Grade: X Control and coordination

Introduction
❖ The human body is a complex machine performing tons of functions and processes to maintain and
sustain life.
❖ Different organs work together in an organism to carry out different functions, this is known as
coordination.
❖ Proper control and coordination are necessary to carry out essential functions of the life.
It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main systems
1) Nervous System
2) Endocrine System
❖ All the living organisms respond and react to changes in the environment around them.
❖ The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are called stimuli such
as light, heat, cold, sound, smell, touch, taste, pressure, pain or the force of gravity, etc.
❖ The relevant changes in the activity of an organism to particular stimuli are called reactions or
response.
❖ Both plants and animals respond to stimuli but in a different manner.
❖ Control and Coordination are the two most fundamental workings of the nervous system.
❖ Our brain and nervous system are more complex than the most advanced quantum computer.

nervous system
❖ The nervous system is the body's complex network of specialized cells that transmits information
throughout the body.
❖ It controls our thoughts, movements, sensations, and everything else we do.
❖ The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron.
❖ The nervous system is essential for our survival.
❖ It is the body's master control system, coordinating actions and reactions both internally (involuntary
actions) and externally (voluntary actions).
❖ It allows us to sense our environment, respond to stimuli, and maintain homeostasis (a stable internal
environment). It also allows us to think, learn, and remember.
❖ It is made up of three distinct components:
o Neurons – These are the cells which detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli.
o Neuroglia – They are also called glial cells. They are non-exciting cells and do not conduct
any impulses.
o Nerve fibres – These are long slender processes of neurons.

RECEPTORS:
 Our nervous system relies on special messengers called receptors to keep us informed about what's
going on both inside and outside our bodies.
 These receptors act like tiny detectives, stationed all over to detect changes in our environment.
 When a receptor senses a change, it sends a signal to the brain through neurons, which are the
information highways of the nervous system.
 The brain interprets these signals and decides how to respond.

Different types of receptors

o Mechanoreceptors: These detect pressure, touch, and vibration. They are found throughout your
skin, allowing you to feel everything from a gentle breeze to a sharp prick.
o Thermoreceptors: These sense temperature changes, helping you to feel hot or cold. They are also
found in your skin.
 o Photoreceptors: These are specialized cells in your eyes that detect light. There are two main types
of photoreceptors: rods, which allow you to see in low light, and cones, which are responsible for
color vision.
o Phonoreceptors: These are specialized cells in our inner ear to detect changes in vibrational
frequency.
o Chemoreceptors: These detect chemicals, such as the odors we smell (Olfactory)or the tastes
(Gustatory) we perceive. They are found in your nose and tongue.
o Proprioceptors: These are found in your muscles and joints and help you to be aware of your body's
position and movement.

NEURONS:
 They are also called nerve cells.
 They are the structural and functional unit of nervous system.
 These are the longest cell in the human body.
 They are the tiny messengers that make up your nervous
system.
 They are the building blocks of our brain, responsible for
everything we do.
 Neurons do not have the ability to divide.

Structure of Neurons:
Neurons come in all shapes and sizes, but they all have the same basic structure:
(i) Cyton:
• Also called cell body or perikaryon.
• Has a central nucleus with abundant cytoplasm called neuroplasm.
• The cytoplasm has large granular body called Nissl's granules and the other cell organelles like
mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.
• Several neurofibrils are present in the cytoplasm that help in transmission of nerve impulses to and
from the cell body.
(ii) Dendrites:
• These are the numerous branched cytoplasmic processes that project from the surface of the cell
body.
• They conduct nerve impulses towards the cyton.
• They increase the surface area for receiving the signals from other nerve cells.
(iii) Axon:
• It is a single, elongated, slender projection.
• The end of axon terminates as fine branches called axonite which terminate into knob like swellings
called synaptic knob. Each Neuron can transmit 1000 nerve
• The plasma membrane of axon is called axolemma. impulses per second and make as many as
• The cytoplasm is called axoplasm. ten thousand of synaptic contacts with
other neurons
• It carries impulses away from the cyton.
• The axons may be covered by a protective sheath called myelin sheath which is further covered by a
layer of Schwann cells called neurilemma.
• Myelin sheath breaks at intervals by depressions called Nodes of Ranvier.
• The region between the nodes is called as internode.
• Myelin sheath acts as insulator and ensures rapid transmission of nerve impulses.

