Introduction to computers System is a group of interrelated components working

together in harmony to achieve a common goal. E.g. Human

A computer is an electronic device, which accepts data via Being, Computer.
input devices, processes the data to present information on
output devices with options for storage under the control of Computer System comprises of computer elements working
stored programs. together to process captured data and reveal information. The
basic elements of a computer system are INPUT, OUTPUT,
Data these are raw facts, figures with no meaning attached to PROCESSING, STORAGE
them. E.g. 1, 2, 3, dog, cat, man
A computer understands electric current it detects electric
Processing It is the intermediate stage where data is signals represented by 1 and 0 i.e. BINARY DIGITS (BITS). BIT is
manipulated, transformed, worked upon to present the smallest unit of computerized data.
information
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Information is processed data with meaning attached to it. Speed
Accurate
Output Device these are user tools, which present results Automatic
from processing to the user. E.g. Screen, printer Diligent
Consistent
Input Device these are user tools used to capture, accept facts
and figures into the computer system e.g. Keyboard, mouse Speed
Computer is capable of processing huge volumes of work
Processing Devices are housed in the CPU they perform the within a very short period of time
number crunching E.g. CU, ALU, and Main Memory
Accurate
Storage Devices These are media used for the safe upkeep of Computer is precise however the degree of accuracy is
information for later use e. g DVD, CD, MP3 affected by human error hence the term GIGO- Garbage In
Garbage Out. If one enters wrong data wrong results are
presented. Also hence the term WYSIWYG- What You See Is

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What You Get. The information you see on the screen is what expensive when compared to the micro but cheap when
the printer will produce. compared to Mainframes
Mainframe Computer
Automatic Have large storage capacity and use VLSI
The computer does not require constant supervision e.g. ATM- (Very Large Scale Integration). Have high processing speeds,
Automated Teller Machine. they come 2nd when compared to the Super Computer in all
aspects. They support multi user concurrently. Mostly used by
Diligent the Computer does not tire. Banks for ZIMSWITCH, NRZ signals, PTC, AIR ZIM
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Super Computer
Computer are classified according to the following classes Operate at very high speeds. Can solve mathematical
- 1.Size and complexity problems of real physical processes. Mostly used by Engineers
- 2.Operating Principles and Scientists.
- 3.Purpose
- 4.Generation Applications Of Super Computers
- Simulation of airflow on planes at different altitudes
1. Size & Complexity - Simulation of accidents
Micro Computer - To study formation of natural occurrences
Is the smallest general purpose computer whose CPU is a - For special effects in films
micro processor, (micro chip) It uses LSI (Large scale - For nuclear explosions
Integration) were electronic circuits are packed on the IC - For space explorations
(Integrated Circuit) or Motherboard. Storage capacity is
increased by metal oxide semi conductor. They are further
subdivided into Home and Personal Computers.
2. Operating Principles
Mini Computer In this class they are digital, analog and hybrid computers. A
Also known as Mid Range, Mid sized or Minis. They are Digital computer operates by counting in discrete digits and
designed to serve multi user. They have got large storage values.
capacity, high speed when compared to the micro. They are

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Analog Computer operates by measuring rather than The transistor was introduced as the basic internal
counting. It measures quantities continuously and are mostly component. A transistor is a device which transfers current
used for capturing real life events across a resistor E.g ABC
Hybrid Computer combines both qualities of Digital and
analog computers Third Generation Computers (3gl) 1965-1970
The IC was introduced. An IC is a complete circuit on a small
3. Purpose chip of silicon. Silicon is a semi conductor it is reliable and
In this class we have General Purpose and Special Purpose compact. IBM
computers. General Purpose Computers can be used for a
wide variety of functions. They are designed to meet the Fourth Generation Computers 4gl (1971-to date
needs of everyone. The Micro processor was introduced. It is a general purpose
Special purpose Computers are designed to execute specific chip and computers in this category can be further divided
dedicated applications. They are tailor made to solely cater for according to size and complexity
a particular need.
USES OF COMPUTERS
4. Generation To adequately discuss computer uses we shall look at various
In this category the period in which the computer was sectors. Which include the following: Home, Industry,
designed is vital since different components were used in the Commerce, Education, Science & Research,
design. The generations are as follows Home Use
1st, 2nd 3rd & 4th Family budgets, Internet, Email, Entertainment,
communication, Security, Family albums, Publications, E
First Generation Computers (1gl) Commerce, Telecommuting.
(1951-1958) Vacuum Tubes were used as the internal
computer component. The tubes generated a lot of heat and Industrial Use
blew out. Used low level languages. E. g of computers included Record Keeping, Payroll, Plant Control, Security, Video
ENIAC, Conferencing, Communication, Market research,

