Module-4 (5 Hours)

NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS (QUALITATIVE):

Echolocation, Photosynthesis. Bird flying, Lotus leaf effect, Plant burrs, Shark skin, Kingfisher beak. Human
Blood substitutes - hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perflourocarbons (PFCs).

ECHOLOCATION (ULTRASONOGRAPHY, SONARS)

Echolocation is the technique of using sound signals to determine the location of objects through the
echoes. It is a biological mechanism used by some animals like toothed whales (including dolphins, porpoises,
river dolphins, orcas, and sperm whales), bats, oilbirds, swiftlets, shrews, and tenrecs to orient them and find
prey, by actively producing sounds that reflect off objects in their environment. It is used for orientation,
obstacle and predator avoidance, food procurement and social interactions.
The process of echolocation involves the following:
1. Emitting sound waves: The echo locating animal emits high-frequency sound waves, usually in the
ultrasonic range, through vocalizations or clicks. Bats use their larynx or tongue clicks, while dolphins
and whales emit clicks through specialized structures in their blowholes or nasal passages.
2. Propagation of sound waves: Once the sound waves are emitted, they travel through the air or water as
a series of pressure waves.
3. Interaction with objects: When these sound waves encounter objects in the environment, such as
insects, prey, obstacles, or other structures, they interact with them. Some of the sound waves are
absorbed, while others are reflected back as echoes.
4. Receiving echoes: The echo locating animal has specialized sensory organs, such as the ears or
specialized structures like the melon in dolphins that receive the echoes of the emitted sound waves.
These organs are highly sensitive to detect even faint echoes.
5. Analyzing echoes: The animal's brain processes the received echoes to determine the location, size,
shape, and even texture of the objects in its environment. This analysis allows the animal to create a
mental map of its surroundings.
6. Making decisions: Based on the information obtained from the echoes, the echolocating animal can
make decisions on navigation, hunting, or avoiding obstacles. For example, bats use echolocation to
locate and catch insect’s mid-flight, while dolphins use it to detect and track prey underwater.
7. Continual feedback loop: Echolocation is an ongoing process for these animals. As they move through
their environment, they emit sound waves, receive echoes, and adjust their behavior based on the
continuous feedback loop of the information received.
It's important to note that echolocation is a complex and sophisticated ability that has evolved in certain
species to thrive in their specific environments. Humans, for example, do not naturally possess the ability for
echolocation, although some visually impaired individuals have developed the skill to use other sensory
information, such as hearing, to navigate their surroundings effectively.
Humans have also developed technologies inspired by echolocation principles, such as sonar and
ultrasound imaging, which have numerous applications in various fields, including navigation, medicine, and
scientific research.
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
Ultrasonography also called sonography is a technique that uses high-frequency sound (ultrasound)
waves to produce images of internal organs and other tissues. This technique uses the principles of
echolocation to produce real-time images of the internal structures of the body. It is a safe, painless and
noninvasive imaging test that enables healthcare providers to “see” details of soft tissues inside your body
without making any incisions (cuts). And unlike X-rays, ultrasound doesn’t use radiation.
The ultrasound imaging is used for various purposes in the medical field
 Prenatal diagnosis: to monitor the growth and development of the fetus during pregnancy, fetal
movement and heart rate, gestational age of the fetus, congenital conditions (birth defects), amount
of amniotic fluid.
 Diagnostic ultrasound: to view the internal parts of your body, and diagnose different medical
conditions that involve many parts of the body, such as the: Heart and heart valves, Organs in the
abdomen (belly), including the liver, gallbladder, kidneys, pancreas, or spleen, Organs in the pelvis,
including the urinary tract, and male and female reproductive organs, To assess joints, muscles,
tendons, and ligaments for injuries or conditions etc.
SONAR

"Sonar" is an acronym for "Sound Navigation And Ranging." A technique used for detecting and
determining the distance and direction of underwater objects by acoustic means. The principle behind sonar is
similar to how bats use echolocation to navigate and find prey in the air. Sonar systems emit sound waves into
the water, and then they listen for the echoes bouncing back from various objects, such as submarines, marine
life, or the ocean floor. The time taken for the sound waves to travel to the object and back to the source can
be used to calculate the distance to the object.

There are two types of sonar—active and passive.