Synapse:
❖ A junction between synaptic knob of axon of one neuron and dendron of next neuron is called
synaptic junction.
❖ Information from one neuron can pass to another neuron through these junctions with the release of
chemicals known as neurotransmitters from the synaptic knob.
❖ The important neurotransmitter released by neurons is called acetylcholine.
Types of Neurons (on the basis of function).
i. Sensory or afferent neurons: Carries impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.
ii. Motor or efferent neurons: Carries impulses from central nervous system to the effector organs.
iii. Association or relay neurons: Conduct impulses between sensory and motor neurons.
Transmission of nerve impulses:
• Receptors detects the information called stimuli
• The information is transmitted as electrical impulses by the receptors to the dendrites of sensory
neurons.
• They travel through dendrites reaching the cyton and then through the axon to the axon terminal end.
• On reaching the axonal end, it causes the nerve endings to release chemicals called neurotransmitters
to cross the synaptic space.
• Once it crosses and reaches the tip of the dendrite of the next neuron, it starts a similar electrical
impulse and follows the similar route.
• This happens again and again until it reaches the brain or spinal cord.
• The response for the stimuli is processes by the brain and is similarly passed through the motor
neurons to the effector organs such as muscle or gland.

REFLEX ACTION – REFLEX ARC

❖ A reflex action is an involuntary and automatic response to a
stimulus that bypasses the conscious mind.
❖ Reflexes are essential for survival, as they allow us to react
quickly to potential dangers without having to think about it.
❖ Most reflex actions are controlled by the spinal cord because
the impulses will take more time to reach the brain to be
processed than it takes to reach the spinal cord. In order to
produce a faster response, the spinal cord processes the
impulse and sends response immediately and then sends the impulses to brain for further processing.
Two types of reflexes:
1. Simple/Basic Reflex: These are inbuilt/instinctive reflexes that does not require any learning.
Ex: Winking of eyes when dust particles enter.
2. Acquired/Conditioned Reflex: These are learned or acquired by practice.
Ex: Once you have practice in playing a piano, you can do it without even looking, driving vehicles
without having to think about it (autopiloting).
Here's how a reflex action works (The Reflex Arc):
(i) Stimulus: An event triggers a reflex, such as touching a hot stove.
(ii) Sensory neuron: A sensory neuron detects the stimulus and sends a signal to the spinal cord.
(iii) Spinal cord: The spinal cord interprets the signal and initiates a response signal. In some cases, the
signal may also travel to the brain.
(iv) Association/ Relay Neuron: The response signal is transmitted to the relay neuron which is then
transmitted to the motor neurons.
(v) Motor neuron: A motor neuron sends a signal to the muscles, telling them to contract or relax.
(vi) Response: The muscles contract or relax, producing a reflex action, such as pulling your hand away
from the hot stove.
The entire process happens very quickly, often in a fraction of a second. This is because the reflex arc, the
pathway that the signal travels through, does not involve the brain.

Reflexes are important for our survival and well-being. They help us to protect ourselves from harm,
maintain homeostasis (a stable internal environment), and coordinate movement.
There are many different types of reflexes, including
• Patellar reflex (knee jerk): This reflex is elicited by tapping the tendon below the kneecap with a hammer. The reflex causes the leg to
kick out involuntarily.
• Pupillary reflex: This reflex controls the size of the pupils. The pupils constrict in bright light and dilate in dim light.
• Withdrawal reflex: This reflex is responsible for pulling your hand away from a hot stove or other painful stimuli.
• Gag reflex: This reflex helps to prevent choking by ejecting foreign objects from the throat.
• Corneal reflex: This reflex protects the eye by causing the eyelids to blink when touched.
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Humans have a well-developed nervous system. It is divided into:

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

 The CNS is the control center of the nervous system.

