable.

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• Non-invasive: Unlike other imaging technologies, such as diving and remote-operated

vehicles, sonar does not physically disturb the underwater environment, making it an ideal
choice for environmental monitoring and scientific research.

• Real-time imaging: Sonar provides real-time imaging allowing operators to quickly and
easily assess the underwater environment.

• High Resolution: Modern sonar systems have high-resolution capabilities, allowing for
detailed images of underwater objects and structures.

Limitation of Sonar Technology

• Limited visibility: Sonar imaging is limited by the visibility of the water which can be
affected by factors such as sediment, algae, and water temperature. This can make it difficult to
obtain clear and accurate images.

• Interference: Sonar signals can be affected by interference from other underwater

sources, such as ships, submarines, and natural underwater features, which can lead to false
readings and reduced accuracy.

• Short range: Sonar signals have a limited range, which can make it difficult to image
larger underwater structures or objects that are located far away from the sonar system. • Limited
depth: The depth to which sonar can effectively penetrate is limited, making it unsuitable for
imaging objects or structures that are located at great depths.

• Acoustic noise: The use of sonar technology can also generate acoustic noise, which can
disturb marine life and harm marine ecosystems. This is particularly a concern for high-power,
military-grade sonar systems, which have the potential to cause serious harm to marine life.

• Complex technology: Sonar technology can be complex, requiring specialized skills and
equipment to operate and maintain. This can limit its accessibility and increase the cost of
implementation.

• Inaccurate readings: Sonar readings can be inaccurate due to factors such as reflection,
refraction, and absorption of sound waves, which can result correct measurements and false
readings.

4.2. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants. algae, and some bacteria convert light energy
from the sun into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This process is critical for life on
Earth, as it provides the primary source of energy for all living organisms.

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Fig: Representing Photosynthesis

Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis. The process is carried out by plants, algae, and
some types of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (02) and chemical
energy stored in glucose (a sugar). Herbivores then Obtain this energy by eating plants, and
carnivores obtain it by eating herbivores.

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The Process of Photosynthesis in Plants and in Some Animals

The process of photosynthesis in plants and some animals differs in terms of the type of
organisms involved and the specific details of the process. However, the basic principle of
converting light energy into usable forms of energy is the same in both.

During photosynthesis, plantstake in carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H20)from the air and soil.
Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon dioxide
is reduced, meaning it gains electrons. This transforms the water into oxygen and the carbon
dioxide into glucose. The plant then releases the oxygen back into the air, and stores energy
within the glucose molecule.

In plants, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of the cells located in the
leaves. The process starts with the absorption of light energy by pigments such as chlorophyll,
which then excites electrons. These excited electrons are used, to power the transfer of carbon
dioxide into organic molecules, such as sugars and starches, through a series of chemical
reactions. The end product of photosynthesis in plants is stored chemical energy in the form of
organic compounds.

In some animals, such as algae, photosynthesis also takes place in chloroplasts. The
process is essentially the same as in plants with the absorption of light energy and the conversion
of carbon dioxide into organic molecules.

In contrast some animals, such as jellyfish, have a symbolic relationship with

photosynthetic organisms, such as algae. In this relationship, the animal provides a safe and
stable environment for the photosynthetic organism, while the photosynthetic organism provides
energy in the form of organic compounds produced through photosynthesis. Light-dependent
reactions and light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle) are two
interconnected processes that occur in the chloroplasts of plants and algae during photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll: Inside the plant cell are small organelles called chloroplasts, which store the
energy of sunlight. Within the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast is a light-absorbing
pigment called chlorophyll, which is responsible for giving the plant its green color. During
photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy from blue- and red-light waves and reflects green-
light waves, making the want appear green.

Light-Dependent Reactions :
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplast

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Water molecules (H20) are split through a process called photolysis, releasing electrons,

protons (CH+ ), and oxygen (02).

The excited electrons from photolysis are captured by electron carriers, such as NADP+
(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) and converted to NADPH (Nicotinamid
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate).

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) combines with inorganic phosphate (Pi) to form adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This process is known as phosphorylation and is fundamental step in
cellular energy metabolism.

Oxygen molecules (O2) generated from the splitting of water are released as a byproduct

in to the atmosphere

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Light-Independent Reactions(Calvin Cycle) :

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere enters the stroma of the chloroplasts.

Carbon fixation occurs and forms a unstable six-carbon compound

The resulting unstable six-carbon compound quickly breaks down into two molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate (PGA).

ATP and NADPH, produced during the light-dependent reactions, provide energy and
electrons for the reduction o f PGA to glyceraldehyde-3 -phosphate (G3P).

Some G3P molecules are used to produce glucose and other organic molecules.

The remaining G3P molecules are recycled and used in subsequent cycles of the Calvin cycle.

Glucose and other carbohydrates produced during the Calvin cycle can be stored for later use or
utilized in metabolic processes to meet the energy and growth needs of the plant.

Overall, the process of photosynthesis is a critical aspect of life on Earth & provides the
primary source of energy for all living organisms. While the specific details of the process may
differ between plants, algae & some animals, the basic principle of converting light energy into
usable forms of energy remains the same.

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4.2.1 Photovoltaic Cells

The sun’s copious energy is captured by two engineering systems: photosynthetic plant cells
and photovoltaic cells (PV). Photosynthesis converts solar energy into chemical energy, delivering
different types of products such as building blocks, biofuels, and biomass; photovoltaics turn it into
electricity which can be stored and used to perform work.

The connection between photosynthesis and photovoltaics lies in the conversion of

light energy into usable forms of energy.

In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy stared in
organic molecules, such as sugars and starches. In photovoltaics, light energy is converted into
electrical energy.

Both photosynthesis and photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting
light energy into usable forms of energy, but the end products are different. In photosynthesis,
the end product is stored chemical energy, while in photovoltaics, the end product is electrical
energy.

However, the similarities between photosynthesis and photovoltaics go beyond just

the conversion of light energy. Both processes also involve the use of specialized components
and materials, such as chlorophyll in photosynthesis and silicon in photovoltaics, to absorb
and convert light energy into usable forms of energy.

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The development of photovoltaics has been heavily influenced by the natural process
of photosynthesis, and many researchers have sought to mimic and improve upon the efficiency
and effectiveness of photosynthesis in order to develop more advanced and efficient photovoltaic
systems. The study of photosynthesis has thus played a significant role in the development of
sustainable energy systems and continues to be an important area of research in the field of
renewable energy.

A solar cell or, photovoltaic cell is an electronic device that converts the energy of light
directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.
It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as
current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often
the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as solar panels. The
common single-junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 volts to 0.6 volts.

Application:

• Remote Locations

• Stand-Alone Power

• Power in space

• Building -Related Needs

• Military Uses.

• Transportation

New Technology Photovoltaic Cells

Photovoltaic tells, also known as solar cells, are devices that convert light energy from
the sun into electrical energy. The technology behind photovoltaic cells has advanced
significantly in recent years, leading to the development of new and improved photovoltaic cell
designs and materials. Some of the new technologies in photovoltaic cells include :

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• Perovskite solar cells: Perovskite solar cells are a new type of photovoltaic cell that use
a crystalline material made of perovskite to convert light energy into electrical energy. They are
highly efficient and have the potential to be more affordable than traditional silicon-based
photovoltaic cells.

• Thin-film photovoltaic cells: Thin-film photovoltaic cells are a type of photovoltaic cell
that uses a thin layer of material, such as silicon or cadmium telluride, to convert light energy
into electrical energy. They are lighter and more flexible than traditional silicon-based
photovoltaic cells and are ideal for use in portable and flexible solar panels.

• Concentrator photovoltaic cells: Concentrator photovoltaic cells are a type of

photovoltaic cell that uses a lens or mirror to concentrate sunlight onto a small area, increasing
the amount of light energy that can be captured and converted into electrical energy.

• Multi junction photovoltaic cells: Multi junction photovoltaic cells are a type of
photovoltaic cell that uses multiple layers of different materials, each optimized for different
wavelengths of light, to convert light energy into electrical energy. They are highly efficient and
ideal for use in concentrated solar power system.

These are just a few examples of the new technologies in photovoltaic cells. The Field of
photovoltaic is constantly evolving and there are many ongoing efforts to develop new and
improved photovoltaic cell designs and material that are more efficient, affordable, and
environmentally friendly.

