CHAP 7

CONTROL AND COORDINATION

All the living organisms respond and react to changes in the environment around them.

Stimuli: The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are called stimuli such as light, heat, cold,
sound, smell, touch, etc.

Both plants and animals respond to stimuli but in a different manner.

Response: Reaction of an organism to a stimulus.

Coordination: The working together of various organs or parts of the body of an organism to respond to a stimuli is called
coordination.

For control and coordination, higher organisms, have evolved two systems – Nervous system and Endocrine system (Hormonal
System).

Plants do not have nervous system and hence hey posses only chemical control and coordination.
On the other hand, higher multicellular animals have both nervous and chemical control and coordination.

Coordination in Animals - Animals - Nervous System Unicellular organism (Amoeba): Respond

to stimuli by moving towards or away from
In lower multicellular animals (Hydra, Planaria, etc.) the coordination takes the source of stimulus. Such are termed as
place through the nervous system. taxes. (Sing: taxis)

In higher multicellular animals (Frog, human, bird, etc.) coordination takes i. Move towards the stimulus – Positive taxis
place through two types of control systems: nervous system and endocrine ii. Move away from the stimulus – Negative
system. taxis

In animals, the nervous and muscular tissues are responsible for regulating and Coordinating body functions. Our bodies have
specialized cells called receptors, which act like tiny sensors at the ends of nerves to gather information from our surroundings.
These receptors are mainly located in our sense organs: like the inner ear, nose, and tongue.
For Example:

1. Gustatory Receptors: These receptors are found on the tongue and help us detect
different tastes. For instance, they tell us whether something is sweet, sour, salty,
or bitter.
2. Olfactory Receptors: Located in the nose, these receptors pick up different
smells. When you smell something like freshly baked cookies or a flower, these
receptors send information to your brain about the scent.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The Nervous system controls and coordinates bodily actions in animals. It

consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a network of nerves. The system is
responsible for sending, receiving, and processing impulses, which are
chemical signals. Nerves extend from the brain and spinal cord,

Nervous tissues are organized around neurons and transmits information through
electrical impulses.

Neurons (Nerve cells) are the basic structural and functional units.

NOTE: i) Neurons (Nerve cell) structural and functional unit of nervous system.
ii) Longest cell in a body iii) Carry messages in the form of electrical impulses.

Parts of a Neuron are:

1. Dendrites - These are the branch like structures that receive messages or signals from other
neurons and carry them toward the cell body.
2. Cell Body (Soma) - Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus. It is the control enter of
neuron.
3. Axon - It is a tubelike structure that carries electrical impulse or signals from cell body to
the nerve ending (axon terminals).
4. Axon Terminals – Endings of the axon that send signals to the next neuron via
neurotransmitters.
5. Synapse - It is the chemical junction between axon of one neuron and dendrites of another neuron.

Neurons are of various shapes and sizes.

Function of a neuron:

• Signals from receptors are received at the dendritic tip as a chemical reaction that creates an electric impulse.
• The impulse travels through the dendrite → cell body → axon end.
• A gap called a synapse exists between two neurons.
• Electrical impulses cause chemicals to be released at the axon end.
• These chemicals cross the synapse and pass the signal to the next neuron.
➢ How a signal travels from one nerve cell to another.

➢ Stimulus (change in environment light, heat, etc.) → Receptor (detects stimulus eyes, ears, etc) → Sensory Neuron
(sends or carries signal to brain/spinal cord) → Spinal Cord/Brain (processes information) → Motor Neuron (carries
message from brain/spinal cord to effector) → Effector (muscle/gland that acts – contracts, secretes) → Response
(action taken – pulling away, sweating, etc.)

❖ Pathway of a stimulus from detection to response in the human body:

REFLEX ACTIONS (Relex Movement): (Reflex means
some sudden action in response to something in the
environment)

What Happens in Reflex Actions?

A reflex action is a quick and automatic reaction to
something, like touching something hot.
For example:
When you touch a hot object, you pull your hand
back immediately without thinking about it. That’s a reflex
action.

Reflex Arc:
It is the shortest pathway for an impulse to travel from the
receptor organ via central nervous system to the effector.

Components of the reflex arc:

1. It includes one sensory neuron which transmits the
sensory impulses from the receptors to the central
nervous system.
2. The sensory impulses are integrated in the central
nervous system.
3. The central nervous system transmits the motor
information to the effector via the motor neurons.
4. The effector produces the desired response to the
stimulus.

HUMAN BRAIN:

Types of Nervous System:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

It comprises of the brain and spinal cord. Major

function of CNS is that it receives data from the body and sends
instructions to specific organs.

The brain has three major regions: forebrain, midbrain, and

hindbrain.
Let us understand the brain in detail:

a) Fore-brain: It is the most complex or

specialized part of the brain. It consists of the
cerebrum (largest part of brain).