 It consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 The brain is the most complex organ in the body and is responsible for thought, memory, learning,
emotion, and sensory perception.
 The spinal cord is a long, slender bundle of nerves that connects the brain to the rest of the body. It
carries messages between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
 The CNS is responsible for a wide range of functions, including:
Thought, Learning, Memory, Movement, Sensation, Emotion, Speech, Hearing, Vision, Taste, Smell,
Breathing, Heart rate, Blood pressure, Digestion.
 The CNS is protected by a number of structures, including the skull, the meninges, and the
cerebrospinal fluid. The skull is a hard, bony shell that protects the brain. The meninges are three
layers of tissue that surround the brain and spinal cord. The cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless
liquid that fills the spaces between the meninges and cushions the brain and spinal cord.

THE HUMAN BRAIN

Skull: [no need to draw the image]

▪ It is made up of eight different bones that are fused together
at seams called sutures.
▪ It can be divided into two main parts: the cranium and the
face.
▪ The cranium is the larger part of the skull and it houses the
brain.
▪ The face is the smaller part of the skull and it contains the
eyes, nose, and mouth.

Meninges: [no need to draw the image]

▪ The meninges are tough, membrane-like
connective tissue that surround and protect
the brain and spinal cord from mechanical
injuries. The meninges are made up of the
three layers:
▪ The dura mater (dura: tough; meninges:
membrane) is the outermost layer of the
meninges.
It is tough and fibrous, and it attaches to the
 inner surface of the skull.
▪ The arachnoid mater (arachnoid: spider) is the middle layer of the meninges. It is a thin, web-like
layer that lies beneath the dura mater.
▪ The pia mater (pia: soft/tender) is the innermost layer of the meninges. It is a thin, delicate layer that
clings closely to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
▪ The space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. This
space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear, colorless liquid that helps to cushion the brain
and spinal cord and protect them from injury.
Parts: [no need to draw the image]
❖ The human brain constitutes nearly 60% of fat.
❖ EFA (Essential Fatty Acids) is the major molecule necessary for
brain integrity and functioning.
❖ It cannot be synthesized and must be obtained from food such
as fish, green leafy vegetables, almonds, walnuts, etc.
❖ The human brain is formed of three parts:
a) Forebrain
b) Midbrain
c) Hindbrain
Forebrain:
 It is the biggest and most complex part of the brain.
 It is responsible for higher-order functions.
 It is made up of three parts:
Cerebrum:
o It is the largest portion of the brain (nearly two thirds of the brain).
o It is longitudinally divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres.
o The cleft between the hemispheres is called the median cleft.
o These hemispheres are interconnected by thick band of nerve fibres called corpus callosum.
o The outer portion is made of grey matter and is called cerebral cortex.
o It is extremely folded forming elevations called gyri and depressions called sulci.
o The inner portion is made of white matter and is called cerebral medulla.
o Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes:
Lobe Location Functions
Frontal At the front of the brain Planning
Problem-solving
Decision-Making
Judgment
Creativity
Memory
Intelligence
Consciousness
Willpower
Imagination
Personality
Motivation
Emotional Control
Control of voluntary actions.
Parietal Behind the frontal lobe Sensory perception, such as touch, pain, and
temperature.
Spatial awareness and navigation.
Temporal On the side of the brain Sensory perception such as auditory information,
including hearing and music.
It also plays a role in memory, emotion, and
language comprehension.
Occipital At the back of the brain Sensory perception such as visual information.
It is the primary visual cortex of the brain.
 Thalamus:
o It is about the size of a walnut.
o It is located deep inside the brain above the brainstem.
o It is also called the brain’s “relay station”.
o It acts as a central hub that receives and processes sensory information (except for smell)
before sending it to the appropriate lobes of the cerebral cortex for further interpretation.
o It also relays motor signals from the cortex to the rest of the body.
o It plays a role in
▪ Regulating sleep,
▪ Alertness,
▪ Consciousness.
Hypothalamus:
o It is about the size of a pea.
o It is located deep in the center below the
thalamus.
o It acts as a link between the nervous system
and the endocrine system.
o It regulates a wide range of involuntary
functions including:
▪ Body temperature,
▪ Hunger and thirst,
▪ Sweating,
▪ Sleep and wake cycles,
▪ Emotional responses like anger, fear, sexual desire etc.,
▪ Water balance,
▪ Blood pressure,
▪ Thermoregulation (Temperature
control),
▪ Hormone release from pituitary gland,
▪ The fight-or-flight response.
Midbrain
 It is located between thalamus and hindbrain at the
top of brainstem.
 Functions:
o Relaying sensory information: It relays
sensory information, such as visual and
auditory information, from the brainstem to
the thalamus in the forebrain.
o Controlling eye movements: It controls the
movement of the eyes. It is responsible for
reflexes that allow the eyes to track moving objects and to maintain focus.
o Regulating sleep and wakefulness: It plays a role in regulating sleep and wakefulness. It
helps to control the release of neurotransmitters that promote alertness or sleep.
o Processing pain: It helps in processing pain signals. It helps to determine how intense a pain
sensation is and how it should be perceived.
Hindbrain:
 The hindbrain is the lower rear portion of the brain, situated at the top of the brainstem.
 It plays a critical role in regulating essential functions that are necessary for survival.
 It is made of three parts:
Cerebellum:
o The largest part of the hindbrain and second largest part of the brain.
o Just like cerebrum, it also has two hemispheres.
o It is located at the back of the head.
o Function:
▪ Coordinating voluntary muscle movements,
 ▪ Maintains Body Balance and Posture,
▪ Controls Speech.
Pons:
o Pons in Latin means bridge. It is a bridge of nerve fibres that connects the lobes of
cerebellum.
o The pons is located above the medulla oblongata.
o Function:
▪ Relay center for communication between the brain and body.
▪ Sleep cycle regulation,
▪ Wakefulness,
▪ Respiration,
▪ Facial expressions,
▪ Hearing.
Medulla Oblongata:
o It is the lowest part of the brainstem and is continuous with the spinal cord. It connects spinal
cord to various parts of the brain.
o Functions:
▪ Acts as a control center for autonomic functions like
Breathing,
Heart Rate,
Blood Pressure, etc.
▪ It also contains reflex centers for
Coughing,
Sneezing,
Swallowing,
Salivation
Vomiting, etc.

