NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE MANAGEMENT BOARD
Lecturer: Kakonkanya M Course: Diploma Electrical Tech
College: NORTEC Class: D8/1
Subject: Instrumentation
Topic: Functions Of Instruments and Measurement System
Objective(s) At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. State the functions of instruments and measuring systems correctly
2. Explain the functions of instruments and measuring systems correctly
FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
1.1 Introduction
Dairy processing unit operations mainly involve heating, cooling, separating, drying or freezing
of the products. These unit operations are carried out under varying conditions of
temperatures, pressures, flows and physical compositions. The measurement and control of
these variable factors at the various stages of processing call for the accurate and efficient
instruments, in addition to the dependence upon human skills. With the advent of large scale
milk handling plants the automatic operation and control through efficient instrumentation and
automation has become even more necessary. Utilities such as steam, water, electricity air,
fuel etc. have to be measured and controlled at appropriate points in the plant. Automatic
control instruments are employed to measure and control the temperature, pressure, flow and
level of these utilities. The overall aim of the instrumentation/ automation is to improve the
product quality and enhance the plant efficiency for better economic returns.
Page 1 of 11
1.2 Variable
A characteristic number or quantity that increases or decreases over time, or takes different
values in different situations is known as Variable. It is a factor that can be assigned a
measurable dimension of some kind that varies, e.g., length, diameter, area, flow, weight,
cost or life-span etc. A dependent variable is any measurable factor whose behaviour is
controlled by another variable. An independent variable is any measurable factor that
produces change or reaction in another variable. A variable is something that is changed or
altered in an experiment. In processing of food products the variables involved could be
temperature and pressure of steam, processing time, flow rate of various streams etc. For
example, to determine the effect of temperature and humidity on storage of a food product
will provide evidence on the shelf life of product in different storage conditions. Variable is
liable to change, may have a range of possible values and is liable to deviate from an
established extension type.
1.3 Measurement
When we decide to study a variable, we need to devise some way to measure it. Some
variables are easy to measure and others are very difficult. The values of variables are made
meaningful by quantifying them into specific units. For example, instead of saying that a
particular fluid is hot, we can specify a measurement and specify that the fluid is having a
temperature of 80°C.
Measurement is collection of quantitative data. A measurement is made by comparing a
quantity with a standard unit. An example of measurement is the use of a ruler to determine
the length of a piece of paper.
Measurement is thus essentially an act or the result of comparison between the quantity
(whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard. Since both the quantities are
compared, the result is expressed in numerical values. In the physical sciences, quality
assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical
quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used
as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and
the referenced unit of measurement.
There are two essential requirements of the measurements, in order to make the results
meaningful;
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should
be commonly accepted.
(ii) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
Page 2 of 11
Measurement system in brief
Instrumentation Systems
The purpose of an instrumentation system used for making measurements is to give the user
a numerical value corresponding to the variable being measured. Thus a thermometer may be
used to give a numerical value for the temperature of a liquid. We must, however, recognise
that, for a variety of reasons, this numerical value may not actually be the true value of the
variable. Thus, in the case of the thermometer, there may be errors due to the limited
accuracy in the scale calibration, or reading errors due to the reading falling between two
scale markings, or perhaps errors due to the insertion of a cold thermometer into a hot liquid,
lowering the temperature of the liquid and so altering the temperature being measured. We
thus consider a measurement system to have an input of the true value of the variable being
measured and an output of the measured value of that variable the figures below shows some
examples of instrument measuring systems.
An instrumentation system for making measurements has an input of the true value of the
variable being measured and an output of the measured value. This output might be then
used in a control system to control the variable to some set value.
1.4 Unit of Measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by
convention and or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical
quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the
unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity. The metre is a unit of length
that represents a definite predetermined length. When we say 10 metres (or 10 m), we
actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined length called "metre".
The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial
role in human endeavour from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be
very common. Now there is a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the
modern form of the metric system.
Page 3 of 11
The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language
name System International d'Units) is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the
world's most widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science. The SI
was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system, rather than
the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. During its
development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part
of the metric system. The original SI units for the six basic physical quantities were:
i. metre (m) : SI unit of length
ii. second (s) : SI unit of time
iii. kilogram (kg) : SI unit of mass
iv. ampere (A) : SI unit of electric current
v. degree kelvin (K) : SI unit of thermodynamic temperature
vi. candela (cd) : SI unit of luminous intensity
The mole was subsequently added to this list and the degree Kelvin renamed the kelvin.
There are two types of SI units, base units and derived units. Base units are the simple
measurements for time, length, mass, temperature, and amount of substance, electric current
and light intensity. Derived units are constructed from the base units, for example, the watt,
i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as m 2/kg/s−3. Other physical properties
may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in kg/m3.