4.2.2. Bionic Leaf

A bionic leaf is a system that uses artificial photosynthesis to convert sunlight into usable forms of
energy, such as hydrogen or other biofuels. The bionic leaf is designed to mimic the process of
photosynthesis in plants. where light energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen,
and the hydrogen can then be used as a source of energy.

The bionic leaf consists of a photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it into electrical
energy & a catalyst. Such as a bacteria, that uses the electrical energy to split water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source
of energy for a variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.

The Bionic leaf has the potential to be a highly sustainable and environmentally friendly energy
source, as it uses renewable resource such as sunlight and water to energy. Additionally, the bionic leaf
can be used in remote locations where there is limited access to electricity and it can help to reduce our
reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate the effects of climate change.

The bionic Leaf is a biomimetic system that gathers solar energy via photovoltaic cells that can
be stored or used in several different functions. Bionic leaves can be composed of both synthetic
(metals, ceramics, polymers, etc.) and organic materials (bacteria), or solely made of synthetic

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materials. The Bionic Leaf has the potential to be implemented in communities, such as
urbanized areas to provide clean air as well as providing needed clean energy.

Mechanics:

Natural Photosynthesis vs. The Bionic Leaf at its simplest form. In natural photosynthesis,
photosynthetic organisms produce energy-rich organic molecules from water and carbon dioxide
by using solar radiation. Therefore, the process of photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas, from the air.

Artificial photosynthesis, as performed by the Bionic Leaf, is approximately 10 times more

efficient than natural photosynthesis.

Using a catalyst. the Bionic Leaf can remove excess carbon dioxide in the air and convert that to
use alcohol fuels. like isopropanol and iso butanol. The efficiency of the Bionic Leaf’s artificial
photosynthesis is the result of bypassing obstacles in natural photosynthesis through its
artificiality.

In natural systems, numerous energy conversion bottlenecks limit the overall efficiency of
photosynthesis. As a result, most plants do not exceed 1% efficiency and even microalgae grown
in bioreactors do not exceed 3%. Existing artificial photosynthetic solar-to-fuels cycles may
exceed natural efficiencies but cannot complete the cycle via carbon fixation.

When the catalysts of the Bionic Leaf are coupled with the bacterium Ralstonia eutropha, this
results in a hybrid system capable of carbon dioxide fixation. This system can store more than
half of its,input energy as products of carbon dioxide fixation. Overall, the hybrid design allows
for artificial photosynthesis with efficiencies rivaling that of natural photosynthesis.

Components of Bionic Leaf

A bionic leaf is a biohybrid system that mimics the natural process of photosynthesis to
convert sunlight into chemical energy. It typically consists of several key components that work
together to facilitate this conversion. Here are the main components of a bionic leaf

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• Photosynthetic Organism: The bionic leaf utilizes a photosynthetic organism, such as a

cyanobacterium or a genetically modified plant, as the primary component. This organism
contains chlorophyll or other light-absorbing pigments that capture solar energy and initiate the
photosynthetic process.

• Light Harvesting System: The bionic leaf includes a light harvesting system, which can
be artificial or natural, to efficiently capture sunlight. In some designs, light-absorbing dyes or
semiconductor materials are incorporated to enhance light absorption and conversion efficiency.

• Catalysts: The bionic leaf incorporates catalysts, such as enzymes (Examples:

Hydrogenase, Nitrogenase, etc.) or synthetic catalysts (Example: Rubisco (Ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase)), to facilitate the chemical reactions involved in
photosynthesis. These catalysts play a crucial role in splitting water molecules, generating
electrons, and catalyzing the conversion of carbon dioxide into fuels or other chemical
compounds.

• Electron Transfer Pathway: An electron transfer pathway is, ; an essential component of

the bionic leaf system. It allows the generated electrons from water splitting to be efficiently
transported to the catalysts involved in carbon dioxide reduction or other chemical reactions.
This pathway ensures the flow of electrons necessary for fuel production or other desired
chemical transformations.

• Carbon Dioxide Source: To sustain the photosynthetic process, a Bionic leaf requires a
source of carbon dioxide. This can be obtained from various sources, including ambient air,
industrial emissions, or concentrated carbon dioxide solutions.

• Energy Storage or Conversion System: The bionic leaf includes an energy storage or
conversion system to capture and stole the chemical energy produced during photosynthesis.
This can involve the production of hydrogen gas, liquid fuels, or other energy-rich compounds
that can be stored and used as needed.

• Control and Monitoring System: To optimize performance and ensure efficient

operation, a bionic leaf typically incorporates a control and monitoring system. This system
monitors various parameters such as light intensity, temperature, pH, and carbon dioxide levels,
and allows for adjustments and optimization of the overall process.

Working Principle
The working principle of a bionic leaf is based on artificial photosynthesis, which aims
to mimic the process of photosynthesis in plants. The bionic leaf typically consists of a
photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it into electrical energy, and a catalyst, such
as a bacterium that uses the electrical energy to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

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The photovoltaic cell is used to convert sunlight into electrical energy, which is then
passed to the catalyst. The catalyst, in turn, uses the electrical energy to power the process of
water splitting, where water molecules are separated into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is
facilitated by the presence of enzymes or other catalysts that act as a bridge between the
electrical energy and the water splitting reaction.

The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of
energy for a variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.
Additionally, the oxygen produced by the bionic leaf can be released into the atmosphere, where
it can help to mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

A flow chart of the working principle of bionic leaf is given below:

Sunlight is captured and directed to the bionic leaf.

The bionic leaf contains a catalyst (typically a special type of bacteria or an artificial catalyst)
and a water-splitting enzyme.

Sunlight energy is used to split water molecules (1120) into hydrogen ions (H+ ) and oxygen (02)
through a process called photolysis.

The hydrogen ions (H+ ) generated from water splitting combine with electrons from an external
source (e.g., a wire) to form hydrogen gas(H2).

The generated hydrogen gas (H2) can be collected and stored for later use as a clean and
renewable energy source.

The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or a supplied source.

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The Absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon-based compounds such as formic
acid or methane, through a redirection reaction.

The carbon-based compounds can be used as a fuel or converted into other useful
chemicals.

The Bionic leaf operates in a closed-loop system, where the produced oxygen (O2) during water
splitting is reused by the catalyst in subsequent cycles.

Applications of Bionic Leaf Technology

• Renew able Energy Production: One of the primary applications of bionic leaf
technology is in the production of renewable energy. Bionic leaf systems can harness solar
energy and convert it into chemical energy in the form of hydrogen gas or other carbon-based
fuels. These fuels can be used as clean energy sources for various applications, including
transportation, electricity generation, and heating.

• Carbon Dioxide Reduction: Bionic leaf technology offers a promising solution for
mitigating the rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. By capturing and utilizing
carbon dioxide as a feedstock, bionic leaf systems can potentially help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and combat climate change. This application holds significant potential for carbon
capture and utilization (CCU) strategies

• Sustainable Chemical Production: Bionic leaf systems can be utilized for sustainable
chemical production. By utilizing carbon dioxide and renewable energy, these systems can
produce a wide range of valuable chemicals, such as fertilizers, plastics, and pharmaceuticals.
This application offers a more environmentally friendly and resource-efficient approach to
chemical synthesis.

• Agriculture and Food Production: Bionic leaf technology can have applications in
agriculture and food production. By utilizing sunlight and carbon dioxide, bionic leaf systems
can generate oxygen and energy-rich compounds that can enhance plant growth and improve
crop yields. This technology can potentially contribute to sustainable agriculture practices and
help address global food security challenges.

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• Remote and Off-Grid Areas: Bionic leaf systems can provide a decentralized and
offgrid energy solution for remote or underdeveloped areas. By harnessing solar energy and
producing clean fuels, these systems can offer sustainable power sources for communities
without access to conventional energy infrastructure. enabling them to meet their energy needs
and improve their quality of life.

• Environmental Remediation: Bionic leaf technology has the potential to aid in

environmental remediation efforts. By utilizing the energy generated from sunlight, bionic leaf
systems can power processes that remove pollutants or contaminants from air, water, or soil,
contributing to the restoration and preservation of ecosystems.

4.3. Bird Flying

Birds fly by flapping their wings and using their body weight and the movement of the air
to stay aloft. They navigate using combination of visual cues, the Earth's magnetic field, and
celestial navigation.