SPINAL CORD
❖ It is a long, thin bundle of nerves that extends from the brainstem down to the lower back.
❖ It transfers messages between brain and the body.
❖ It is protected by the bony vertebrae of the spine.
❖ Functions:
o Control body movements:
Signals from the brain to other parts of the body control your movements.
o Report senses to the brain:
Signals from other parts of the body help your brain record and process sensations like
pressure or pain.
o Manage reflexes:
The spinal cord is a center for coordinating many reflexes and contains reflex arcs that can
independently control reflexes.
o Control involuntary bodily functions:
The spinal cord also controls involuntary bodily functions such as heartbeat, breathing,
bowel, and bladder movements.
❖ The spinal cord is made up of two main types of tissue:
o Gray matter: The gray matter is butterfly-shaped in cross-section and contains cell bodies of
neurons. It's responsible for processing information and integrating sensory and motor
signals.
o White matter: The white matter surrounds the gray matter and consists mainly of nerve
fibers (axons) that are insulated by a fatty substance called myelin. These fibers carry signals
between the brain and the rest of the body.
❖ The spinal cord has 31 segments that can be divided into five main regions:
o Cervical (neck): The cervical region contains 8 segments (C1-C8) and controls functions
like head movement, neck muscles, diaphragm, and some facial muscles.
 o Thoracic (chest): The thoracic region contains 12 segments (T1-T12) and controls the
muscles of the chest, back, and abdomen as well as some internal organs.
o Lumbar (lower back): The lumbar region contains 5 segments (L1-L5) and controls the
legs, hips, and some abdominal muscles.
o Sacral (pelvis): The sacral region contains 5 segments (S1-S5) and controls the bowels,
bladder, and legs.
o Coccygeal (tailbone): The coccygeal region contains 1 segment (Co1) and is vestigial in
humans, meaning it has little to no function.
❖ The cervical and lumbar regions have enlargements called the cervical enlargement and the lumbar
enlargement. These enlargements contain more gray matter, which is the part of the spinal cord that
contains cell bodies of motor neurons. This allows for more complex movement in the arms and legs.
❖ Each segment of the spinal cord gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves. These nerves branch out to
different parts of the body, carrying sensory information back to the brain and motor commands from
the brain to the muscles.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