1.5 Significance of Measurements
Science is based on objective observation of the changes in variables. The greater our
precision of measurement the greater can be our confidence in our observations. Also,
measurements are always less than perfect, i.e., there are errors in them. The more we know
about the sources of errors in our measurements the less likely we will be to draw erroneous
conclusions. With the progress in science and technology, new phenomena and relationships
are constantly being discovered and these advancements require newer developments in
measurement systems. Any invention is not of any practical utility unless it is backed by actual
measurements. The measurements thus confirm the validity of a given hypothesis and also
add to its understanding. This is a continuous chain that leads to new discoveries with new
and more sophisticated measurement techniques. While elementary measurements require
only ordinary methods of measurement, the advanced measurements are associated with
sophisticated methods of measurement. The advancement of Science and Technology is
therefore dependent upon a parallel progress in measurement techniques. It can be
safely be said that, the progress in Science and Technology of any country could be assessed
by the way in which the data is acquired by measurements and is processed.
Page 4 of 11
In R&D applications the design of equipments and processes require the basic engineering
design data on the properties of the input raw materials and processed products. The
operation and maintenance of equipments for optimal processing variables to achieve best
quality product and energy efficient equipment utilization require the monitoring and control of
several process variables. Both these functions require measurements. The economical design,
operation and maintenance require a feedback of information. This information is supplied by
appropriate measurement systems.
1.6 Function of Instrumentations and Measurement Systems
The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the functions
they perform. There are four main functions performed by them: indicating, signal processing,
recording and control.
i. Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the
variable quantity under measurement. Several types of methods could be employed
in the instruments and systems for this purpose. Most of the time, this information
is obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
ii. Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record,
usually on paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement against time or
against some other variable. This is a recording function performed by the
instrument. For example, a temperature indicator / recorder in the HTST
pasteurizer gives the instantaneous temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
iii. Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the
measured signal to facilitate recording / control.
iv. Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions, especially in
the food processing industries where the processing operations are required to be
precisely controlled. In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the
systems to control the original measured variable or quantity.
Thus, based on the above functions, there are three main groups of instruments. The largest
group has the indicating function. Next in line is the group of instruments which have both
indicating and or recording functions. The last group falls into a special category and perform
all the three functions, i.e., indicating, recording and controlling.
1.7 Design for Instrumentation Systems
The purpose of an instrumentation system used for making measurements is to give the user
a numerical value corresponding to the variable being measured. Thus a thermometer may be
used to give a numerical value for the temperature of a liquid. We must, however, recognise
that, for a variety of reasons, this numerical value may not actually be the true value of the
variable. Thus, in the case of the thermometer, there may be errors due to the limited
accuracy in the scale calibration, or reading errors due to the reading falling between two
Page 5 of 11
scale markings, or perhaps errors due to the insertion of a cold thermometer into a hot liquid,
lowering the temperature of the liquid and so altering the temperature being measured. We
thus consider a measurement system to have an input of the true value of the variable being
measured and an output of the measured value of that variable the figures below shows some
examples of instrument measuring systems.
An instrumentation system for making measurements has an input of the true value of the
variable being measured and an output of the measured value. This output might be then
used in a control system to control the variable to some set value.
1.8 The Constituent Elements of an Instrumentation System
An instrumentation system for making measurements consists of several elements which are
used to carry out particular functions. These functional elements are:
1. Sensor
This is the element of the system which is effectively in contact with the process for
which a variable is being measured and gives an output which depends in some way on
the value of the variable and which can be used by the rest of the measurement system
to give a value to it. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor which has an input of
temperature and an output of a small e.m.f which in the rest of the measurement
system might be amplified to give a reading on a meter. Another example of a sensor is
a resistance thermometer element which has an input of temperature and an output of
a resistance change.
Page 6 of 11
2. Signal processor
This element takes the output from the sensor and converts it into a form which is
suitable for display or onward transmission in some control system. In the case of the
thermocouple this may be an amplifier to make the e.m.f. big enough to register on a
meter (Figure 1.8B). There often may be more than an item, perhaps an element which
puts the output from the sensor into a suitable condition for further processing and
then an element which processes the signal so that it can be displayed. The
term signal conditioner is used for an element which converts the output of a sensor
into a suitable form for further processing. Thus in the case of the resistance
thermometer there might be a signal conditioner, such as a Wheatstone bridge, which
transforms the resistance change into a voltage change, then an amplifier to make the
voltage big enough for display (Figure 1.8B) or for use in a system used to control the
temperature.
3. Data presentation
This presents the measured value in a form which enables an observer to recognise it.
This may be via a display, e.g. a pointer moving across the scale of a meter or perhaps
information on a visual display unit (VDU). Alternatively, or additionally, the signal may
be recorded, e.g. in a computer memory, or transmitted to some other system such as
a control system.
The figure below shows how these basic functional elements form a measurement system.
Page 7 of 11
The term transducer is often used in relation to measurement systems.
Transducers are defined as an element that converts a change in some physical variable into a
related change in some other physical variable. It is generally used for an element that
converts a change in some physical variable into an electrical signal change. Thus sensors can
be transducers. However, a measurement system may use transducers, in addition to the
sensor, in other parts of the system to convert signals in one form to another form.