Aircraft, on the other hand, use engines to generate thrust and lift from the wings to stay
in the air navigate using a combination of instruments and systems, including GPS (Global
Positioning System), which uses satellite signals to determine the aircraft's position and help it
navigate. Although birds and aircraft both fly, their mechanisms and methods of navigation are
quite different.

Birds flying influenced the invention of aircraft in that early aviation pioneers, such as
the Wright brothers, observed and studied the flight of birds to develop their flying machines.
They noted how birds used their wings and body to achieve lift and control their flight, and used
this knowledge to design and improve aircraft.

The development of GPS technology was not directly influenced by birds, but rather by
the need for accurate and reliable navigation systems for various purposes, including aviation.
GPS uses a network of satellites to provide location and time information, which is used by
aircraft for navigation, communication, and safety purposes.

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The science behind the bird’s flies using its wings and holding their body weight in air

The ability of birds to fly and support their body weight in the air is a result of various
anatomical and physiological adaptations.

Here’s a Simplified Explanation of the science behind bird flight :

• Wing Shape: Birds have specialized wings with a unique shape that generates lift. The
wings are curved on the upper surface and flatter on the bottom, creating a pressure difference
known as Bernoulli's principle. This pressure difference generates lift, allowing birds to stay
airborne.

• Wing Muscles: Birds have strong flight muscles attached to their wings, allowing them
to flap their wings vigorously. The upstroke and downstroke motion of the wings generates
thrust, propelling the bird forward through the air.

• Hollow Bones: Birds have lightweight bones that are hollow and filled with air sacs,
reducing their overall weight. This makes it easier for them to stay aloft.

• Feathers: Feathers play a crucial role in flight. They provide both lift and control. The
primary feathers at the tips of the wings help generate lift, while the tail feathers assist in
maneuvering and stabilizing during flight.

• Respiratory System: Birds have a unique respiratory system that allows for efficient
oxygen exchange. Air flows unidirectionally through their lungs, as well as through a system of
air sacs located throughout their body. This constant supply of oxygen fuels - their high
metabolic demands during flight.

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• Efficient Circulatory System: Birds have a highly efficient circulatory system that
delivers oxygen-rich blood to their muscles and organs. Their heart rate increases during flight,
ensuring a steady supply of oxygen to meet the demands of their active muscles.

• Flight Control: Birds have remarkable coordination and control over their flight. They
can adjust the angle and shape of their wings, control their speed and direction, and perform
intricate aerial maneuvers using their tail, wings, and body movements.

It's important to note that bird flight is a complex process influenced by several factors,
including aerodynamics, muscle strength, metabolic efficiency, and specialized adaptations. The science
behind bird flight continues to be an area of study and fascination for researchers and aviation engineers
alike.

4.3.1 GPS Technology

Fig: Representing GPS

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a technology that uses a network of satellites to provide
location and time information to users. The technology works by measuring the time it takes for
signals to travel from satellites to a receiver on the ground or in a vehicle, and using this
information to calculate the user's position.

Here are some key components of GPS technology:

• Satellites: The GPS satellite network consists of 24-32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These
satellite continuously broadcast signals containing information about their location, time, and
status.

• Receivers: GPS receivers, which are typically integrated into devices such as
smartphones, navigation system, and aircraft, receive signals from GPS satellite and use the
information to calculate the user’s position.

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• Control segments: The control segments consist of ground-based monitoring stations

that track the GPS satellite, check the accuracy of their signals and make adjustments as needed.

• User segments: The user segments consist of the GPS receivers used by individual and
organization to obtain location and time information.

GPS technology has a wide range of applications, including navigation, mapping,

surveying, search and rescue, and military operations. The accuracy and reliability of GPS have improved
over time, and the technology continues to evolve with new developments in satellite and receiver
technology, as well as the integration of GPS with other technologies such as augmented reality and
artificial intelligence.

Importance of GPS Technology in Aircrafts

Fig: Representing GPS technology in Aircrafts

GPS technology is essential for aircraft navigation and guidance. Here's how it is used :

• Positioning and Navigation: GPS helps aircraft accurately determine their position and
follow precise routes. Signals from satellites are received by GPS receivers onboard, allowing
the system to calculate the aircraft's position.

• Flight Planning: GPS assists pilots and planners in creating optimal flight plans,
considering waypoints, altitudes, and current information on navigation aids, weather, and
airspace restrictions.

• Approach and Landing: GPS-based navigation systems provide precise guidance during
approach and landing, even in low visibility. This enhances safety and reduces reliance on
ground-based navigation aids.

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• Air Traffic Management: GPS is integrated into air traffic management systems,
improving airspace efficiency, reducing congestion, optimizing routing, and enhancing aircraft
tracking and situational awareness for controllers.

• Collision Avoidance: GPS contributes to collision avoidance systems like TCAS and
ADS-B. These systems use GPS data to track nearby aircraft, provide alerts, and ensure safe
separation.

• Flight Data Recording: GPS data is often recorded by flight data recording systems,
aiding post-flight analysis, accident investigation, and overall flight safety improvements. GPS
technology has revolutionized aircraft navigation and has become an integral part of modem
aviation. It provides accurate positioning, enhances safety, improves operational efficiency, and
contributes to the overall advancement of the aviation industry.

GPS AND BIRD FLIGHT :

Scientists have long known that birds navigate using the earth’s magnetic field. Now, a new
study has found subtle mechanics in the brain of pigeons that allow them to find their way.

A team at Baylor College of Medicine in the U.S. identified a group of 53 cells in a pigeon's
brain that record detailed information on the Earth's magnetic field, a kind of internal global
positioning system (GPS).

Experiment :

Prof. Dickman and his colleague Le-Qing-Wu set up an experiment in which pigeons were held
in a dark room and used a 3D coil system to cancel out the planet's natural geomagnetic field and
generate a tunable, artificial magnetic field inside the room. While they adjusted the elevation
angles and magnitude of their, artificial magnetic field, they simultaneously recorded the activity
of the 53 neurons in the pigeons' brains which had already been identified as candidates for such
sensors.

Comparing Birds and Aircrafts with GPS Technology for Navigation

Table: Comparison between birds and aircraft with GPS technology for navigation
Criteria Aircrafts Birds
Mechanism GPS technology in aircraft relies on Birds use a combination of visual cues,
signals received from satellites to magnetic fields, landmarks, and celestial
determine precise navigation to navigate and orient themselves
position, velocity, and time. during flight.

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Accuracy GPS technology provides highly Birds have remarkable navigational abilities
accurate position information with but may not possess the same level of accuracy
a margin of error typically within a as GPS. However, birds can adjust their flight
few meters. path based on real-time environmental cues,
which allows for more dynamic and adaptable
navigation.
Sensory GPS technology relies solely on Birds integrate various sensory inputs for
Input receiving satellite signals. navigation. They can perceive and interpret
visual cues, such as landmarks and the position
of the sun or stars_ and they may also have
sensitivity to Earth's magnetic field, enabling
them to navigate across vast distances.
Adaptability GPS technology in aircraft provides Birds. on the other hand, demonstrate
consistent and reliable navigation remarkable adaptability in their navigation
regardlessof the environmental abilities. They can adjust their flight paths
condition or time of day. based on changing weather conditions, wind
patterns, and other factors, which allows for
efficient long-distance migration and
navigation through complex landscapes.
Evolutionary GPS technology is a human-made Birds, however, have evolved over millions of
Aspect in innovation designed to enhance years, developing specialized neural and
navigation and safety in aircraft. physiological adaptations that enable them to
navigate and fly efficiently in diverse habitats.

4.3.2 Aircraft Technology

Aircraft technology has advanced significantly since the first powered flight by the Wright
brothers in 1903.

Here are some key components of modem aircraft technology:

❖ Aerodynamics: Modem aircraft are designed to be more aerodynamic, with wing shapes
optimized for lift and efficiency. Advanced materials and manufacturing techniques have also
been developed to reduce weight and improve durability.

❖ Jet engines: Jet engines, which use the principles of Newton's third law of motion to
produce thrust, have replaced propeller engines in most modern aircraft. These engines are more
powerful, fuel-efficient, and reliable.

❖ Avionics: Avionics, or aviation electronics, have advanced significantly with the

development of digital technology. Flight instruments, navigation systems, and communication
systems have become more precise, reliable, and sophisticated.

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❖ Safety systems: Aircraft safety systems have been developed to reduce the risk of
accidents and improve passenger safety. These include systems for collision avoidance, weather
detection, and emergency response.