 It is the network of nerves that connects the Central Nervous System (CNS) to the rest of the body.
 It is like a giant communication network that carries messages between your brain and spinal cord
(the CNS) and all the other parts of your body.
 The PNS is responsible for sensory and motor functions (Movement, Sensation, Homeostasis,
Reflexes, etc.), which means it allows you to feel and react to the world around you.
 It also controls some involuntary functions, like your heart rate and digestion.
 The PNS can be divided into two main parts:
o The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) controls your voluntary muscles, which are the muscles
you can move consciously. This includes muscles in your arms, legs, and face.
o The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) controls your involuntary muscles, such as those in
your heart, stomach, and intestines. The ANS is further divided into two parts:
▪ The Sympathetic Nervous System helps your body respond to stress or danger. It's
also known as the "fight-or-flight" system.
▪ The Parasympathetic Nervous System helps your body relax and conserve energy.
It's also known as the "rest-and-digest" system.

Somatic Nervous System

 It includes all of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
 Functions:
o Movement control: It initiates and controls the movements of our body. This system is
responsible for nearly all voluntary muscle movements.
o Sensory input: It is also responsible for processing sensory information that arrives via
external stimuli. It processes the senses of hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
 The SNS has two main parts:
o Sensory (afferent) neurons: These neurons carry sensory information from the body to the
CNS.
o Motor (efferent) neurons: These neurons carry signals from the CNS to the muscles, telling
them to contract or relax.
 They are mainly of two types:
 Cranial Nerves:
o They extend from the brain.
o They are located on the back of the head and neck.
o There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in total, each of which splits to carry signals between both
sides of the brain and body.
o These nerves are often involved in neuromuscular disorders.
 Spinal Nerves:
o They extend from the spinal cord.
 o There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
o Eight come from the cervical portion of the spine, 12 are in the thoracic region, both the
lumbar and sacral regions have five spinal nerves, and one is near the tailbone.
o A disease or injury in any of these areas can result in a loss of sensation and function below
that area.

Autonomous Nervous System

 Also known as the Involuntary Nervous System or Visceral Nervous System.
 It regulates unconscious body processes like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, respiration,
pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.
 It works automatically, without a person's conscious effort.
 It is constantly monitoring the body's internal environment and making adjustments as needed. For
example, if your blood pressure starts to rise, the ANS will send signals to your heart to slow down
and to your blood vessels to relax, which will help to lower your blood pressure.
 The ANS has two main divisions:
o The Sympathetic Nervous System:
▪ It is responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response.
▪ When you are in a stressful situation, it releases hormones such as adrenaline and
noradrenaline, which cause your heart rate to increase, your blood pressure to rise, and
your breathing become rapid. This is all to prepare your body for action.
o The Parasympathetic Nervous System:
▪ It is responsible for the "rest-and-digest" response.
▪ It helps to slow down the body after a stressful situation and return it to a state of
homeostasis.
▪ It also controls functions such as digestion, urination, and defecation.
 They both work together to maintain a balance in the body.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

