Various Casting Processes

Solidification based manufacturing processes

 Expendable-mold Casting Processes

 Sand Casting
 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster-mold
 Ceramic-mold Casting

V-8 engine block (bottom center) and the five dry-sand

cores that are used in the construction of its mold.
Sand Casting

A large sand casting weighing

more than 680 kg for an air
compressor frame.
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell molding
(1) A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal
pattern is heated and placed over a box
containing sand mixed with thermosetting
resin;
(2) The box is inverted so that sand and resin
fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of
the mixture to partially cure on the surface
to form a hard shell;
(3) The box is repositioned so that loose,
uncured particles drop away;
(4) The sand shell is heated in oven for
several minutes to complete curing;
(5) Shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
(6) Two halves of the shell mold are
Advantages Disadvantages assembled, supported by sand or metal
 Better surface finish (2.5 µm)  more expensive metal pattern shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
 Good dimensional accuracy ±0.25 mm  Suitable for mass production (7) The finished casting with sprue removed
 Vacuum Molding
It uses a sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than by a Steps in vacuum molding
chemical binder
(1) a thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn over a
match-plate or cope-and-drag pattern by
vacuum—the pattern has small vent holes to
facilitate vacuum forming;
(2) specially designed flask is placed over the pattern
plate and filled with sand, and a sprue and
pouring cup are formed in the sand;
(3) . another thin plastic sheet is placed over the
flask, and a vacuum is drawn that causes the sand
grains to be held together, forming a rigid mold;
(4) the vacuum on the mold pattern is released to
permit the pattern to be stripped from the mold;
(5) this mold is assembled with its matching half to
form the cope and drag, and with vacuum
Advantages Disadvantages
maintained on both halves, pouring is
 Moisture related defects are absent  Relatively slow process accomplished. The plastic sheet quickly burns
 Sand can be recovered for reuse  not readily adaptable to mechanization away on contacting the molten metal.
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Also know as lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam Steps involved
process, and full-mold process (the last being a trade name)
(1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with
refractory compound;
(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and
sand is compacted around the pattern; and
(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of
the pattern that forms the pouring cup and
sprue.
As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing
Methods for making the pattern: the foam is manually cut from large strips and liquid, thus allowing the resulting mold cavity to
assembled to form the pattern; automated molding operation be filled.

Advantages Disadvantages Application

 Pattern need not be removed from the mold  A new pattern is needed for every casting
Mass production of automobiles
 This simplifies and expedites mold making  Economics of depend on the cost of the
engines with automated systems
(two halves with parting lines, draft patterns
for the production of mould
allowances, cores, and the gating and  Suitable for mass production
riser system must be added)
 Investment Casting
“Invest” means ‘‘to cover completely’’, also known as the lost-wax process
Steps involved
(1) wax patterns are produced;
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree;
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory
material;
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with
sufficient refractory material to make it rigid;
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt
the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity;
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures
that all contaminants are eliminated from the mold; it also
permits the liquid metal to flow more easily into the detailed
cavity; the molten metal is poured; it solidifies;
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting. Parts are
separated from the sprue.

Pattern production is usually accomplished by a molding operation—pouring or injecting the hot wax into a master die that has been
designed with proper allowances for shrinkage of both wax and subsequent metal casting.
Advantages of investment casting: Applications

(1) Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be Examples of parts include complex machinery parts, blades,
and other components for turbine engines, jewelry, and dental
cast; fixtures.
(2) Close dimensional control—tolerances of
0.075 mm are possible;
(3) Good surface finish is possible;
(4) The wax can usually be recovered for reuse;
(5) Additional machining is not normally required
— this is a net shape process
(6) All types of metals, including steels, stainless
steels, and other high temperature alloys, can be
investment cast