❖ Automation: Aircraft automation has increased significantly in recent years, with the
development of advanced autopilot systems and computerized flight control systems. This
technology has made flying safer and more efficient, but has also raised concerns about pilot
training and the potential for overreliance on automation.

Bio Mimicking Birds Fly for Aircraft Technology

Fig: Image of a flapping-wing drone.

Biomimicry, or the practice of using designs and processes found in nature to solve
human problems, has led to the development of various technologies inspired by birds' flight.
Some examples include :

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❖ Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings, which
have evolved to be more aerodynamic and fuel-efficient as a result. The study of bird flight has
also led to the development of winglets, small structures at the tip of wings that reduce drag and
increase lift.

❖ Flapping-Wing drones: Researches have developed drones that use flapping wings to
fly, mimicking the way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for various application,
such as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting building and infrastructure, and search and
rescue operations.

❖ Soaring algorithms: Soaring refers to the flight technique used by birds and certain
aircraft to stay aloft and travel long distances with minimal energy expenditure. It involves
utilizing rising air currents, such as thermals, ridge lift, wind shear, or atmospheric waves, to
gain altitude and maintain flight. Birds use thermals, or columns of rising warm air, to gain
altitude and soar. Researchers have developed algorithms inspired by bird flight to help gliders
and other aircraft use thermals more efficiently, leading to longer and more sustainable flights.

❖ Landing gear: The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for
aircraft, with shock-absorbing and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon landing.

MECHANISM :

Lift, Drag, and Thrust: The fundamentals of bird night are similar to those of aircraft, in which
the aerodynamic forces sustain night lift, drag, and thrust.

Lift force is produced by the action of airflow on the wing, which is an airfoil. The airfoil is
shaped such that the air provides a net upward force on the wing, while the movement of air is
directed downward. The additional net lift may come from airflow around the bird's body in
some species, especially during intermittent flight while the wings are folded orsemi-folded (cf.
lilting body).

Aerodynamic drag is the force opposite to the direction of motion, and hence the source of
energy loss in flight. The drag force can be separated into two portions, lift -induced drag, which
is the inherent cost of the wing producing lift (this energy ends up primarily in the wingtip
vortices), and parasitic drag, including skin friction drag from the friction of air and body
surfaces and form drag from the bird's frontal area. The streamlining of the bird's body and
Wings reduces these forces. Unlike aircraft, which have engines to produce thrust, birds flap
their wings with a given flapping amplitude and frequency to generate thrust.

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Lift, Drag, and Thrust:

• Thrust is a force that moves an aircraft in the direction of the motion. It is created with a
propeller, jet engine, or rocket. Air is pulled in and then pushed out in an opposite direction. One
example is a household fan.

• Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. It tends to slow an object. Drag
is caused by friction and differences in air pressure. An example is putting your hand out of a
moving car window and feeling it pull back.

• Weight is the force caused by gravity.

• Lift is the force that holds an airplane in the air. The wings create most of the lift used by
airplanes.

The way the four forces act on the airplane make the plane do different things. Each force has an
opposite force that works against it. Lift works opposite of weight. Thrust works opposite of drag.
When the forces are balanced, a plane flies in a level direction. The plane goes up if the forces of
lift and thrust are more than gravity and drag. If gravity and drag are bigger than lift and thrust,
the plane goes down. Just as drag holds something back as a response to wind flow, lift pushes
something up. The air pressure is higher on the bottom side of a wing, so it is pushed upward.

The Future of Transportation through the Air

The future of transportation through the air hold exciting possibilities with the emergence
of new technologies and concepts . Here are potential modes of air transportation that could
shape the future:

1. Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (EVIOL) Aircraft: these are electric powered
aircraft that can take off and land vertically, similar to helicopters. They are being designed for
urban air mobility and short-distance transportation, offering a more efficient and
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional helicopters.

2. Autonomous Flying Vehicles: Autonomous drones a. 'flying taxis are being developed
for various applications, including transportation of people and goods. These vehicles would
operate without a pilot and rely on advanced sensors, artificial intelligence, and automation to
navigate safely.

3. High-Speed Air Travel: Supersonic and hypersonic aircraft are being explored to
revolutionize long-distance travel. These aircraft would travel at extremely high speeds,
significantly reducing travel times and opening up new possibilities for global connectivity.

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4. Personal Air Vehicles (PVs): PAVs are compact flying vehicles designed for individual
use. They could potentially serve as a convenient mode of transportation for short- distance
travel within cities, similar to personal cars but in the air.

5. Hyperloop Transportation: While not strictly an air-based mode of transportation, the

hyperloop concept involves high-speed capsules traveling through low-pressure tubes, o g
nearsupersonic speeds. This mode of transportation could connect distant cities and regions in a
fast, energy-efficient manner.

4.4 Lotus Leaf Effect

Introduction :

The lotus leaf effect, also known as the "lotus effect," refers to the ability of lotus
leaves to repel water and self-clean through their unique surface structure. This effect has
inspired the development of super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces, which have a wide
range of applications in various industries.

The lotus leaf is well-known for having a highly water repellent, or superhydrophobic,
surface, thus giving the name to the lotus effect. Water repellency has received much attention in
the development of self-cleaning materials, and alias been studied in both natural and artificial
systems.

The lotus leaf surface has a microscale and nano scale structure that consists of
numerous small bumps and wax-coated hairs. This structure creates a high contact angle between
the water droplets and the surface, causing the droplets to roll off and carry away any dirt or
debris. This self-cleaning property is due to the lotus leaf’s ability to repel water and resist
adhesion

Fig: Representing the surface of lotus leaf

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Fig: Representing the behavior of water drops on slanted surface of a) A lotus leaf surface, and b) any
other solid surface.

Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces have applications in industries such

as aerospace, automotive, building materials, and medical devices.

For example, self-cleaning coatings can be used on the exterior of buildings to

reduce the need for cleaning and maintenance, while super hydrophobic coatings can be used to
prevent icing on aircraft wings.
4.4.1. Super Hydrophobic Effect

Fig: Representing super hydrophobic and super hydrophilic effects.

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The Principle of Super hydrophobic Surfaces: The super hydrophobic effect refers to the
ability of certain surfaces to repel water and resist wetting. Super hydrophobic surfaces are
characterized by a high contact angle between water droplets and the surface, typically over 150
degrees, and a low contact angle hysteresis, meaning that the droplets roll off the surface with
ease.

Materials and Examples

Super hydrophobic surfaces are created by modifying the surface chemistry and
structure of materials to achieve extremely high-water repellency. Several materials and coating
techniques are used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces. Here are some commonly used
materials and examples :

❖ Fluoropolymers: Fluoropolymer-based coatings are widely used for super hydrophobic

surfaces due to their low surface energy and water-repellent properties. Examples include
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) coatings.

❖ Silica-based Nanoparticles: Silica nanoparticles can be functionalized and applied to

super hydrophobicity. These nanoparticles create a rough surface structure that trap air pockets,
preventing water from wetting the surface. Additionally, the surface can be modified with
hydrophobic molecules. Examples include silica nanoparticles coated with hydrophobic agents
like alkylsilanes.

❖ Carbon-based Materials: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and carbon nanofibers

are used to create super hydrophobic surfaces. These materials can be aligned or randomly
distributed to form a rough surface with hydrophobic properties. The combination of their unique
structures and hydrophobic coatings contributes to water repellency.

❖ Metal-based Materials: Various metals and metal oxides can be used to create super
hydrophobic surfaces. One approach involves creating micro/nanostructured surfaces using
etching techniques, such as chemical etching or electrochemical etching, on metals like
aluminum, copper, or stainless steel. These structures, combined with appropriate surface
treatments, enhance water repellency.

❖ Polymer-based Materials: Some polymers, when processed and structured

appropriately, can exhibit super hydrophobic properties. For example, polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS) can be modified and structured to create rough surfaces with low surface energy,
resulting in super hydrophobic behavior.

❖ Natural Materials: Certain natural materials, such as lotus leaves and butterfly wings,
have inherently super hydrophobic properties. Researchers have studied the surface structures
and chemical composition of these natural surfaces to replicate them artificially. Mimicking the
hierarchical structures and utilizing hydrophobic coatings can create super hydrophobic surfaces.

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❖ Hybrid Materials: Combinations of different materials are often used to create super
hydrophobic surfaces. For instance, hybrid coatings can be formed by combining nanoparticles,
polymers, and other materials to achieve synergistic effects and optimize super hydrophobic
properties.