Second Generation Computers (2gl) 1959-1964

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Commercial Use Punch Cards, Key to Disk, Key To Tape, Touch Pads, Tablet,
Advertising, Communication, Receipting, Ordering, Bookings, E Digital cameras
commerce, Stock control, Databases
Output Devices
Other sectors to consider include Defense, Health, and User tool used to present results to the user from the system.
Government They Include:
Screen, Printer, Plotter, OHP, COM, Actuators
Drawbacks of Computers
- High initial setup costs Processing Device refer Block Diagram which shows the
- Over reliance on electricity Control Unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit and Main Memory
- Prone to viral attacks
- Serious side effects Communication devices
- Require expertise to use Enable computers to network they include MODEM, Switch,
- Prone to computer crime Routers, Hubs, Channels, Multiplexers, Bridges, Gateways

Storage Devices are broadly divided into main memory and

HARDWARE Secondary memory.
The physical components of the computer system which are Main memory consists Of RAM & ROM whereas Secondary
manipulated by users. They are broadly referred to as Memory includes DVD, CD, RAID, Floppy, Magnetic tapes,
peripherals to include all gadgets and equipments which are Optical Discs, WORM, Memory Cards, Flash memory.
connected to the CPU.
Hardware devices are classified into: Remember we are simply introducing the concepts further
INPUT- OUTPUT- PROCESSING – STORAGE- COMMUNICATION detail is obtained in later chapters

Input Devices
User tools which accept capture data into the system they
include:
Keyboard, Light pen, Mouse, Digitizer, Touch Screen, OCR,
OMR, MICR, MIDI, Roller Ball, Power Pads, Joy Stick, Yoke, SOFTWARE

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Refers to the programs and associated documentation that - Windows Versions include: XP, 98, 97, Vista,
command the computer on activities to perform it is broadly 2000, NT, 3.1, MS DOS
classified into - OS 2
- 1. System software - JAVA OS
- 2. Application Software - MAC OS
- 3. Developmental Software - UNIX
- LINUX
- Solaris
1. Systems Software Common Functions OF OS
Is a class of programs, which provides overall support and -Providing user interface
control to all activities, occurring in the computer system. It -Memory Management
houses (hosts) applications and developmental software. It is -File Allocation Table management
broadly divided into -Hardware control
- Operating System -Network Communication
- Translators -Sending Print Jobs
- Utilities -Error handling
- DBMS -Monitoring performance
-Protecting hardware from improper use
THE Operating System (O/S) -Booting (Warm & Cold)
Is a suite of programs that are able to allow a number of
programs to run without user intervention. Types OF Operating Systems
OR Provide the O/S with privileges or different kinds of services on
Programs concerned with the control and coordination of all which the O/S is able to function. They include:
aspects in the computer. Batch, Time Sharing, Multi Programming, Multi processing,
OR RJE, Single program, Interactive, Multi Access, Distributed,
An interface between hardware and the user responsible for centralized, Online, Real Time, Single User.
the management of activities and the sharing of resources
Batch Processing System
EXAMPLES OF O/S

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Data or programs are collected grouped and processed at a in airline control would be dangerous but poor booking
later date. Payroll, stock control and billing systems. speeds would not be so crucial.

Real-time Systems Inputs immediately affect Online processing Processing

the outputs. Timing is Performed under the direct control of the CPU whilst the user
critical remains in communication with the computer. Offline
i.e. they are capable of influencing the source of processing Processing which is done away from CPU.
the data e.g. control where data from sensors is e.g. batching together of clock cards, filling in OMR
processed immediately and affect the outputs – forms. Provides for interaction between the job and the
controlling some device. Timing is critical and the user, which may influence the course of processing.
term real-time control system. e.g. control of nuclear power Word processing
plants, oil refining, chemical processing and air Type Definition Example of Use
traffic control systems. Such systems may be single-user (e.g. a personal
computer).
Real-time transaction Inputs immediately affect
the outputs but timing is not critical. Each transaction is Multi-access on-line
completed online as it arises e.g. booking systems – each Any users linked by workstations to a central
booking is online and a database of bookings can be computer such as in a network. Holiday or airline booking
amended interactively and very quickly whilst another system. One person must be locked out when another
user is locked out so cannot double book or is updating the file. This helps to prevent Double
alter that record at the same time. Holiday and airline booking
booking system.