1. Active Sonar: In active sonar transducers emits sound pulses in to the water, and then it measures the
time it takes for the echo to return after bouncing off an object. The system can analyze the echo's
characteristics to determine the distance, size, and sometimes the composition of the object.
2. Passive Sonar: Passive Sonar systems are used primarily to detect noise from marine objects (such as
submarines or ships) and marine animals like whales. They do not emit their own sound signals.
 Instead, they listen for sounds already present in the environment, such as noise produced by ships or
marine life. By analyzing these sounds, passive sonar can detect and locate objects without revealing
the system's presence.
APPLICATIONS:

 Assistive Devices: Technologies such as sonar-based canes or wearable devices use echolocation
principles to help visually impaired individuals navigate their environment by providing auditory or
tactile feedback.
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Echolocation techniques, such as ultrasonic testing, inspect materials
and structures for flaws without causing damage. This is crucial in industries like aerospace,
construction, and manufacturing.
 Structural Health Monitoring: Echolocation is used to monitor the integrity of buildings, bridges, and
other infrastructure by detecting cracks or other defects.
 Obstacle Detection: Robots and autonomous vehicles use echolocation sensors to detect and avoid
obstacles, enhancing their ability to navigate complex environments.
 Diving and Swimming: Devices using echolocation help divers navigate underwater environments,
improving safety and exploration capabilities.
 Subsurface Exploration: Echolocation techniques like ground-penetrating radar (GPR) are used to
explore subsurface structures, detect buried artifacts, and study geological formations.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy
into chemical energy. During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to convert
water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds.

All green plants and a few other autotrophic organisms i.e., algae and some bacteria utilize
photosynthesis to synthesize nutrients by using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The by-product of the
photosynthesis process is oxygen.

Since these organisms produce their own food that is, fix their own carbon using light energy, they are
called photoautotrophs (literally, self-feeders that use light). Humans, and other organisms that can’t convert
carbon dioxide to organic compounds themselves, are called heterotrophs.
 Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants and blue-green algae. All green parts of a plant,
including the green stems, green leaves, and sepals – floral parts comprise of chloroplasts – green colour
plastids. These cell organelles are present only in plant cells and are located within the mesophyll cells of
leaves. Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of the plant cell and in the mesosomes of
cyanobacteria. This green colour pigment plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis by permitting
plants to absorb energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll is a mixture of chlorophyll-A and chlorophyll-B.

PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages:

 Light-dependent reaction or light reaction

 Light independent reaction or dark reaction

Light Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-dependent Reaction: Photosynthesis begins with the light
reaction which is carried out only during the day in the presence of sunlight. In plants, the light-dependent
reaction takes place in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. Carbon dioxide enters through the stomata;
water is absorbed by the root hairs from the soil and is carried to the leaves through the xylem vessels.
Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy from the sun to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Under
the light-dependent reactions, the light energy is converted to ATP and NADPH, water is used and oxygen is
produced.

Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-independent Reaction: Dark reaction is also called carbon-
fixing reaction. It is a light-independent process in which the hydrogen from water molecules and carbon
dioxide absorbed from the air are used in the production of glucose. The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of
the chloroplast where they utilize the NADPH and ATP products of the light reaction. Glucose is a source of
food for plants that provide energy for growth and development, while the rest is stored in the roots, leaves
and fruits, for their later use.

APPLICATIONS:
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL: Photovoltaic cells, often referred to as solar cells, are electronic devices that
convert sunlight directly into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic cells are a fundamental
component of solar panels, which are used to capture and convert solar energy into usable electrical
power. Photovoltaic cells are typically made from semiconductor materials, most commonly silicon.
Photovoltaic cells generate clean and green energy as no harmful gases such as COx, NOx etc. are
emitted. Also, they produce no noise pollution which makes them ideal for application in residential areas.
 BIONIC LEAF: The term "bionic leaf" typically refers to an artificial system that mimics the process of
photosynthesis in plants to produce energy or fuel from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. This
technology uses sunlight to split water molecules & feed the hydrogen to bacteria which then produces
liquid fuels. Bionic leaves can help mitigate climate change by capturing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and converting it into useful products like fuels or chemicals.

BIRD FLYING

Birds constitute a well-defined group of vertebrate animals, especially designed and adapted for aerial
mode of life. They evolved not only wings, but many other adaptations that make it possible to fly. The flight
motion compromises of hovering, taking off, and landing, involves many complex movements. Birds adapted
over millions of years through evolution for specific environments, prey, predators, and other needs. Flight
adaptations in birds are divided into two categories:

 Morphological Adaptations: Spindle-shaped body to offer less air resistance during flight. Compact
body, dorsally strong and ventrally heavy to maintain equilibrium in the air. Body is covered with
feathers that are smooth, directed backwards, and closely fitting which make the body streamlined and
reduce friction during flight. Forelimbs are modified into wings, which is the only organ of flight. The
anterior part of the body of a bird helps in taking off during flight and also helps birds to land. The hind
limbs help in the locomotion on land and support the entire body weight of a bird.
 Anatomical Adaptations: The well-developed muscles that control the action of the flight, light and rigid
endoskeleton. The birds have a very high rate of metabolism. Therefore, food digests rapidly. The
respiratory system of birds is designed in such a manner that the food is oxidized rapidly and a large
amount of energy is liberated. Since the metabolism rate is higher, a large number of oxygen molecules
are required by the body. For this, the lungs are provided which occupy the entire space between the
internal organs. The temperature of the body of a bird remains high and does not change with the change
in the environment. This facilitates the birds to fly at very high altitudes. Eyes are large and the large
optic lobes correspond to the great development of sight. The much developed and convoluted
cerebellum indicates the delicate sense of equilibrium and the great power of muscular co-ordination
belonging to birds.
GPS TECHNOLOGY:

Birds navigate through their inner GPS. They use a combination of visual cues, earth’s magnetic field
and the celestial (position of the sun and star) clues for migrating.