Functions of Fore-brain:
• Thinking (memory, reasoning, speech)
part of the brain.
• Control the voluntary actions.
• Store information (Memory).
• Receives sensory impulses (hearing,
smell, sight) from various parts of the
body and integrates it.
• Centre associated with hunger.

b) Mid-brain: It connects fore and mid brain.

Controls involuntary actions such as a change
in pupil size and reflex movements of the head, neck, and trunk.

c) Hind-brain: It has three parts:

1. Cerebellum: Controls posture and balance. Precision of voluntary actions. Example: picking pen, riding a bicycle.
2. Medulla: Controls involuntary actions. Example: blood pressure, heart beat, salivation, vomiting.
3. Pons: Involuntary actions, regulation of respiration (breathing) and sleep cycle.

Protection of the Brain and Spinal Cord

1. Protection of Brain: The brain is protected by a fluid-filled (Cerebro Spinal Fluid- CSF) balloon that acts as shock
absorber and is enclosed in cranium (skull or brain box or bony box).
2. Protection of Spinal Cord: Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column.
Corpus Callosum: It connects the
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) left and right hemispheres of the
brain.
• Involves cranial and spinal nerves emerging from the brain and spinal cord.
• Forms a network outside the CNS.

How are these Tissues protected?

The brain, crucial for various activities, requires careful protection. The body is designed with a bony box to safeguard the delicate
organ.

1. Fluid-Filled Protection: Inside the protective box, the brain is surrounded by a fluid-filled balloon for additional shock
absorption.
2. Vertebral Column: Running your hand down the back reveals the vertebral column or backbone.
3. Spinal Cord Protection: The vertebral column safeguards the spinal cord, providing essential protection to this vital
neural pathway.
4. Spinal Cord: The spinal cord plays a crucial role in transmitting sensory information to the brain and relaying messages
from the brain to the muscles. It is an essential component of the nervous system, working in conjunction with the brain
to coordinate various bodily functions and enable voluntary actions.

How does the Nervous Tissue cause Action?

(i) Nerve Impulse Transmission:

• Nervous tissue collects and processes information.
• A nerve impulse is sent from the nervous system to the muscle.
(ii) Muscle Activation:
• The nerve impulse reaches the muscle.
• Muscle fibres respond by changing their shape, causing them to shorten.

(iii) Protein Interaction:

• Muscle cells contain special proteins that change their shape and arrangement in response to the nerve impulse. This
change causes the muscle to contract.

COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Plants don't have a nervous system or muscles like animals, so how do they respond to stimuli? For example, when we touch
the leaves of a 'sensitive' plant, they quickly fold up. In contrast, the growth of a seedling leads to directional movement. It's
important to note that the movement in the sensitive plant is not related to growth, whereas the seedling's movement depends on
its growth. This distinction highlights that plants exhibit two types of movement: one tied to growth and the other not linked to
growth.

Immediate Response to Stimulus

When thinking about the movement of plants like sensitive plants, it's essential to understand that this movement doesn't involve
growth. Despite the absence of nervous or muscle tissue, the plant can move its leaves when touched.

1. The challenge is understanding how the plant detects touch and facilitates leaf
movement.
2. Movement occurs at a point different from the actual touch location,
indicating that some form of communication about the touch is happening.
3. Unlike animals, plants use electrical-chemical signals to convey information
between cells.
4. Unlike animals, there is no specific tissue in plants designed for information
conduction.
5. Similar to animals, certain cells in plants must change shape for movement
to occur.
6. Plant cells achieve shape changes by adjusting water content, causing
swelling or shrinking and resulting in altered shapes.

Response to Stimuli Related to Growth (Movement in Plants/Movement

due to Growth)

Movement in Plants: There are two types of movement in plants due to

direction:

1. Tropic movements are also known as directional/unidirectional movements. These movements can be either toward
or away from the stimuli.
Type of tropism Stimulus

1) Phototropism Light
Tropism (Tropic movements) are of five types: 2) Geotropism Gravity
3) Chemotropism Chemical
4) Hydrotropism Water
5) Thigmotropism Touch

2. Nastic movements are also known as non-directional movement (Not in the Syllabus)
HOW INFORMATION IS COMMUNICATED IN THE BODIES
OF MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS?

Electrical impulses are a way for cells to communicate with each other,
but they have limitations. These impulses can only reach cells connected
by nerve tissue and not every cell in the body. Additionally, once a cell
sends an impulse, it needs time to reset before sending another one.
Because of this, most multicellular organisms use chemical signals for
communication.

Limitations of Electrical Impulses:

• Electrical impulses can only reach cells connected by nerve
tissue.
• Cells need time to reset after sending an impulse before sending another.