Difference between realtime Interactive processing

and real-time The user has to be present and program cannot
transactions. In real time, time is critical and delays proceed until there is some input from the user
can be catastrophic but in real-time transactions Select from a menu at ATM.
systems there is no time criticality. E.g. poor speeds

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Distributed system Processing is carried out independently in Interpreter operates like the compiler except that it converts
more than one location, but with shared and controlled access statement by statement.
to some common facilities. Databases e.g. libraries.

Multiprogramming: Utilities
Ability to run many programs apparently at the same time. Are programs which provide general support to the computer
Mainframe systems. Each job is allocated a small amount of and user e.g. Anti-virus
processing time (time slice) in turn. Multi tasking The ability to Anti-Virus are programs, which are used to detect and combat
hold several programs in RAM at one time but the user virus.
switches between them. Usually uses GUI’s. Facilitates import
and Export of data.
Examples of Anti-Virus
Avast, AVG, MacAfee, Dr Solomon, Norton, Eset
Translators
Are programs, which convert programming languages from the Facilities Provided By Antivirus
source code into object code. Source code is instruction on the Dictating, cleaning, Quarantine, Scanning, Vaulting
platform where the programmer operates from. Whereas DBMS is a class of systems software, which provides powerful
object code, is always in machine code which the computer tools for database creation and management.
understands. It is composed of the data Dictionary, Report Writers, Security
software, Query language Generator, File Manager, Application
Types Of Translators development Tools, Data languages
- Assembler
- Compiler
- Interpreter
Assembler converts from 2nd generation Language into 1st i.e.
Low level to lower level. We cannot discuss anti-virus without the virus.
Compiler converts either 4th or 3rd generation language into 1st Computer Virus
the whole program at once.

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It’s an illegal program, which disturbs the smooth running of -Poor CPU response time
legal programs without the user’s knowledge spreading -Keyboard vice versa
through the system if not controlled by antiviral. -Total system failure

Examples Of virus How viruses are spread

Win 32 Melisa -Via the use of foreign infected diskettes
Love bite Jerusalem A foreign disk or media is one, which does not belong to the
Baghdad Bouncing Ball organization and is used without the responsible authority’s
Marijuana Friday 13th knowledge.
Logic bomb Time Bomb -Via unprotected network hubs
Worm Y2K bug -Via free downloads
-By hackers
Characteristics of Computer virus -Through the use of pirated software
-Replicates -Transmittable -Through spasms (which are emails from unknown sources)
-Hides -Through frequenting pornographic sites
-Destructive -Via computer games
-Preventable -Through e-mail attachments.
-Curable
-Programmable Ways of combating virus
-Malicious -Avoid using foreign media
-Nonsensical -Always scan foreign Medias
-Dubious - Avoid downloading freeware
Symptoms of Viral Infection -Use firewalls to protect LANS (A firewall is a combination of
-Sudden screen blackouts software and hardware equipment which monitors and
-Error Messages appearing on the screen detects unwanted material from either entering or leaving
-Strange sounds coming from the CPU LANs)
-Flashing CPU indicator lights -Always Write Protect floppy diskettes
-Files changing formats -Avoid using pirated software
-Files failing to open and disappearing -Always scan email attachments

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-Avoid frequenting offensive sites level for the computer to decode the instructions via the use
-Avoid downloading computer games of previously mentioned translators.

Second Generation languages (Assembly language, symbolic

Destructive effects of virus code, source code)
-Massive
-Partial It’s also a low level language which uses mnemonics (memory
-Selective aids) Translating from 2nd requires an assembler.
-Adhoc
Third generation languages (Procedural)
2. DEVELOPMENTAL SOFTWARE (Programming languages) It is a high level language, which uses step-by-step execution
They are programs, which provide software developers with a of instructions. It is easier to write and read when compared
platform and basic building block for coding (designing, to low-level languages. It requires either a compiler or
writing) software solutions. Programming languages are interpreter to convert into object code.
broadly divided into: Low Level and High level.
Fourth Generation languages (4GL, VHLL)
st nd
Low level languages consist of 1 and 2 Generation languages (Very High Level Languages). They are English like statements
whereas high level languages consists of 3rd , 4th and 5th easily understood by humans. They require translation via the
generation which are still under experiment. Low level use of either compilers or interpreters
languages are closer to the machine whereas HLL are closer to
human beings and they consist of English like statements. Examples of Computer Languages
COBOL (Common Business Oriented languages)
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose symbolic Instruction Code)
First Generation Language (Machine Code, Object Code, PASCAL
binary) PROLOG (Program logic)
It is a low level language, which consists of binary FORTRAN (Formula Translator)
representations. All other languages must be translated into 1st C C++

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VB Ada Spreadsheets, Presentations, communications, DTP, database
LISP (list Processing) fall under general purpose.