Disadvantages of investment casting

(1) It is a relatively expensive process
A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils made
(2) Investment castings are normally small in size by investment casting
 Plaster-mold and Ceramic-mold Casting
 Plaster-mold casting is similar to sand casting Ceramic-mold casting is similar to plaster-mold casting,
 Sand mold replaced by plaster of Paris (gypsum, except that the mold is made of refractory ceramic
CaSO4–2H2O) instead of sand. Talc and silica flour materials that can withstand higher temperatures than
are mixed with the plaster to control contraction and plaster.
setting time, reduce cracking, and increase strength Advantages: good surface finish, good dimensional
 Mold is then baked for several hours to remove accuracy and the capability to make thin cross-sections in
moisture the casting;
 Mold is not permeable (Antioch process: mixed with Suitable for cast steels, cast irons, and other high
50% sand) temperature Alloys
 Metal pattern preferred over wood pattern
 Advantages: good surface finish, good dimensional
accuracy and the capability to make thin cross-
sections in the casting
 Application: pump and turbine impellers, and other
parts of relatively intricate geometry
 Lower-melting-point alloys, such as Al, Mg, Cu
alloys
 Permanent-mold Casting Processes
 Permanent-mold casting uses a metal mold
 Slush Casting constructed of two sections that are designed for
 Low-pressure casting easy, precise opening and closing.
 These molds are commonly made of steel or cast
 Vacuum permanent-mold casting iron. The cavity, with gating system included, is
machined into the two halves to provide accurate
 Die Casting
dimensions and good surface finish.
 Squeeze Casting and Semisolid  Rapid solidification - finer grain structure - stronger
castings are produced.
Metal Casting
 Metals of lower melting points - aluminum,
magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron
 Simple part geometries compared to sand casting
 Mold costlier suitable for high-volume production
 semipermanent-mold casting – sand core
 Applications: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
Slush Casting
Steps in permanent-mold casting:
(1) Mold is preheated and coated;
(2) Cores (if used) are inserted, and mold is
closed;
(3) Molten metal is poured into the mold;
(4) Mold is opened.
(5) Finished part.

Slush casting is used

To make statues, lamp pedestals, and toys
out of low-melting-point metals such as
zinc and tin.
In these items, the exterior appearance is
important, but the strength and interior
geometry of the casting are minor
considerations.
Low-Pressure Casting
 In low-pressure casting, the liquid metal is
forced into the cavity under low pressure -
approximately 0.1 Mpa - from beneath so
that the flow is upward
 The pressure is maintained until the
metal has solidified completely in the
mold.
 Clean molten metal is introduced into
the mold, rather than metal that has been
exposed to air. Gas porosity and oxidation
defects are thereby minimized, and
mechanical properties are improved.
 Low pressure casting generally is used for
high-quality castings, such as steel
railroad-car wheels, although these
wheels also may be cast in sand molds or
semipermanent molds made of graphite
and sand.
 Vacuum permanent-mold casting

 This process is a variation of low-

pressure casting in which a vacuum is
used to draw the molten metal into the
mold cavity
 Reduced air pressure from the
vacuum in the mold is used to draw
the liquid metal into the cavity, rather
than forcing it by positive air pressure
from below.
 air pressure inside the mold to about
two-thirds of atmospheric pressure

 There are several benefits of the vacuum technique relative to low-pressure casting: air porosity and related defects are reduced,
and greater strength is given to the cast product.
 Parts usually involve reactive metals, such as aluminum, titanium, zirconium, and hafnium.
 Carbon, low- and high-alloy steel, and stainless steel parts weighing as much as 70 kg have been vacuum cast by this method
 Die Casting
 The molten metal is injected into the mold cavity
under high pressure. Pressures range: 7 to 350 MPa.
 The pressure is maintained during solidification,
after which mold is opened and the part is removed.
 There are two main types (1) hot-chamber and (2)
cold-chamber, differentiated by how the molten
metal is injected into the cavity.
Hot-chamber Die Casting
(1) Die closed, plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the cavity
(2) Plunger forces (7-35MPa) metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification;
(3) Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened, and solidified part is ejected.

 Production rates up to 500 parts per hour are not uncommon.