❖ The endocrine system works together with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis and proper
control and coordination.
❖ It is made up of glands that make hormones.
o Hormones are the body’s chemical messengers.
o They travel through the bloodstream to reach target organs, where they bind to specific
receptors, like a key fitting into a lock and cause changes in cell function.
Note: Please don’t confuse endocrine glands with exocrine glands.
Endocrine glands: DO NOT have ducts. They release hormones directly into Bloodstream. Ex: Pituitary gland, Thyroid
gland, Thymus gland, Adrenal gland, Testes, Ovary, etc.
Exocrine glands: They HAVE ducts. These ducts carry their secretions to the body’s surface or into the lumen of
internal organs. Ex: Sweat glands, Lacrimal glands, Salivary glands, Mammary glands, Digestive glands in stomach,
liver, pancreas and intestines, etc.

Endocrine glands
Hormones help regulate many important body functions, including:
• Mood
• Growth and development
• Metabolism (how your body uses energy)
• Reproduction
• Sleep
• Heart rate
• Blood pressure
• Blood sugar levels
Pituitary Gland:
Location: Base of the brain
Hormones: Growth hormone (GH), Thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH),
Prolactin, and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Functions: Regulates growth, thyroid function, adrenal
function, reproductive processes, and water balance in the body.
Pineal Gland:
Location: Brain
Hormones: Melatonin.
Functions: Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Thyroid gland:
Location: Neck
Hormones: Thyroxine (T4),
Triiodothyronine (T3), and Calcitonin.
Functions: Regulates metabolism,
energy balance, and calcium levels in the
blood.
Thymus:
Location: Upper chest
Hormones: Thymosin.
Functions: Regulates the development of the immune system.
Parathyroid Glands:
Location: Behind the thyroid gland
Hormones: Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Functions: Regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the
blood.
Adrenal Glands:
Location: On top of the kidneys
Hormones: Adrenaline (epinephrine), Noradrenaline
(norepinephrine), Cortisol, and Aldosterone.
Functions: Regulates stress response, metabolism, immune
response, and salt-water balance.
Pancreas:
Location: Abdomen
Hormones: Insulin and Glucagon.
Functions: Regulates blood sugar levels.
Gonads (Testes and Ovaries):
Location: Pelvic region
Hormones: Testosterone (in males), Estrogen, and
Progesterone (in females).
Functions: Regulate reproductive functions, secondary sexual
characteristics, and menstrual cycle in females.

Endocrine disorders can occur when the glands produce too much, too little, or no hormones at all. These
disorders can cause a variety of symptoms, depending on the hormone involved. Some common endocrine
disorders include diabetes, thyroid disorders, and growth hormone deficiency.
 Coordination in Plants
Plants coordinate their activities through a combination of hormonal and environmental responses.
Unlike animals, plants lack a nervous system but rely on chemical signals (hormones) and movements
(tropic and nastic movements) to respond to their surroundings.

Plant Hormones
Plant hormones, or phytohormones, are chemical substances that regulate various physiological processes
in plants. They play a crucial role in growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli. The major
plant hormones include:

Auxins:
Functions:
• Promote cell elongation by loosening the cell walls.
• Stimulate root initiation and development.
• Regulate phototropism (growth towards light) and gravitropism/geotropism (growth in response to
gravity/towards earth).
• Promote fruit development.
Example: Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA).
Source: Produced in the shoot tips and young leaves.

Gibberellins:
Functions:
• Promote stem elongation by stimulating cell division and elongation.
• Trigger seed germination by breaking seed dormancy.
• Stimulate flowering and fruit enlargement.
Example: Gibberellic acid (GA3).
Source: Found in seeds, young leaves, and roots.

Cytokinins:
Functions:
• Promote cell division in roots and shoots.
• Delay senescence (aging) of leaves by inhibiting protein breakdown.
• Promote the growth of lateral buds, leading to branching.
Example: Zeatin.
Source: Synthesized in the roots and transported to other parts of the plant.