Techniques used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces

To prepare super hydrophobic surfaces, various techniques are employed to modify the
surface structure and chemistry of materials. These techniques aim to create roughness and
reduce surface energy, leading to high water repellency.

Here are some commonly used techniques :

• Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): CVD involves the deposition of thin films onto a
substrate through chemical reactions in the vapor phase. By using appropriate precursors, surface
coatings with low surface energy can be achieved, resulting in super hydrophobicity.

• Sol-Gel Method: The sol-gel process involves the synthesis of inorganic materials from a
solution (sol) that undergoes a gelation process to form a solid network. By controlling the
composition and structure of the sol-gel materials, super hydrophobic coatings can be created on
various substrates.

• Electrochemical Methods: Electrochemical techniques like anodization and

electroplating can be employed to create super hydrophobic surfaces. Anodization involves the
controlled oxidation of metals, such as aluminum, to form a porous oxide layer with a rough
surface. Electroplating can be used to deposit metals or alloys with desired surface properties.

• Plasma Treatment: Plasma treatment involves exposing the material surface to low-
pressure plasma, which can modify the surface chemistry and morphology. Plasma etchnig,
deposition, or functionalization techniques can be used to create superhydrophobic surfaces with
specific characteristics.

• Micro/Nanostructuring Techniques: Various fabrication methods can be used to create

micro- and nanostructures on surfaces, which contribute to super hydrophobicity.

Examples include:

 Photolithography: Photolithography uses light-sensitive materials (photoresists) to pattern

surfaces at the microscale or nanoscale. These patterns can be transferred onto the substrate
to create controlled roughness.
 Laser Ablation: Laser ablation involves using a laser to remove or modify material on the
surface, creating micro- or nanoscale features. This technique can generate rough structures
and surface textures that enhance super hydrophobic properties.

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 Nanosphere Lithography: Nanosphere lithography utilizes self-assembled monolayers of

closely packed nanospheres as a mask to create ordered nanoscale patterns on the substrate.
These patterns can be transferred into the substrate material to achieve superhydrophilicity.
 Electrospinning: Electrospinning involves using an electric field to draw a polymer solution
into fine fibers. These fibers can be collected onto a substrate, creating a porous and rough
surface structure suitable for super hydrophobic applications.
 Chemical Modification: Surface functionalization with hydrophobic molecules, such as
alkylsilanes (e.g., octadecyltrichlorosilane, OTS), can be employed to reduce the surface
energy and create super hydrophobicity. This technique involves depositing a self-assembled
monolayer (SAM) of the hydrophobic molecules onto the substrate.

These are just a few examples of the techniques used to prepare super
hydrophobic surfaces. Each technique has its advantages, and the choice depends on the
specific material, substrate, and desired surface characteristics. Often, a combination of
techniques is used to achieve optimal super hydrophobic properties.

Engineering Applications of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces

Super hydrophobic surfaces have potential applications in the electronics,
automobile, and aerospace industries, offering several benefits in these sectors. Here are some
specific applications :

Electronics Industry :

• Waterproofing Electronics: Super hydrophobic coatings can protect electronic

components from water damage. By applying super hydrophobic coatings on circuit boards,
connectors, and other sensitive electronic parts, water ingress can be minimized, improving the
reliability and durability of electronic devices.

• Moisture Resistance: Electronic devices exposed to humid environments or moisture-

prone conditions benefit from super hydrophobic coatings. These coatings prevent moisture from
reaching heal electronic components, reducing the risk of short circuits, corrosion io
malfunction.

• Self-Cleaning Displays: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to displays and touch

screens repel water, oils, and fingerprints, making them easier to clean and maintain. This
improves the visibility and functionality of electronic displays, especially in outdoor or light-
touch application.

Automobile Industry

• Anti-Fogging Windows and Minors: Super hydrophobic coatings can be used on

automobile windows and mirrors to prevent fogging or condensation formation. The water-

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repellent property helps maintain clear visibility, enhancing driver safety and comfort in humid
or cold weather conditions.

• Self-Cleaning Surfaces: Applying super hydrophobic coatings to the exterior surfaces of

vehicles can facilitate self-cleaning by repelling water, dirt, and contaminants. This reduces the
need for frequent washing and maintenance, keeping the vehicle cleaner and improving its
appearance.

• Fuel Efficiency: Super hydrophobic coatings can reduce drag and frictional resistance on
vehicle surfaces, leading to improved aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. By minimizing water
adhesion, the coatings help reduce the accumulation of water droplets on the vehicle's exterior,
decreasing drag and optimizing performance.

Aerospace Industry :

• Anti-Icing and Deicing: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to aircraft surfaces can
prevent ice formation or facilitate ice removal. This is particularly important for critical areas
such as wings, engine components, and sensors, helping to ensure safe operations and reducing
the risk of ice-related incidents.

• Drag Reduction: Super hydrophobic coatings on aircraft surfaces can minimize

frictional drag during flight, leading to improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions. The
water-repellent property helps maintain a smooth airflow o ver the surface, optimizing
aerodynamic performance.

• Corrosion Resistance: Super hydrophobic coatings can protect aerospace components

from corrosion caused by exposure to moisture, rain, or harsh environments by repelling water
and reducing surface contact with corrosive agents these coating help preserve the structural
integrity and lifespan of aerospace equipment.

4.4.2 Self-Cleaning Surfaces

Self-cleaning surfaces are surfaces that are able to clean themselves without the need for
manual cleaning. These surfaces are typically super hydrophobic and have a high contact angle
with water, which causes water droplets to bead up and roll off the surface, carrying away any
dirt or debris.

Principle of Self-Cleaning Surfaces : The principle of self-cleaning surfaces is based on

two main mechanisms: the reduction of surface energy and the modification of surface texture.
These mechanisms work together to minimize the adhesion of (1111 water, and oilier
contaminants, enabling the self-cleaning effect. Here's a breakdown of the principle:

• Low Surface Energy: Self-cleaning surfaces often have low surface energy, which
means they have a reduced affinity for liquid and solid particles. Materials with low surface

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energy repel water, oils, and other substances, preventing them from adhering to the surface. This
property is typically achieved through the application of hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings.
Such as fluoropolymers or other low-surface-energy materials.

• Lotus Effect: The Lotus Effect is a phenomenon observed in nature on the leaves of
lotus plants. It is a classic example of self-cleaning surfaces. Lotus leaves have a unique
micro/nanostructured surface covered with hydrophobic wax crystals. When water droplets come
into contact with the leaf surface, they form near-perfect spheres and roll off, collecting dirt and
contaminants along the way. This is due to the combination of the surface's low surface energy
and the presence of micro/nanostructures, which reduce the contact area and enable easy droplet
mobility.

• Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surface texture plays a crucial role in self-cleaning

surfaces. Microscopic or nanoscopic structures can be engineered or naturally occurring on a
surface to create a roughness that limits the contact between the surface and contaminants these
structures can trap air pockets, causing liquids to form droplets with reduced contact area,
minimizing adhesion. The trapped air can act as a lubricant, aiding in the easy removal of
particles.

• External Factors: While the surface properties contribute to self-cleaning, external

factors like water, wind, or light often play a role in activating the self-cleaning process. For
example, the presence of water, either through rainfall or manual washing, can help remove
loosely adhered particles from the surface. Sunlight or UV radiation can activate photocatalytic
reactions on certain surfaces, breaking down organic matter and enhancing self-cleaning
capabilities.

By combining low surface energy, micro/nanostructured surfaces, and external

factors, self-cleaning surfaces minimize the adhesion and retention of contaminants, making
them easier to clean or enabling them to self-clean when exposed to appropriate conditions.

Material and examples of Self-Cleaning Surfaces

Self-cleaning surfaces are designed to minimize the adhesion of dirt, dust, and other
contaminants, making them easier to clean or allowing them to self-cleaning when exposed to
external forces like water or sunlight. Here are some materials and examples of self-cleaning
surfaces.