 Injection system submerged in the molten metal. Thus, the process is
limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack
hot-chamber
the plunger and other mechanical components.
 The metals include zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes magnesium.
Cold-chamber die casting machines
(1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber;
(2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification; typical pressure 14 to 140 MPa
(3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is ejected.

 high production operation; slower than hot-chamber – liquid metal poured externally
 Cold-chamber machines are typically used for casting aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Lubricants must also be sprayed into the cavities to prevent sticking
 Dies can be single-cavity or multiple-cavity
 formation of flash at the parting lines

Advantages of die casting include The limitation of die casting

(1) high production rates; (1) shape restriction.
(2) economical for large production quantities; (2) Metals and size
(3) close tolerances : ± 0.076mm for small parts; (2) The part geometry must
(4) good surface finish; allow for removal from the die
(5) thin sections about 0.5mm are possible, cavity.
(6) rapid cooling provides good strength
 Squeeze Casting and Semisolid Metal Casting
Squeeze casting

 Squeeze casting is a combination of casting

and forging
 Molten metals poured into a preheated lower
die, and the upper die is closed to create the
mold cavity after solidification begins.
 Metal to completely fill the cavity, resulting in
Semi-solid metal casting good surface finish and low shrinkage

 Semi-solid metal casting is a family of net-shape and near net-shape  Also known as liquid–metal forging

processes performed on metal alloys at temperatures between the liquidus  Finer surface detail can be imparted by the die

and solidus (slurry) than in forging

 Forcefully stirring the slurry to prevent dendrite formation: spherical shapes  Required pressures are significantly less than in

reduce the viscosity of the work metal. forging

 Advantages: (1) complex part geometries, (2) thin walls in parts, (3) close  Ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, but aluminum

tolerances, (4) zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the casting and magnesium alloys (low melting point)
 Automotive parts are a common application
Several forms of semisolid metal casting
applied to aluminum, the
 When applied to aluminum terms thixocasting and rheocasting are used. When applied to magnesium, the term is thixomolding
 The prefix in thixocasting is derived from the word thixotropy, which refers to the decrease in viscosity of some fluid-like materials
when agitated. In thixocasting, the starting work material is a precast billet that has a nondendritic microstructure; this is heated
into the semisolid temperature range and injected into a mold cavity using die casting equipment.
 The prefix in rheocasting comes from rheology, the science that relates deformation and flow of materials. In rheocasting, a
semisolid slurry is injected into the mold cavity by a die casting machine, very much like conventional die casting.
 Thixomolding: Magnesium alloy granules are fed into a barrel and propelled forward by a rotating screw as they are heated into the
semisolid temperature range.

Rheocasting Thixocasting
 Centrifugal Castings
The mold rotates at high speed. Centrifugal force distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die cavity. The
group includes (1) true centrifugal casting, (2) semi-centrifugal casting, and (3) centrifuge casting.
 Rotating mold to produce a tubular part.
True centrifugal casting
Examples of parts made by this process
include pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings.
 The outside shape: round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc. The inside shape of the casting
is perfectly round – radially symmetric forces
 Orientation of the axis of mold rotation can be
either horizontal (common) or vertical
G-factor GF is the ratio of centrifugal force divided by weight  Rotation starts before or after pouring
 Horizontal GF = 60 to 80
Horizontal
 In vertical centrifugal casting, the effect of
gravity acting on the liquid metal causes the
No shrinkage defect casting wall to be thicker at the base than at
Vertical
at the exterior the top.
 Semi-centrifugal Centrifuge casting

 Semi centrifugal casting other than tubular parts

 G-factors of around 15  The mold is designed with part cavities located away from the
 Density of metal in the final casting is greater in the outer axis of rotation, so that the molten metal poured into the
sections than at the center of rotation mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force.
 Product – the center of the casting is machined away;  The process is used for smaller parts, and
eliminating the low quality part, ex Wheels and pulleys  Radial symmetry of the part is not a requirement as it is for
 Expendable molds are often used in semi-centrifugal casting the other two centrifugal casting methods.