Example
With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal and transforms it into
resistance signal, element B transforms the resistance signal into a current signal, element C
transforms the current signal into a display of a movement of a pointer across a scale.
Which of these elements is (a) the sensor, (b) the signal processor, (c) the data presentation?
The sensor is element A,
The signal processor element B,
the data presentation element is C.
The system can be represented by Figure below
1.9 Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system / instrument:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response
2.0 Applications of Measurement Systems
Before discussing the instrument characteristics, construction and working, it is pertinent to
understand the various ways in which the measuring instruments are put in use. Different
applications of the instruments and measurement systems are:
i. Monitoring a process/operation
Page 8 of 11
ii. Control a process/operation
iii. Experimental engineering analysis
i. Monitoring a Process/Operation
There are several applications of measuring instruments that mainly have a function of
monitoring a process parameter. They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter
under study and these readings do not provide any control operation. For example, a
speedometer in a car indicates the speed of the car at a given moment, an ammeter or a
voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes and industries provide the
information on the commodity used so that its cost could be computed and realized from
the user.
ii. Control a Process/Operation
Another application of instruments is in automatic control systems. Measurement of a
variable and its control are closely associated. To control a process variable, e.g.,
temperature, pressure or humidity etc., the prerequisite is that it is accurately
measured at any given instant and at the desired location. Same is true for all other
process parameters such as position, level, velocity and flow, etc. and the servo-
systems for these parameters. Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled
is non-electrical quantity and the control action is through electrical means. Since the
output variable is a non-electrical quantity, it is converted into a corresponding
electrical form by a transducer connected in the feedback loop. The input to the
controller is reference which corresponds to the desired value of the process
parameter. The output process variable is compared with the reference or desired
value with the help of a comparator. In case the desired value and the process variable
differ, there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is amplified and then fed to an
actuator, which produces power to drive the controlled circuitry. The corrective action
goes on till the output is at the same level as the input which corresponds to the
desired output. At this stage, there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the
actuator and the control action stops. Common examples of this application are the
domestic appliances, such as, refrigerator, air conditioner or a hot air oven. All of these
employ a thermostatic control. A temperature measuring device (often a bimetallic
element) measures the temperature in the room, refrigerated chamber or in the oven
and provides the information necessary for appropriate functioning of the control
system in these appliances.
Page 9 of 11
iii. Experimental Engineering Analysis
Experimental engineering analysis is carried out to find out solution of the engineering
problems. These problems may be theoretical designs or practical analysis. The exact
experimental method for engineering analysis will depend upon the nature of the problem.
The analysis could be grouped into following categories:
1. Obtaining solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
2. Formulating the generalized empirical relationships in the cases where no
proper theoretical backing exists.
3. Testing the validity of theoretical predications.
4. Generating the basic engineering design data on the properties of the input raw
materials and processed products for R&D application.
5. Design of process equipments for specific applications.
6. Optimization of machine / system parameters, variables and performance
indices.
2.1 How Data Acquisition and Analysis Is Done In Instrumentations
Data acquisition and analysis is the process of collecting, storing, and analyzing data from an
instrumentation and measurement system. The process typically involves the following steps:
1. Signal acquisition: The first step in data acquisition is to acquire the signal from the
instrumentation and measurement system. This typically involves using sensors, signal
conditioners, and data acquisition hardware to convert the physical signal into a digital
representation that can be stored and analyzed.
2. Data storage: Once the signal has been acquired, it is typically stored in a computer
or other digital storage device for later analysis. This can include storing the raw data, as well
as any processed or derived data.
3. Data pre-processing: Before the data can be analyzed, it may need to be pre-
processed to remove noise, correct errors, or otherwise improve the quality of the data. This
can include filtering, smoothing, or interpolating the data.
4. Data analysis: Once the data has been pre-processed, it can be analyzed to extract
useful information. This can include visualizing the data, calculating statistics, or applying
mathematical or computational models to the data.
5. Data interpretation: The last step is to interpret the analyzed data and extract
meaningful information, such as determining trends, identifying patterns, or identifying
outliers.
6. Data archiving: The acquired data should be archived in a format that can be easily
accessed and understood for future reference.
Page 10 of 11
There are many different tools and techniques that can be used for data acquisition and
analysis in instrumentation, including:
• Data acquisition software: Software that allows you to acquire and store data from the
instrumentation and measurement system.
• Data analysis software: Software that allows you to analyze and visualize the data, such
as spreadsheets, data visualization tools, or specialized software for signal processing or
control systems.
• Programming languages: Programming languages such as Python, MATLAB, R, or
LabView are also commonly used for data acquisition and analysis in instrumentation.
• Cloud based platforms: There are many cloud-based platforms available for data
acquisition and analysis, which allows for remote data access and collaboration, as well as
easy data sharing and archiving.
Overall, data acquisition and analysis is an essential component of instrumentation and
measurement systems, as it allows for the collection and analysis of data to be used for a wide
range of applications, such as quality control, process control, and research.
Page 11 of 11