When cells release a chemical instead of an electrical signal, that chemical can spread around the cell. If nearby cells can detect
this chemical using special molecules on their surfaces, they can understand and pass on this information.

Although this process is slower than electrical impulses, it can reach all parts of the body, not just connected by nerves, and can
be continuous. In multicellular organisms, various compounds called hormones are used for control and coordination, showing a
lot of variety. Plant hormones, for example, help in coordinating growth, development, and responses to the environment. These
hormones are produced in one place but travel to where they are needed.

1. Cells communicate by releasing chemicals detected by surface molecules on nearby cells.

2. Chemical signalling is slower than electrical impulses but allows widespread, continuous communication.
 3. Hormones are control chemicals in multicellular organisms with various functions.
4. Plant hormones regulate growth, development, and environmental responses by moving to target areas.

❖ PLANT HORMONES (or PHYTOHORMONES): These are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth,
development and responses to the environment.

Main plant hormones are:

1. Auxin: This hormone synthesized at shoot tip (tip of

stems). It helps the cells to grow longer (enlargement)
and involved in phototropism (response towards light).
It also promotes fruit growth. `
2. Gibberellin: It helps in the growth of the stem.
3. Cytokinin: It promotes cell division. This is present
in greater concentration in fruits and seeds.
4. Abscisic Acid (ABA): It inhibits (or stop) growth.
It also causes wilting of leaves and also known as stress
hormone.

❖ HORMONES IN ANIMALS

Endocrine System: The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless gland is called an endocrine
gland.
Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands. Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the nervous system
in control and coordination.
Hormones: These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised tissues called ductless (endocrine)
glands.

The list of Endocrine Glands with the hormones names and their functions are given below:
1. Pituitary gland
• It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.
• It is the master gland, as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.
• It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH).
• Under-secretion of GH causes Dwarfism, and over-secretion causes Gigantism in children.

2. Thyroid Gland:
• It is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the throat.
• It secretes the hormone ‘Thyroxine’, which regulates the metabolism of the body.
• Iodine is required to synthesize thyroxine in the body.
• In the case of iodine deficiency, under-secretion of thyroxine leads to goitre.

3. Pancreas:
• It is a leaf-like gland present behind the stomach in the abdomen.
• It is an endocrine as well an exocrine gland.
• As an endocrine gland, it manufactures two hormones – Insulin and glucagon.
• Both these regulate the sugar level in the blood.
• As an exocrine gland, it secretes enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids in food.
• An insufficient amount of insulin from the pancreas leads to diabetes.

4. Adrenal Gland:
Adrenaline hormone is also called epinephrine hormone.
• Occurs in pairs above each kidney.
• It decreases in size with age.
• Secrets the hormone adrenaline (emergency hormone), which helps in flight and fight response (stress response).

5. Gonads:
• Gonads are the gamete-producing organs – testes in males (location – scrotum) and ovaries in females (location – pelvic
region).
• The testes produce the male hormone testosterone, and the ovaries produce the female hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.
• Testosterone and oestrogen help in producing gametes and are responsible for the sexual characteristics of males and
females, respectively.
• Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.

Let’s go through some other Endocrine Hormones briefly:

1. Pineal Gland:
• Location: Towards the center of the brain..
• Hormone: Melatonin (sleep hormone)
• Functions: Impacts reproductive development, sleep patterns (controls sleep-awake cycle), and seasonal functions.

2. Hypothalamus:
• Location: Neuro-endocrine region (or above the pituitary gland in the brain).
• Hormones: Somatostatin and Dopamine.
• Function: Connecting the nervous and endocrine systems.

3. Parathyroid Glands:
• Location: Two pairs on the dorsal (towards the back side) surface of the thyroid gland in the neck.
• Hormone: Parathormone.
• Functions: Controls calcium and phosphate ion levels in bones and blood.
• Disorders: Tetany (hyposecretion), Osteoporosis (hypersecretion).

4. Thymus Gland:
• Location: Upper region of the sternum (breastbone), in front of the heart.
• Hormone: Thymosin.
• Function: Aids in the maturation of T-lymphocytes (Helps in immune system development of children)
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

If we want our bodies to release just the right amount of hormones, there needs to be a way to make sure this happens correctly.

(i) The levels and timing of hormone release are controlled by feedback systems.

Importance of adequate Hormone Secretion:

• When our bodies release hormones, they must do so in exact amounts.
• Regulation by Feedback Mechanisms:
• Our bodies have systems that monitor and adjust hormone release based on what’s happening inside us.

Example with Blood Sugar Levels:

• When our blood sugar levels rise, special cells in the pancreas sense this change.
• In response, the pancreas starts making more insulin.
• As blood sugar levels fall back to normal, the pancreas reduces the amount of insulin it produces.

Example: Pancreatic cells respond to rising blood sugar levels by producing more insulin; insulin secretion decreases when blood
sugar levels fall.