The development of GPS technology was not directly influenced by birds, but rather a need for the
accurate and reliable navigation system for various purposes including aviation. Global Positioning System
(GPS) uses a network of satellites to provide location and time information, which is used by aircraft
navigation, communication and safety purposes.

Global Positioning System (GPS) technology is a satellite-based navigation system that allows users to
determine their precise location and track their movements anywhere on Earth.

Key components of GPS technology

 Satellites: The GPS system consists of a constellation of orbiting satellites around 24 to 32. These
satellites constantly transmit/ broadcast signals containing precise location, timing information and
their own orbital data.
 Receiver: A GPS receiver is the device used to receive signals from the GPS satellites. The receiver
calculates its own position, velocity, and time by triangulating signals from multiple satellites. Devices
like the smartphones, navigation systems aircrafts etc.
 Control Segment: The control segment consists of ground-based stations responsible for tracking the
GPS satellites, monitoring their orbits, and making adjustments to their onboard atomic clocks. These
adjustments ensure accurate timekeeping, which is crucial for precise positioning.
  User segment: the user segment consists of the GPS receivers used by individuals and organisations to
obtain location and time information.

GPS technology has a wide range of applications, including navigation, mapping, surveying, search and
rescue and military operations.

AIRCRAFTS

Aircraft development has indeed been influenced by the mechanisms of bird flight, and this concept is
often referred to as "biomimicry" or "biomimetics." Engineers and researchers have looked to nature,
including birds, for inspiration in designing more efficient and maneuverable aircraft. Here are some ways in
which bird flight mechanisms have influenced aircraft development:

 Lift and Aerodynamics: Both aircraft and birds rely on the principles of aerodynamics to generate lift.
Both utilize airfoil-shaped surfaces (wings for birds, wings and airfoils for aircraft) to create pressure
differences between the upper and lower surfaces, allowing them to overcome gravity and stay airborne.
 Thrust and Propulsion: Both aircraft and birds require a forward thrust or propulsion to generate the
necessary speed for flight. Aircraft use engines, such as jet engines or propellers, to provide thrust, while
birds achieve this through flapping their wings in a coordinated manner.
 Navigation and Orientation: Both aircraft and birds have the ability to navigate and orient themselves in
flight. Birds use visual cues, landmarks, and celestial references to navigate during migration or in their
daily activities. Aircraft utilize navigation systems, GPS, and onboard instruments to determine their
position and course.
 Energy Efficiency: Birds and aircraft both strive for energy efficiency in flight. Birds optimize their
flight patterns, such as gliding and using updrafts, to conserve energy during long flights. Aircraft
manufacturers design aircraft with aerodynamic efficiency in mind to reduce fuel consumption and
increase range.
 Takeoff and Landing: Both birds and aircraft have specific procedures for takeoff and landing. Birds use
their powerful wing muscles to generate enough lift for takeoff, and they often glide or use controlled
descents for landing. Aircraft rely on runways for takeoff and landing, using their engines to accelerate
and generate enough lift.
 Adaptation to Environment: Both birds and aircraft adapt to their respective environments. Birds have
evolved specialized wing shapes and flight styles suited to their ecological niches, while aircraft are
designed with specific purposes in mind, such as passenger transport, cargo hauling, or military
operations.
 Wing Design: Birds have evolved wings that vary in shape and size based on their specific flight
behaviors. Engineers have drawn inspiration from these variations to design aircraft wings that
optimize lift, reduce drag, and improve maneuverability. For instance, the concept of winglets on
aircraft wings was inspired by the way birds have feathers that help reduce turbulence at the
wingtips, leading to better fuel efficiency.

 Wing Flexibility: Bird wings exhibit controlled flexibility, allowing them to adapt to various flight
conditions. Some aircraft incorporate flexible wing designs that adjust to aerodynamic forces,
leading to improved efficiency and reduced turbulence. This concept is similar to the way birds
adjust their wing shape in response to changing flight requirements.
 Morphing Wing Structures: Some aircraft concepts incorporate morphing wing structures that can
change their shape during flight, allowing for optimal performance at various speeds and altitudes.
These mimic the way birds can adjust the shape of their wings to adapt to different flight conditions.
 Gliding Techniques: Birds use various gliding techniques to conserve energy during flight.
Engineers have incorporated these techniques into the design of glider aircraft and even in certain
concepts of renewable energy generation, like energy-harvesting kites that harness wind power.
 Vortex Generation: Birds take advantage of the aerodynamic phenomenon known as "vortex
generation" to enhance lift. Engineers have incorporated similar concepts into the design of aircraft
wings and airfoils, aiming to improve lift generation at low speeds and during takeoff and landing.