 Photocatalytic Coatings: Photocatalyst material, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), can be

used as coating on surfaces to create self-cleaning properties. When exposed to ultraviolet
(UV) light, the photocatalytic surfaces generate reactive oxygen species that break down
organic matter, resulting in the decomposition of dirt and pollutants.
 Super hydrophobic Coatings: Super hydrophobic surfaces exhibit extremely high-water
repellency, which helps in helps in the self-cleaning process. When water comes into contact

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with these surfaces, it forms spherical droplets that easily roll off, carrying away dirt and
contaminants. Examples of super hydrophobic materials.
 Self-Cleaning Glass: Self-cleaning glass incorporates a thin layer of titanium dioxide (TiO2)
or other photocatalytic materials on the surface. When exposed to UV light, the
photocatalytic reaction breaks down organic matter, while the hydrophilic nature of the
surface allows water to spread and wash away the debris, resulting in a self-cleaning effect.
 Oleophobic Coatings: Oleophobic surfaces repel oil and grease, making them resistant to
stains and easier to clean. These Coating are typically made from fluorinated materials that
have low surface energy, preventing oil or oily substances from adhering to the surface.
 Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surfaces with micro- or nanostructures can exhibit
selfcleaning properties due to their ability to reduce contact area and enhance surface
roughness. The Surfaces structures can trap air or create a lotus leaf-like effect, preventing
the adhesion of dirt and facilitating self-cleaning when exposed to water or airflow.
 Self-Cleaning Fabrics: Fabrics treated with hydrophobic or oleophobic coating can repel
liquid, stains, and dirt making them easier to clean. These coating can be applied to textiles
used in clothing, upholstery, or outdoor equipment, reducing the need for frequent washing
and maintenance.

Application of Self-cleaning surfaces and coatings

Self-cleaning surfaces have a wide range of applications in various industries.
Here are some notable examples :
• Architecture and Building Materials: Self-cleaning surfaces find applications in
architectural structures and building materials, such as self-cleaning glass for windows and
facades. These surfaces repel dirt, dust, and pollutants, reducing the need for frequent
cleaning and maintenance.
• Solar Panels: Self-cleaning coatings on solar panels prevent the accumulation of dust
and dirt on the surface, ensuring optimal energy efficiency. By repelling contaminants,
selfcleaning surfaces help maintain the transparency and effectiveness of solar panels.
• Automotive Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be applied to vehicle exteriors,
including car windows and windshields. These surfaces repel water, oil, and dirt, improving
visibility and reducing the need for frequent cleaning.
• Electronics: Self-cleaning coatings can be used on electronic displays, touchscreens, and
optical lenses. These surfaces resist fingerprints, and smudges, ensuring clear visibility and
enhancing device performance.
• Textiles: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to fabrics used in outdoor clothing,
upholstery, and carpets. These coatings repel liquids. stains. and dirt, making the textiles
easier to clean and maintain.
• Medical Equipment: Self-cleaning surfaces can be utilized in medical equipment, such
as hospital furniture, beds, and surfaces prone to contamination. These surfaces minimize the
adhesion of microorganisms, reducing the risk of cross-contamination and improving
hygiene

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• Kitchen and Bathroom Surfaces: Self-cleaning surfaces can be employed in kitchen

countertops, sinks, and bathroom fixtures to repel water, oils, and stains. This helps keep the
surfaces clean and reduces the effort required for cleaning and maintenance.
• Outdoor Signage and Billboards: Self-cleaning coatings on outdoor signage and
billboards prevent the accumulation of dirt, grime, and pollutants. This helps maintain the
visibility and effectiveness of advertisements, reducing the need for manual cleaning.
• Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to air
conditioning and ventilation system components, such as filters and ducts. These surfaces
repel dust and particles, improving air quality and reducing the need for frequent cleaning or
filter replacements.
• Food and Beverage Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be used in food processing
equipment and containers to prevent the adhesion of food residues, oils, and contaminants.
This enhances food safety and facilitates easier cleaning and sanitation.

The engineering applications of self-cleaning surfaces are vast and varied. The
ability to repel dirt, dust, water, and oils offers advantages in terms of cleanliness, efficiency,
and maintenance across numerous industries. By reducing the need for manual cleaning and
improving the performance of various products and applications, self-cleaning surfaces have
the potential to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance safety across a range of
industries.

4.5 Plants Burs and Velcro

Plant burrs, such as those found on burdock, inspired the invention of Velcro, a popular
hook-and-loop fastening system.

The Burrs have small hooks that can latch onto clothing, fur, or feathers, allowing them
to disperse their seeds over a wider area.

Fig: a) The Globular Flower heads of burdock, b) indicating the hook shape

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Fig: Image Showing a) hooks and loops normal view of Velcro,b) Microscopic view hooks and loops of
Velcro.

Velcro was invented by Swiss engineer George De Mestral in 1941, after he became
fascinated by the way buns clung to his clothes and his dog's fur during a walk. He examined the
buns under a microscope and found that they had small hooks that could latch onto loops in
fabric.

De Mestral spent years experimenting with different materials before finally

developing Velcro, which consists of two strips of nylon fabric, one with tiny hooks and the other
with small loops. When pressed together, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a strong bond
that can be easily detached by pulling the two strips apart. Velcro has a wide range of
applications, including in clothing, shoes, bags, and medical devices. It has become a popular
alternative to traditional fasteners, such as buttons and zippers, due to its ease of use and
versatility.

The name "Velcro" is actually a combination of the word’s "velvet" and "crochet," as the
fabric strips resemble velvet and are hooked together like crochet. Velcro has since become a
popular alternative to traditional fasteners, such as buttons and zippers, due to its ease of use and
versatility.

Material Used in Velcro Technology

Velcro Technology uses two main materials: nylon and Polyester.

1. The nylon is extruded to create tiny hooks that are then cut and shaped into the familiar
hooks shape. These hooks are designed to latch onto the loop side of the Velcro.

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Fig: The Hook of Velcro

The loop side of Velcro is made of polyester. Polyester is a Synthetic fabric that is
strong and durable. The polyester is woven into a fabric that has many tiny loops. When the
loops are pressed against the hook side of the Velcro, The Hooks latch onto the loops,
Creating a secure attachment.

Fig: The Loop of Velcro.

In addition to nylon and polyester, the adhesive used to attach the Velcro to
Surfaces can also vary. Some types of types of Velcro use a pressure-sensitive adhesive that
can be easily removed without leaving a residue, while others use a stronger adhesive that
creates a more permanent bond.

Engineering Applications of Velcro Technology

 Clothing and footwear : Velcro is commonly used in clothing and footwear for
closures and adjustable straps. It can be easily opened and closed, making it
convenient for users with limited dexterity or mobility.
 Medical devices: Velcro is used in medical devices such as braces, splints, and
compression garments for its adjustable and secure fastening capabilities.
 Aerospace equipment: Velcro is used in aerospace equipment, such as satellites any
air spacecraft, to secure components in place and prevent them from vibrating or
shifting during launch or flight.
 Automotive industry: Velcro is used in the automotive industry for a range of
applications such as securing carpets and headliners, and attaching door panels and
seat cushions.

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 Packaging industry: Velcro is used in the packaging industry for reasonable closure
on bags, pouches, and other types of packaging.  Sports equipment: Velcro is
used in sports equipment’s such as helmets and gloves, for its ability to provide a
secure and adjustable.

4.6 Shark Skin and Friction Reducing Swim Suits

The denticles on shark skin have evolved over millions of years to reduce
drag and increase swimming efficiency. These structures disrupt the flow of water around
the shark's body, reducing turbulence and minimizing the formation of vortices. As a
result, sharks can swim faster and with less effort compared to other fish.

Fig: Indicating the denticles on shark skin.

Denticles on shark skin are like tiny bumps or ridges. They disrupt the flow of
water around the shark's body, making it smoother and reducing turbulence. This disruption
reduces the resistance the shark experiences as it swims, allowing it to move faster and with less
effort.

Turbulence in Water

Turbulence is when a fluid, like water or air, becomes chaotic and unpredictable.
Instead of flowing smoothly, it swirls and forms irregular patterns. This turbulence creates
resistance or drag, which makes it harder for things to move through the fluid. In swimming,
reducing turbulence is important because it helps to minimize resistance, swimmers to move
more easily and efficiently through the water.

Reducing Drag

When a shark swims through the water, the water normally flows smoothly over its
body. However, the denticles on the shark's skin disrupt this smooth flow They create small

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disturbances in the water, which helps to break up turbulent currents that can slow the shark
down. By reducing turbulence, the denticles make the flow of water around the shark's body
smoother. This smoother flow reduces the resistance or drags the shark experiences as it moves
through the water, allowing it to swim more efficiently.