Word processors
Examples: MS Word, Note Pad,
Advantages of High Level Languages
- High degree of portability Spreadsheets
- Consists of easy to understand and easy to remember Examples: MS Excel, lotus 123, Pastel
statements
- They are self-explanatory and hence require little Presentations
documentation Examples: power point, Sunday plus
- Use of compliers and interpreters makes detection of
errors and their correction easier Database
- Does not require the programmer to have detailed Examples: MS Access, Database (V), Database (IV), paradox,
architectural knowledge. FoxPro, Oracle, FoxPro, Oracle, INNOPAC, CDS/ISIS
- Are useful for solving specific problems
- Require minimum training to use DTP (Desktop Publishing)
- Program maintenance is easier Example: Publisher, PageMaker, Ready Set Go, Ventura.

Disadvantages Of high Level languages

- Do not make efficient utilization of computer memory
due to the presents of translators and compilers which Special purposes include:
make up for additional memory -In-house -off the shelf
- Execution time is less efficient compared to low level -Bespoke -Custom made
languages due to the need for translation -Proprietary -Tailor made
3. Applications software (Packages) -Contracted -integrated
These are programs, which provide specific user functions and -Freeware -Shareware
activities. They are divided into general-purpose applications -Vaporware -Middleware
and special purpose. For example Word processors,

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 -Machine independence
The package must be portable

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING SOFTWARE

FILE ORGANISATION
- Durability A file is a collection records, a key element in file management
The package should remain in use for a long time; hence the is the way in which the records themselves are organized
purchase of the latest software packages is a good idea inside the file, since this heavily affects system performances
as far as record finding and access.
- Availability
The software package must be readily available in abundance. Choosing a file organization is a design decision, hence it must
There is no point in recommending for vaporware. be done having in mind the achievement of good performance
with respect to the most likely usage of the file. The criteria
- Reliability usually considered important are:
A research must be carried out into other organizations
already using the package to assess its operations 1. Fast access to single record or collection of related
records
-Affordability 2. Easy record adding/update/removal, without
The package must not overburden the organization financial disrupting (1).
3. Storage efficiency.
-After Sales Support 4. Redundancy as a warranty against data corruption.
Will the organization provide support or backups in the event
of problems Fast access techniques are based on the use of additional
information about the records, which in turn competes with
the high volumes of data to be stored.
-User Friendliness
The package must be easy to use without posing major Five organization models will be considered:
challenges

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  Pile. processing of the entire file, without adding or deleting items:
 Sequential. this kind of operation can take advantage of the fixed size of
 Indexed-sequential. records and file; moreover, this organization is easily stored
 Indexed. both on disk and tape. However, adding and deleting records
 Hashed. to this kind of file is a tricky process: the logical sequence of
records typically matches their physical layout on the media
Pile (Serial) storage, so to ease file navigation, hence adding a record and
maintaining the key order requires a reorganization of the
It's the simplest possible organization: the data are collected in whole file. The usual solution is to make use of a ``log file''
the file in the order in which they arrive, and it's not even (also called ``transaction file''), structured as a pile, to perform
required that the records have a common format across the this kind of modification, and periodically perform a batch
file (different fields/sizes, same fields in different orders, etc. update on the master file.
are possible). This implies that each record/field must be self-
describing. Despite the obvious storage efficiency and the easy Indexed sequential
update, it's quite clear that this ``structure'' is not suited for
easy data retrieval, since retrieving a datum basically requires An index file can be used to effectively overcome the above
detailed analysis of the file content. It makes sense only as mentioned problem, and to speed up the key search as well.
temporary storage for data to be later structured in some way. The simplest indexing structure is the single-level one: a file
whose records have key-pointer, where the pointer is the
Sequential position in the data file of the record with the given key. Only a
subset of data records, evenly spaced along the data file, are
This is the most common structure for large files that are indexed, so to mark intervals of data records.
typically processed in their entirety, and it's at the heart of the
more complex schemes. In this scheme, all the records have A key search then proceeds as follows: the search key is
the same size and the same field format, with the fields having compared with the index ones to find the highest index key
fixed size as well. The records are sorted in the file according preceding the search one, and a linear search is performed
to the content of a field of a scalar type, called ``key''. The key from the record the index key points onward, until the search
must identify uniquely a records, hence different record have key is matched or until the record pointed by the next index
different keys. This organization is well suited for batch entry is reached. In spite of the double file access (index +