 Wingtips and Vortex Generation: Birds often use their wingtips to generate vortices that enhance lift
and maneuverability. Aircraft designers have incorporated winglets and other wingtip modifications
to reduce drag and improve efficiency, similar to how birds create vortices during flight.
  Energy Efficiency: Birds are highly energy-efficient fliers due to their ability to adjust their wing
motions and take advantage of updrafts. Aircraft designers have studied these energy-saving
techniques to develop more efficient flying machines, especially for applications like long-endurance
drones.
 Maneuverability: Birds exhibit exceptional maneuverability, enabling them to navigate complex
environments and perform intricate aerial maneuvers. Researchers have examined these behaviors to
improve the agility and responsiveness of aircraft, particularly in military and drone applications.

LOTUS LEAF EFFECT

The lotus plant (Nelumbo nucifera) is an aquatic plant that grows in various parts of Asia and is highly
revered in many cultures for its beauty and symbolism. The Lotus leaf effect, also known as the Lotus effect
or self-cleaning effect, refers to the remarkable water-repellent and self-cleaning properties exhibited by the
leaves of the lotus plant and certain other plants.

The Lotus leaf's unique water-repellent behavior is primarily attributed to its micro- and nano-scale
surface structure, as well as the presence of a waxy hydrophobic coating. The surface of the leaf is covered in
tiny bumps and ridges, which trap air and prevent water droplets from fully contacting the surface. This
minimizes the area of contact between water and the leaf, causing water droplets to bead up and rolls off the
surface, carrying away dirt and debris in the process. This phenomenon is often referred to as the "lotus
effect." This self-cleaning mechanism helps the leaves stay clean and dry, even when they are submerged in
water.

This effect has garnered significant attention in both scientific and engineering communities; it has
inspired researchers and engineers to develop new materials and coatings that mimic this water-repellent
behavior for various applications. Such materials have been used in clothing, paints, coatings for buildings,
and even in creating self-cleaning surfaces for solar panels and other electronic devices.

SUPER HYDROPHOBIC EFFECT:

The lotus leaf effect has inspired the development of super hydrophobic materials with applications in
various fields, including coatings, textiles, and self-cleaning surfaces. The Super hydrophobic Effect is a
broader concept that encompasses the Lotus Leaf Effect. A surface is considered super hydrophobic if it
exhibits extreme water-repellent properties, often characterized by a water contact angle greater than 150
degrees.

This means that water droplets on a super hydrophobic surface tend to bead up and roll off the surface,
similar to what is observed with lotus leaves. Super hydrophobic surfaces are engineered to have micro- or
nano-scale roughness along with low surface energy, which prevents wetting, resulting in water droplets
assuming a spherical shape and easily sliding off the surface.

Super hydrophobic surfaces are created by modifying the surface chemistry and structure of materials
to achieve high water repellency. Some of the commonly used materials are

 Hydrophobic Coatings of Fluoropolymers, like polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),

 Chemical Modification: The surface is chemically treated to introduce hydrophobic functional groups,
altering the surface energy and making it water-repellent. Silanes and fluorosilanes are commonly
used for chemical modification.
 Hydrophobic Nanoparticles: Hydrophobic nanoparticles can be deposited or embedded onto the
surface to create a rough texture and repel water. These nanoparticles can include silica, carbon
nanotubes, and other nanomaterials.
 Textured Surfaces: Surfaces are physically textured to reduce the contact area with water droplets,
minimizing wetting.
  Fabrication Techniques: Various fabrication techniques, such as electrospinning, etching, lithography,
and laser ablation, are used to create the required surface structures.
 Metals: Metals like aluminum, copper, and stainless steel can be treated to achieve super
hydrophobicity through various methods.

APPLICATIONS:

 It prevents damage to electrical or electronic equipment by accidental contact with water.

 Useful in paints for protecting the walls and protection of public spaces against vandalism, as well as
the development of antibacterial surfaces.
 Super hydrophobic coatings can be applied to metal surfaces to prevent water and moisture from
coming into direct contact with the metal. This helps inhibit corrosion and extends the lifespan of the
material, making it useful in industries like aerospace, marine, and automotive.
 Super hydrophobic surfaces can also exhibit anti-icing properties. By repelling water and preventing
ice buildup, these surfaces can reduce the need for de-icing chemicals and improve the safety and
efficiency of structures and equipment in cold environments.
 It can be used on automobile windows and mirrors to prevent fogging or condensation formation. The
water repellent property helps maintain clear visibility, enhancing driver safety and comfort in humid
or cold weather conditions

SELF-CLEANING SURFACES

Self-cleaning surfaces are surfaces that are able to clean themselves without the need for manual
cleaning. These surfaces are typically super hydrophobic and have a high contact angle with the water, which
cause the water droplets to bead up and roll off the surface, carrying away any dirt or debris.