Frictionless Swim Suits

Shark skin has inspired the development of friction-reducing swim suits, which are
designed to improve the performance of swimmers by reducing drag in the water.
Frictionreducing swim suit use a similar structure to that of shark skin to reduce drag and
improve swimmer performance these suits are made from high-tech materials that mimic the
properties of shark skin, such as the shape and size of the denticles.

Materials Used
The materials used to friction-reducing swim suits inspired by shark skin include :

• Polyurethane- A type of per that is commonly used in the production of swim suits, as it
is durable and can be molded to a variety of shapes.

• Lycra/ Spandex: Lycra and spandex are made from the same synthetic fiber, which is
technically called elastane. Elastane fibers are typically composed of a polymer called
polyurethane which is then blended with other fibers like nylon, polyester, or cotton) that is
known for its stretch and flexibility.

• High-tech fabrics: A range of high-tech fabrics have been developed specifically for use
in swim suits. These fabrics are designed to be lightweight, water-repellent, and hydrodynamic,
and often incorporate materials such as silicone or Teflon to reduce drag.

Examples
• Speedo Fastskin: This swim suit was designed based on the structure of shark skin and is
made from a high-tech fabric that incorporates a range of materials to reduce drag and turbulence
in the water.

• Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra: Another example of a friction-reducing swim suit, the
Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra is made from a combination of polyurethane and hightech fabrics
to provide a hydrodynamic and form-fitting design.

• TYR Venzo: The TYR Venzo is a friction-reducing swim suit that incorporates a unique
surface structure inspired by shark skin, as well as other advanced materials to improve swimmer
performance.

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4.7 Kingfisher Beak and Bullet Train

Figure: Indicating the shape similarities of kingfisher beak and design of the front of the bullet train

The kingfisher beak is an excellent example of nature's design for efficient diving and
fishing. Its unique shape and structure enable the kingfisher to minimize the impact of water
resistance and achieve a successful dive.

The Physics behind the Kingfisher Beak

Streamlining : The beak of a kingfisher is long, slender, and sharply pointed, which helps reduce
drag or air resistance as the bird dives into the water. The streamlined shape allows the kingfisher
to smoothly cut through the air and minimize the energy required for the dive.

Surface Tension : When the kingfisher hits the water, it encounters the resistance caused by
surface tension. Surface tension is the cohesive force between water molecules that creates a
"skin" on the water's surface. The sharp beak of the kingfisher helps to pierce through the water's
surface, breaking the surface tension and reducing the force required to enter the water.

Minimizing Splash : As the kingfisher dives, it needs to enter the water with minimal
disturbance to avoid scaring away the fish it intends to catch. The shape of the beak helps to
reduce the splash generated upon entry. The beak's narrow and pointed design helps create a
smooth entry by minimizing the disturbance of the water surface, allowing the kingfisher to enter
silently and effectively.

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The use of the kingfisher beak as a design inspiration for the front of the bullet train
is an example of how nature-inspired engineering can lead to innovative solutions that improve
the performance and efficiency of m Shinkansen bullet train of Japan is the best example which
used the biomimicry of kingfisher's beak.

Aerodynamic Design :
The front of the Shinkansen is meticulously shaped to reduce air resistance and improve
aerodynamic performance. The streamlined design minimizes drag as the train travels at high
speeds, allowing it to maintain stability and efficiency. The smooth, tapered shape reduces the
pressure difference between the front and rear of the train, reducing noise and vibration.

Pressure Wave Reduction:

When a high-speed train moves through a tunnel, it creates pressure waves that can cause
noise and discomfort for passengers. The nose of the Shinkansen is designed to reduce these
pressure waves by effectively managing airflow and minimizing the compression and expansion
of air as the train enters and exits tunnels. This reduces the noise level and enhances passenger
comfort.

4.8 Human Blood Substitutes Introduction

Human blood substitutes are synthetic products that are designed to act as a replacement
for blood in the human body.

Shortages in blood supplies and concerns about the safety of donated blood have fueled the
development of so-called blood substitutes. The two major types of blood substitutes are volume
expanders, which include solutions such as saline that are used to replace lost plasma volume,

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and oxygen therapeutics, which are agents designed to replace oxygen normally carried by the
haemoglobin in red blood cells. Of these two types of blood substitutes, the development of
oxygen therapeutics has been the most challenging. One of the first groups of agents developed
and tested were perfluorocarbons, which effectively transport and deliver oxygen to tissues but
cause complex side effects, including flulike reactions and are not metabolized by the body.

Blood from the human umbilical cord has been studied for its potential as a substitute source of
red blood cells for transfusion. Red blood cells can be extracted from cord blood via
sedimentation as the blood is cooled. Donated cord blood can be screened for infections
organisms and other contaminants. Research concerning its potential use for transfusion is
ongoing. Of particular concern for implementation are the establishment of safe, effective and
ethical procedures for cord blood collection as well as the development of criteria that help to
ensure safe transfusion and the preservation of cord blood quality.

Basic Requirement for Human Blood Substitutes

Effective Oxygen Transport : Human blood substitutes must be capable of efficiently carrying
and delivering oxygen to the body's tissues. This is a fundamental function of natural blood that
any substitute should be able to replicate or improve upon.

Safety and Compatibility: Blood substitutes should be safe for use in the human body and
welltolerated by the recipient. They should not cause significant adverse reactions, toxicity, or
immune responses. Additionally, they should not interfere with normal blood clotting or other
essential physiological processes.

Storage and Transport: Human blood substitutes should be stable and capable of being stored
and transported easily. This is particularly important in emergency situations or areas where
access to blood products may be limited. The ability to store and transport substitutes effectively
ensures their availability when needed.

Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability: Blood substitutes should be cost-effective and sealable for
widespread use in medical settings. They should be affordable and feasible to produce in large
quantities, meeting the potential demand for blood products.

Types of HBS
Pharmaceutical companies attempted to develop HBOCs ( also called oxygen therapeutics)
and PFCs starting in the 1980 and at first ,seemed to have some success .However ,the
results of most human clinical trials have been disappointing. A study published in 2008 in
the journal of the American Medical Association summarized the results of 16 clinical trials
on five different blood substitutes administered to 3,500 patients. Those receiving blood
substitutes had a threefold increase in the risk of heart attacks compared with the control
group given human donor blood. However, a closer analysis of the results showed that
some of the negative statistics were misleading. The artificial blood products reviewed in
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this study varied in their benefits and risks, and some blood substitutes had very few serious
side effects. The findings suggest that some blood substitutes may be safer and more
beneficial than scientists originally thought.

There are two types of human blood substitutes - hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs)
and perfluorocarbons (PFC's).

Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) :HBOCs are based on the hemoglobin

molecule, which is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to the body's tissues.
Hemoglobin is extracted from human or animal blood and then modified to create a stable,
synthetic version. When introduced into the body, HBOCs can help to increase amount of oxygen
available to the tissues, which can be important in situation body is unable to produce or
transport enough red blood cells.

Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are “made of”’ natural haemoglobins that were
originally developed as blood substitutes but have been extended to a variety of hypoxic clinical
situations due to their ability to release oxygen. Compared with traditional preservation
protocols, the addition of HBOCs to traditional preservation protocols provides more oxygen to
organs to meet their energy metabolic needs prolongs preservation time, reduces
ischemia reperfusion injury to grafts, improves graft quality , and even increases the number of
transplantable donors. The focus of the present study was to review the potential applications of
HBOCs in solid organ preservation and provide new approaches to understanding the mechanism
of promising strategies for organ preservation.

Perfluorocarbons (PFC's) : PFC’s are synthetic molecules that are similar in structure to
the hemoglobin molecule. However, unlike HBOC’s they do not require modification from
natural sources. PFCs are able to dissolve oxygen and transport it throughout the body, similar to
the way that red blood cells work.

PFCs remain in the bloodstream for about 48 hours. Because of their oxygen-dissolving ability,
PFCs were the first group of artificial blood products studied by scientists. They are
first generation blood substitutes. Unlike the red-coloured HBOCs, PFCs are usually white.
However, since they do not mix with blood they must be emulsified before they can be given to
patients. PFCs are such good oxygen carriers that researchers are now trying to find out if they
can reduce swollen brain tissue in traumatic brain injury. PFC particles may cause flu-
like symptoms in some patients when they exhale these compounds.