Abscisic Acid (ABA):

Functions:
• Induces dormancy in seeds and buds, helping the plant survive unfavorable conditions.
• Closes stomata during water stress to reduce water loss.
• Inhibits growth and promotes leaf abscission (falling off).
Source: Produced in the leaves, stems, and green fruits.

Ethylene:
Functions:
• Promotes fruit ripening by increasing the activity of enzymes that soften the fruit.
• Stimulates leaf abscission and flower wilting.
• Regulates response to mechanical stress (e.g., bending of stems).
Source: Produced in almost all parts of the plant, especially in ripening fruits and senescing tissues.
Tropic Movements
Tropic movements are directional growth responses of plants to external stimuli. These movements can be
towards (positive) or away from (negative) the stimulus.

Phototropism:
Definition: Growth of a plant in response to light.
Example: Shoots exhibit positive phototropism (grow towards light), while roots show negative
phototropism (grow away from light).
Mechanism: Auxins accumulate on the shaded side of the plant, causing cells to elongate more on that side
and the plant to bend towards the light.

Geotropism (Gravitropism):
Definition: Growth of a plant in response to gravity.
Example: Roots exhibit positive geotropism (grow downward), while shoots show negative geotropism
(grow upward).
Mechanism: Auxins accumulate on the lower side of the root or shoot, affecting growth direction.

Hydrotropism:
Definition: Growth of a plant in response to water.
Example: Roots grow towards moist areas in the soil.
Mechanism: Hormonal signaling and differential cell growth direct the root towards water.
Thigmotropism:
Definition: Growth of a plant in response to touch or physical contact.
Example: Tendrils of climbing plants coil around a support.
Mechanism: Differential growth rates on opposite sides of the tendril cause it to wrap around objects.

Nastic Movements
Nastic movements are non-directional responses to stimuli, which do not depend on the direction of the
stimulus. These movements are typically rapid and reversible.

Nyctinasty:
Definition: Movement of plant parts in response to the onset of darkness.
Example: The folding of leaves in some plants at night.
Mechanism: Changes in turgor pressure within leaf cells.

Thigmonasty:
Definition: Movement of plant parts in response to touch.
Example: Rapid closure of the Venus flytrap when an insect touches its surface.
Mechanism: Rapid changes in turgor pressure and cell signaling.
Photonasty:
Definition: The opening and closing of flowers in response to light.
Example: Many flowers, such as dandelions and tulips, open their blooms during the day to attract
pollinators and close at night to conserve energy and protect their reproductive parts from night predators.

Hydronasty:
Definition: The movement of plant parts in response to water.
Example: Some seeds, like oat seeds, have awns that twist and untwist depending on the humidity levels.
This helps to bury the seeds deeper into the soil when it rains, promoting germination.
BENEFITS OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION OVER ELECTRICAL IMPULSES
Electrical impulses are essential for rapid communication within the nervous system, while chemical
communication through hormones excels in coordinating slower, widespread, and long-lasting processes
throughout the body. Chemical communication is considered superior to electrical impulses for several
reasons:

1. Wider Reach:
✓ Hormones can reach virtually every cell in the body through the bloodstream, allowing for a
broader and more sustained response.
✓ In contrast, electrical impulses are confined to nerve cells and their connections, limiting their
reach.
2. Duration and Persistence:
✓ Hormonal effects can last for hours, days, or even longer, enabling gradual and long-term
changes in the body.
✓ Electrical impulses are brief and immediate, suitable for rapid responses but less effective for
prolonged actions.
3. Specificity:
✓ Hormones act on specific target cells equipped with receptors for that particular hormone,
ensuring precise control over bodily functions.
✓ While electrical impulses are also specific, their targets are limited to nerve cells or muscle fibers.
4. Amplification:
✓ A small amount of hormone can trigger a significant response in target cells, amplifying the
effect.
✓ Electrical impulses have less potential for amplification.
5. Coordination of Multiple Processes:
✓ Hormones can regulate various physiological processes simultaneously, such as growth,
metabolism, reproduction, and stress response.
✓ Electrical impulses are primarily involved in rapid, localized responses.

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