The principle of self-cleaning surface is based on two main mechanisms i.e,

 The reduction of surface energy: materials with low surface energy repel water, oils and other
substances, preventing them from adhering to the surface. This property is typically achieved through
the application of hydrophobic or oleo phobic coatings such as fluoropolymers or other low surface
energy materials
 The modification of surface texture: Surface texture plays a crucial role in self-cleaning surfaces.
Microscopic/nanoscopic structures can be engineered or naturally occurring on a surface to create a
roughness that limits the contact between the surface and contaminants. These structures can trap air
pockets, causing liquids to form droplets with reduced contact area, minimizing adhesion. The trapped
air can act as a lubricant, aiding in the easy removal of particles.
 These mechanisms work together to minimize the adhesion of dirt, water, and other contaminants,
enabling the self-cleaning effect.

Self-cleaning surfaces have found applications in various fields, including:

 Textiles: Self-cleaning fabrics and clothing that repel water and dirt, maintaining a fresh appearance
for longer periods.
 Building Materials: Self-cleaning paints and coatings for buildings, which help prevent the
accumulation of dirt, grime, and pollutants on surfaces.
 Medical Devices: Self-cleaning and anti-bacterial surfaces for medical devices and equipment,
reducing the risk of infection.
 Solar Panels: Self-cleaning coatings for solar panels to maintain their efficiency by preventing dust
and dirt buildup.
 Automotive: Self-cleaning car coatings that repel water and prevent dirt from sticking to the surface.
 Consumer Electronics: Self-cleaning screens for smartphones, tablets, and other devices to reduce
smudging and fingerprint marks.
 Environmental Applications: Self-cleaning materials used in water purification and filtration systems,
as well as anti-fouling coatings for ship hulls to prevent the attachment of marine organisms.

PLANT BURRS - VELCRO

Plant burrs, also known as burrs or burr seeds, are small, often prickly or barbed, seed-bearing
structures that attach themselves to fur, feathers, clothing, or other surfaces, aiding in seed dispersal. These
burrs are designed by plants as a means to spread their seeds over greater distances, increasing the chances of
successful germination and survival.

The burrs themselves are a type of adaptation that has evolved in many plant species to exploit animals
for seed distribution. When animals or humans brush against the plant, the burrs latch onto their hair, clothing,
or feathers. As the animals move around, the burrs are carried away from the parent plant. Eventually, the
burrs may fall off, depositing the seeds in a new location, where they can potentially grow into new plants.
One of the most well-known examples of a plant burr is that of the burdock plant, which produces spiky,
hooked burrs that are notorious for sticking to clothing and animal fur.

Plant burrs and Velcro are connected through the concept of biomimicry, where human-designed
products and technologies are inspired by nature's solutions. Velcro, on the other hand, is a fastening system
that mimics the attachment mechanism of plant burrs.
 Velcro was invented in the 1940s by Swiss engineer George de Mestral, who was inspired by the way
burrs attached to his dog's fur during a hike. He examined burrs under a microscope and noticed the small
hooks that enabled them to stick to various surfaces. This observation led him to create Velcro, a system of
two strips of fabric, one with tiny hooks and the other with loops that could be easily fastened and unfastened,
just like the mechanism found in plant burrs.

The term "Velcro" is actually a combination of two French words: "velours" (meaning velvet) and
"crochet" (meaning hook). This reflects the essence of the technology, where the hooks on one side of the
material attach to the loops on the other side, creating a secure yet easily separable fastening system.

Velcro has been widely used in various applications, from clothing and footwear to medical devices
and aerospace equipment. Its design was directly inspired by the natural innovation of plant burrs, showcasing
how observing and understanding nature's mechanisms can lead to innovative human creations.

It is made of 2 main materials: nylon and polyester

1. The nylon is extruded to create tine hooks that are then cut and shaped into the familiar hook shape.
These hooks are designed to latch onto the loop side of the Velcro.
2. The loop side is made of polyester, a synthetic fabric that is strong and durable. It is woven into a
fabric that has many tiny loops. When the loops are pressed against the hook side of the Velcro, the
hooks latch onto the loops, creating a secure attachment.