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Advantages of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers

 Increased oxygen-carrying capacity: HBOCs can potentially carry more oxygen per
unit volume than whole blood. This can be advantageous in situations where there is a
need for rapid oxygen delivery or when there is limited availability of blood for
transfusion.
 Universal compatibility: Unlike blood transfusions, which require blood typing and
cross-matching to ensure compatibility, HBOCs can potentially be universally compatible
with any blood type. This can be particularly useful in emergency situations or in areas
where blood matching facilities are limited.
 Longer shelf life: HBOCs have the potential for longer storage and shelf life compared
to donated blood, which has a limited lifespan. This can improv availability of
oxygencarrying substitutes in critical situations and reduce the need for frequently it
blood donations.
 Reduced risk of infections: Blood transfusions carry a small risk of transmitting
infection, such as viruses or bacteria, from the donor to the recipient since HBOC’s are
synthetic and do not rely on human donors, the risk of infections associated with
transaction can be significantly reduced.

Availability in Remove or Challenging settings :

In remote or underdeveloped area where access to safe blood transaction may be
limited HBO’s can potentially provide a viable alternative for oxygen delivery. This can be
particularly beneficial in military setting disaster relief efforts, or during transport of patients
where immediate access to blood is not feasible.

Limitations/Risks of using HBOCs

 Limited oxygen release: One of the challenges with HBOCs is ensuring efficient
oxygen release to the tissues. The oxygen dissociation curve of HBOCs may differ
from that of natural red blood cells, potentially leading to inadequate oxygen delivery
to tissues in certain conditions.
 Short half-life: HBOCs tend to have a shorter half-life in the body compared to
natural red blood cells. This means that the HBOCs may be rapidly cleared from
circulation, reducing their effectiveness and requiring more frequent doses or
infusions.
 Nitric oxide scavenging: HBOCs have a tendency to scavenge nitric oxide, a
molecule important for regulating blood vessel dilation and maintaining normal blood
flow. Excessive nitric oxide scavenging by HBOCs can lead to vasoconstriction,

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impairing blood flow to vital organs and potentially causing adverse cardiovascular
effects.
 Renal toxicity: Some HBOCs have shown a potential for renal toxicity, causing
damage to the kidneys. This can be a significant concern as the kidneys play a crucial
role in filtering and excreting waste products from the body.

 Immunogenicity and adverse reactions: HBOCs can trigger immune responses in

the body, potentially le adding to allergic reactions or other adverse events.
Immunogenicity can vary between different HBOC products and individuals, and
careful monitoring is necessary to identify and manage any potential adverse
reactions.

 Regulatory challenges: HBOCs are subject to rigorous regulatory scrutiny due to

their potential risks and complex nature. Obtaining regulatory approval for HBOC s
can be a lengthy and costly process, and several HBOC products have faced setbacks
in their development due to safety concerns.

 Interference with diagnostic tests: HBOCs can interfere with certain laboratory
tests. such as those measuring bilirubin or liver enzymes. This interference can
complicate the interpretation of results and potentially lead to diagnostic errors.

Examples of HBOCs

There are several examples of hemglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) that have been
developed or are currently in development. Here are a few examples:

• Hemopure: Hemopure is an HBOC that is made from bovine hemoglobin. It has been
approved for use in South Africa, Russia, and some other countries.

• Oxyglobin: Oxyglobin is another HBOC that is made from bovine hemoglobin. It is

approved for veterinary use in the United States and has been used to treat anemia in dogs.

• Hemospan: Hemospan is an HBOC that is being developed by Sangart Inc. It is currently

in clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues.

• MP4OX: MP4OX is an HBOC that is being developed by Baxter Healthcare. It is

designed to increase oxygen delivery to tissues and also to scavenge harmful free radicals in the
bloodstream.

• Hemolink: Hemolink is an HBOC that is being developed by Hemosol Inc. It is designed

to be used in trauma and surgical settings and has shown promise in improving oxygen delivery
to tissues. (Note: Many countries have not yet given regulatory approval for clinical usage of
HBOCs).

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4.8.2 Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are a type of human blood substitute that are designed to deliver
oxygen to the body's tissues. Unlike hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs), which are
based on natural proteins, PFCs are synthetic chemicals that are similar in structure to some
types of industrial solvents.

Advantages of PFC’s
High Oxygen-carrying capacity: PFC’s have the ability to dissolve a significant amount of
oxygen much higher than that of blood. This allows for efficient oxygen delivery to tissues, even
in low-oxygen environments.

 Improved oxygen solubility: PFC’s Exhibit a high solubility for oxygen, meaning that
oxygen molecules can readily dissolve in PFC solutions. This enables PFC’s to transport
and deliver oxygen more effectively than other alternatives.
 Stability and long shelf life: PFC’s are chemically stable and have a long shelf life, making
them suitable for storage and use in emergency situation where the availability of fresh
blood or other oxygen more effectively than other alternatives.
 No blood typing or cross-matching required: Unlike blood transactions which require
compatibility testing and matching of blood types, PFC’s are not dependent on blood typing
this makes them potentially universal oxygen carries, suitable for use in individuals of any
blood type.
 Reduced risk of infection transmission: PFC’s are synthetic substances, eliminating the
risk of transmitting infectious disease associated with blood transactions. This advantage
can be particularly significant in situations where the availability of safe blood products is
limited or in area with a high prevalence of blood-borne infections.
 Compatibility with diagnostic tests: PFC’s do not interface with laboratory diagnostic
tests, allowing for accurate interpretation of test results without potential complications
from the presence of PFC’s.

Limitations of PFCs
 Limited oxygen offloading: While PFCs have a high capacity to carry and dissolve
oxygen, they tend to have a reduced ability to release oxygen to tissues compared to red
blood cells. This can result in inefficient oxygen delivery, especially in situations where
oxygen demand is high or oxygen tension in tissues is low.
 Need for specialized administration methods: PFCs typically require specialized
administration techniques, such as emulsification or encapsulation, to enhance their
stability and improve their oxygen-carrying capacity. These techniques can add
complexity and cost to the administration process.
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 Short half-life: PFCs have a relatively short half-life in the body, leading to the need for
frequent administration to maintain adequate oxygen-carrying capacity. This can be
impractical in certain clinical scenarios or situations where prolonged oxygen delivery is
required.
 Clearance and elimination: PFCs are primarily eliminated from the body through the
kinetics can vary among individuals. This can impact their effectiveness and clearance
rates potentially limiting their duration of action.
 Side effects and toxicity: PFCs have the potential for side effects and toxicity
particularly if used in excessive amounts or for prolonged periods. Adverse effects can
include respiratory distress, immune reactions, and potential organ toxicity. The safety
profile of PFCs needs to be thoroughly studied and monitored.

 Regulatory considerations: PFCs are subject to regulatory approval and scrutiny,lar to

other medical products. Obtaining regulatory approval for PFC-based products can
involve extensive testing and evaluation to ensure their safety and efficiency.

Examples of PFCs
 Perftoran: Perftoran is a PFC that was developed in Russia and is used in sever al
countries, including Russia, Ukraine and China it has been used in the treatment of a
variety of conditions, including trauma, heart attack, and stroke.
 Oxycyte: Oxycyte is a PFC that is being developed by Oxygen Biotherapeutics. It is
currently in clinical trails and has shown in promise in increasing oxygen delivery to
tissue in patients with trauinatic brain injury.
 Oxycyte PFC Emulsion: This is another PFC based blood substitute being developed
by oxygen biotherapeutics. It is designed to be used as an oxygen carrier during surgery
and other medical procedures.
 Hemopure-PFC: Hemopure-PFC is a hybrid blood substitute that combines a PFC
with a hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier. It is being developed by HbO2 therapeutics
and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues in preclinical studies.
It’s important to note that while these technologies show promise they are still in
developed and further studies are needed to evaluate their safety and effectiveness.

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 BBOK407/BBOC407| BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

Question bank Module 4

1. Explain Echolocation with its mechanics.
2. What is ultrasonography? Explain with example.
3. What is SONARs? Explain its Types.
4. Write a note on Photosynthesis process.
5. Explain Photovoltaic cells and write its applications.
6. Explain Bionic leaf with its mechanics and write applications.
7. Write a note on GPS system and Bird flying.
8. Explain Aircraft with its mechanism and also define Lotus leaf effect.
9. Discuss the superhydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces with its mechanism.
10. Write a note on plant burrs.
11. Explain shark skin and how it is relevance to human.
12. How kingfisher beak looks and write its relationship with humans.
13. Write the strategy and potential in the beak that inspired a bullet train.
14. Briefly explain human blood substitutes with HBOs and PFCs

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