Some common applications of Velcro include:

 Clothing, Apparel and shoes: Velcro is often used in place of buttons, zippers, or snaps in clothing
 Medical Devices: Velcro is used in various medical applications, such as attaching splints, braces, and
support straps.
 Outdoor Gear: Many outdoor products, like backpacks, tents, and camping gear, use Velcro to secure
flaps, pockets, and compartments, providing easy access and closure.
 Automotive Interiors: Velcro is used in car interiors to hold various items in place, such as floor mats,
seat cushions, and sun visors.
  Electronics: Velcro can be used to manage cables and cords by securing them to surfaces
 Sports Equipment: sports equipment like gloves, protective gear, and athletic apparel
 Aerospace and Aviation: In certain aerospace applications, Velcro is used to secure items in place
within the cabin or cargo areas of aircraft.
 Furniture: Velcro can be used in furniture design to attach cushions, upholstery, and fabric elements
securely.
 Packaging industry.

Velcro's adaptability, strength, and ease of use make it a valuable solution in a wide range of industries and
everyday applications.

SHARK SKIN (FRICTION REDUCING SWIM SUITS)

Shark skin is covered by tiny flat V-shaped scales, known as dermal denticles (skin teeth) that are more like
teeth than fish scales. They are shaped like small riblets and aligned in the direction of fluid flow. These scales
are arranged in a way that resembles the pattern of overlapping shingles on a roof. Each scale is made up of a
hard, tooth like structure, and is covered in tiny grooves or ridges that run parallel to the long axis of the scale.
These grooves are filled with a mucus layer that helps reduce drag and prevent the growth of microorganisms.
The shape and orientation of the scales help to minimize drag and turbulence as the shark moves through
water, allowing the shark to swim faster and more quietly.

When a shark swims through the water, the water normally flows smoothly over its body. However,
the denticles on the shark skins disrupt this smooth flow. They create small disturbances in the water, which
helps to break up turbulent currents (swirls and irregular patterns in the water that creates resistance or drag
and makes movement harder in the water) that can slow the shark down. By reducing turbulence, the denticles
make the flow of water around the shark’s body smoother. This smoother flow reduces the resistance or drags
the shark experiences as it moves through the water, allowing it swim more efficiently.
 Researchers and engineers have taken inspiration from shark skin to design swimsuits with similar
textured surfaces. These swimsuits are often made using advanced materials and manufacturing techniques to
replicate the friction-reducing properties of shark skin. Sharkskin-inspired swimsuits, also known as friction-
reducing swimsuits, are a type of swimwear designed to mimic the texture of shark skin in order to enhance a
swimmer's performance. The textured surface of the swimsuit helps to create a smoother flow of water around
the swimmer's body, reducing drag and potentially improving swimming performance. The materials used to
create the swim suits include, polyurethane, lycra, spandex, high tech fabrics, silicone, teflon etc. to make
them durable, lightweight, flexible, stretchable, hydrodynamic and water repellent.

KINGFISHER BEAK (BULLET TRAIN)

The Shinkansen bullet train travels along high-speed railways throughout Japan at speeds of 240–320
km/hr (150–200 mph), carrying millions of passengers every year. However, when it was first designed, as
named the trains were so fast with the typical bullet shape and just like a rifle, every time the train would blast
out of a tunnel, it did so with an explosive bang, a loud booming sound .The high speeds of trains caused an
atmospheric pressure wave to build up in front of the train. When it would travel through tunnels, the wave
would cause a loud “tunnel boom” at the exit, disturbing nearby residents as well as the wildlife. The
phenomenon, which is called ‘Tunnel Boom’, is created by the train forcing air along the enclosed tunnel, and
building up the air pressure in waves until it reaches the end of the tunnel when it is released in the form of a
sonic boom. The engineers had to find a way for the train to travel more quietly without sacrificing speed or
using more energy.

The engineers looked to nature to re-design the bullet train. They noticed how kingfisher birds are able
to slice through the air and dive into the water to catch prey while barely making a splash. Renowned for their
noiseless dive, the kingfisher's iconic beak-shape has inspired the design of high speed bullet trains. They then
re-designed the front end of the train to mimic the shape of the kingfisher’s beak. It had a pointy part, just like
the beak of the kingfisher. Not only did this help to reduce noise and eliminate tunnel booms, it also allowed
the train to travel 10% faster using 15% less electricity.

The kingfisher's beak is a distinctive and specialized feature that helps it thrive in its environment.
Kingfishers are a family of birds known for their remarkable fishing abilities. Their beaks are adapted for
catching and consuming aquatic prey, primarily fish and aquatic insects. The kingfisher's beak is typically
long, pointed, and sharp. It varies in size and shape among different species. Kingfisher beaks are usually
elongated and slightly curved, allowing the bird to dive into the water to catch prey with precision. The beak's
shape helps reduce water resistance while diving. The long, narrow pointed beak allows it to enter the water
while barely making a splash. The beak steadily increases in diameter from the tip to the head, which helps
reduce impact when the bird hits the water. The kingfisher's beak is known for its streamlined and
aerodynamic shape, which helps the bird dive into water to catch fish with minimal resistance.

HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES - HEMOGLOBIN-BASED OXYGEN CARRIERS (HBOCS) AND

PERFLOUROCARBONS (PFCS).

Blood is a special type of connective tissue that is composed of white cells, red cells, platelets and
plasma. It has a variety of functions in the body.

 Plasma is the extracellular material made up of water, salts various proteins that along with
platelets, encourages blood to clot.
 The white blood cells are responsible for the immune defense.
 The red cells in blood create the bright red color. These cells are responsible for the
transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body.

A blood substitute is a substance used to mimic and fulfill some functions of biological blood. It is
also known as also known as artificial blood or blood substitutes. It aims to provide an alternative to blood
transfusion, which is transferring blood or blood based products from one person into another. These
substitutes have been developed to address the shortage of donated human blood for transfusions, especially
in emergency situations or in regions where blood supply is limited. Artificial blood is designed for the sole
purpose of transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body.

There are two main types of blood substitutes:

A. Hemoglobin-based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs): HBOCs are biological products obtained from purified
hemoglobin (Hb) to have the ability to bind and release oxygen. Hemoglobin (Hb) is the protein
present in red blood cells that is responsible for delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the other tissues
in the body. Artificial blood based on hemoglobin and takes advantage of this natural function.
HBOCs are a type of human blood substitute that is designed to carry and deliver oxygen to the body’s
 tissues. The purified hemoglobin used are obtained from several different sources like human,
animal, or recombinantly producing hemoglobin and formulating into a solution or suspension that can
be infused into a patient’s bloodstream. Human hemoglobin is obtained from donated blood that
has reached its expiration date and from the small amount of red cells collected as a byproduct
during plasma donation.
There are several examples of HBOCs that have been developed or are currently in development.
Some of the examples are:
 Hemopure: Hemopure is one of the well-known HBOCs developed by Hemoglobin Oxygen
Therapeutics LLC. It is derived from bovine hemoglobin and is purified and chemically modified
to enhance its stability and oxygen-carrying capacity.
 PolyHeme: PolyHeme, developed by Northfield Laboratories (now part of BioTime Inc.), is
another HBOC that is derived from human hemoglobin obtained from expired blood. It has been
studied for use in trauma and hemorrhage cases, where the immediate availability of blood for
transfusion may be limited.
 Hemolink: Hemolink, developed by Hemosol Inc., is an HBOC that was being developed to
address the limitations of traditional blood transfusions. It was designed to be compatible with all
blood types and have a longer shelf life compared to donated blood.
 Oxyglobin: Oxyglobin is an HBOC specifically designed for veterinary use. It was developed by
Biopure Corporation and is used in animals to treat conditions where blood transfusions are
needed, such as anemia due to blood loss.
 Hemospan (MP4): Hemospan is an HBOC developed by Sangart Inc. It is based on a modified
hemoglobin molecule with the aim of extending its circulation time in the body and improving
oxygen delivery to tissues. It has undergone clinical trials for various medical applications,
including during surgery and in critical care situations.

HBOCs have shown potential benefits, but their development and approval have faced challenges.
Concerns have arisen regarding their safety, potential for causing side effects like vasoconstriction, oxidative
stress, and interference with accurate pulse oximetry readings.

B. Perfluorocarbon-Based Oxygen Carriers (PFCs): PFCs are completely synthetic hydrocarbon based
compounds and are biologically inert materials that can dissolve about 50 times more oxygen than
blood plasma. Unlike HBOC’s that are natural, PFCs are synthetic that are designed to deliver oxygen
to body tissues. Perfluorocarbons are organic compounds in which all hydrogen atoms are replaced
with fluorine atoms. This results in a highly fluorinated hydrocarbon structure that is chemically inert,
 thermally stable, and insoluble in water. These properties make PFCs suitable for carrying and
delivering oxygen.
PFCs have a high capacity for dissolving oxygen, even more so than blood plasma. When
PFCs are exposed to an oxygen-rich environment, they can absorb a significant amount of oxygen.
This oxygen-loaded PFC can then be transported to areas of low oxygen concentration, such as tissues
with poor blood circulation.
Perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers have been investigated for various medical
applications, including:
 Blood Substitute: PFCs can potentially serve as an alternative to red blood cells in cases of
blood loss, where immediate oxygen transport is crucial.
 Tissue Oxygenation: PFCs can be used to increase oxygen supply to tissues in conditions such
as ischemia (restricted blood flow), stroke, or tissue damage due to trauma.
 Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy: PFCs have been explored for enhancing oxygen delivery during
hyperbaric oxygen therapy, a medical treatment that involves breathing pure oxygen in a
pressurized chamber to increase oxygen levels in tissues.

Few examples of perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers are:

 Fluosol-DA: Fluosol-DA was one of the earliest perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers to be

developed. It was a colloidal suspension of perfluorocarbon molecules that could carry and release
oxygen. It was investigated for use in improving tissue oxygenation during surgeries and treating
ischemic conditions. However, it faced challenges in terms of stability and immunological responses.
 Oxygent: Oxygent, also known as perflubron emulsion, was another perfluorocarbon-based oxygen
carrier that was developed for use in surgery and critical care. It was composed of perflubron, a
specific type of perfluorocarbon, suspended in an emulsion. Oxygent was investigated as a blood
substitute and was capable of carrying large amounts of oxygen. Clinical trials were conducted, but the
product faced regulatory hurdles and was eventually discontinued.
 Perflubron-based Oxygen Therapeutics (PBTs): Perflubron is a type of perfluorocarbon that has been
used as an oxygen carrier in various formulations. These formulations involve mixing perflubron with
other substances to create stable emulsions that can transport oxygen.
 PFC Nanoparticles: Some researchers have focused on developing perfluorocarbon nanoparticles as
oxygen carriers. These nanoparticles can encapsulate oxygen within their structure and release it as
needed. These particles can be engineered to be biocompatible and have potential applications in
targeted oxygen delivery to specific tissues or cells.
APPLICATIONS OF HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES: Some potential applications of human blood
substitutes include:

 Emergency Situations: Blood substitutes can be crucial in emergency situations where rapid blood loss
requires immediate intervention. They can buy time until a compatible blood type is available for
transfusion.
 Trauma and Accident Cases: In cases of accidents, trauma, or major surgeries, patients might require
large amounts of blood quickly. Blood substitutes can help stabilize the patient's condition until they
can receive appropriate medical care.
 Remote or Challenging Environments: In remote or inaccessible areas where transporting and storing
fresh blood might be difficult, blood substitutes can provide a viable option to manage blood loss and
support patients.
 Treatment of Anemia: Blood substitutes can help increase oxygen-carrying capacity in individuals
with severe anemia, improving tissue oxygenation and overall health.
 Military and Combat Settings: Military medics and field hospitals can benefit from blood substitutes to
treat wounded soldiers in combat zones, where traditional blood products might be scarce or difficult
to transport.
 Organ Transplants: During organ transplantation surgeries, patients often require blood products.
Blood substitutes can offer an alternative to reduce the need for donated blood and the associated risks.
 Management of Blood Disorders: Some blood disorders, such as sickle cell anemia, require regular
blood transfusions. Blood substitutes could provide a safer and more accessible treatment option.
 Allergic Reactions and Compatibility: Some individuals experience allergic reactions to blood
components or have difficulty finding compatible blood types. Blood substitutes can circumvent these
issues by offering a universal, hypoallergenic solution.
 Personalized Medicine: Blood substitutes could potentially be engineered to carry specific drugs,
nutrients, or therapeutic agents directly to targeted tissues, enabling personalized treatments.

DRAWBACKS OF HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES

 Oxygen Carrying Capacity: Many blood substitutes struggle to match the oxygen-carrying capacity of
real blood. Hemoglobin-based substitutes might not release oxygen effectively to tissues, leading to
inadequate tissue oxygenation.
 Short Half-Life: Blood substitutes often have a short half-life in the body, requiring frequent
administration. This can be inconvenient for patients and increase the risk of fluctuations in blood
pressure and oxygen levels.
 Immune Reactions: Some blood substitutes can trigger immune responses and cause allergic reactions.
This can be particularly concerning for repeated or long-term use.
 Nitric Oxide Regulation: Real blood helps regulate blood flow through the release of nitric oxide.
Blood substitutes might not adequately mimic this function, potentially leading to vasoconstriction or
inadequate blood flow regulation.
 Side Effects: Blood substitutes might cause side effects like nausea, vomiting, fever, or changes in
blood pressure.
 Coagulation Issues: Blood substitutes can interfere with the body's natural coagulation processes,
potentially leading to bleeding disorders or clotting issues.
 Metabolic Interference: Blood substitutes might not carry the same metabolic functions as real blood,
leading to disturbances in electrolyte balance, acid-base regulation, and waste product removal.
 Lack of Transport Proteins: Real blood carries various proteins that play critical roles in immune
response, hormone transport, and other functions. Blood substitutes might not replicate these roles
effectively.
 Cost and Production Challenges: Producing blood substitutes can be expensive, and their cost-
effectiveness compared to traditional blood transfusions is an important consideration. Scaling up
production can also pose challenges.
 Clinical Uncertainty: Clinical trials and testing are necessary to ensure the safety and efficacy of blood
substitutes. However, the outcomes of these trials might be uncertain or inconsistent, leading to
difficulties in predicting the real-world effects.