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data) needed by this kind of search, the decrease in access - Back up file
time with respect to a sequential file is significant.
Types of backup files
Indexed
- Full back up
Indexes can be built for each field that uniquely identifies a - Selective
record (or set of records within the file), and whose type - Incremental
requires ordering. Multiple indexes hence provide a high - Grandfather father son
degree of flexibility for accessing the data via search on
various attributes; this organization also allows the use of File Activities
variable length records (containing different fields).
- Updating
Hashed - Referencing
- Maintenance
As with sequential or indexed files, a key field is required for - Querying
this organization, as well as fixed record length. However, no
explicit ordering in the keys is used for the hash search, other Characteristics Of files
than the one implicitly determined by a hash function.
- Fixed length Record
Types of files - Variable length Record
- Hit rate
- Master file - Volatility
- Transaction file - Size
- Scratch file - Growth
- Program file
- Text file File view
- Work file
- Report file - Logical
- Reference file - Physical

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14
 - MESHED
- HYBRID

COMPUTER NETWORKING TYPES OF WANS

Is the inter connection of computers so as to facilitate - INTRANET
communication and the sharing of resources on the - EXTRANET
information super highway. It includes systems such as - INTERNET
telephone systems, satellite.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks are categorized broadly according to their
geographical span into: CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
- TAN (Tiny Area Network)
The interconnection of computers within a very limited area - Signal type (Analog & Digital)
spanning a common building such as a mansion, state house, - Transmission Mode (asynchronous & synchronous)
palace - Direction of flow (Half Duplex, Full duplex, Simplex)
- LAN (Local Area Network) - Transmission rate (Frequency & Bandwidth)
The connection of computers within a geographical space a bit - Switching technique (Packet, Message & Circuit)
larger when compared to the TAN and smaller to the MAN

- MAN
- WAN
- VAN

TYPES OF LANS
- RING
- STAR
- BUS
- HIERACHICAL

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COMPUTER PERSONNEL

Hardware technician
Systems analyst
DBA
Computer librarian
Data capture clerk
System designer
Programmer
Computer operator
Web master

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Network Administrator
Sales Representative
Customer Support Technician

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COMPUTER CRIME
- Software Piracy
- Hacking
- Data Did ling
- Salami Slicing
- Scavenging
- Espionage
- Trap doors
- Phishing
- Spam
- Hardware theft
- Wire Tapping

HEALTH ISSUES AND COMPUTERS

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 Foot rests are used to minimize muscle fatigue. Taking short
The study of safety and health issues at the work place is breaks away from the computer is also advised.
known as ergonomics. Proper ergonomic standards must be
practiced so as to eradicate or minimize dangers associated REPETATIVE STRAIN INJURY
with improper use of computer peripherals. Is a disorder caused by typing over long periods. The fingers
become stiff and disjointed
Side Effects caused by improper use

- Eye strains
- Neck trains
- Muscle strains
- Repetitive strain Injury
- Cumulative trauma disorder
- Headaches
- Addictions

EYE STRAINS
Mostly caused by glares which are reflections from light
sources. To minimize glares curtains and blinders, anti-glare COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT
screen covers. In addition eye strains can be minimized by the
use of contrast buttons, screen positioning and adequate -Controlled Temperature
lights. Hardware must not be suited next to radiators or indirect
sunlight. Air conditioners assist in regulating temperatures
NECK STRAINS
The use of document holders which reduce or minimize neck -Clean environment in the laboratory
movements during typing is recommended. Dust and chalk affect tapes and disks. They also clog the
MUSCLE FATIGUE processor therefore the room must be free of dust.

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-Proper Cabling (Electrical Installation)
UPS must be available. Three pronged
Plugs are required. Cables must not be allover the use of cable
ducts is recommended. No naked wires.

-Noise Control
Noise from impact printers and cooling fans. Insulated
containers, sound absorbent screens, carpeted floors assist in
reducing noise

-Proper Ergonomics
Workstation arrangement should be proper so there is free
movement of users without disturbing equipment

-Provision of Curtains
OCR-optical xcter reader
-Disaster Plan OMR-optical mic reader
MICR-magnetic ink xcter reader
-Adequate Lighting ATM-
GIGO-gabage in gabage out
WYSIWYG-what you see is what you get
CD ROM-compact disk read only memory
DVD
VLSI-very large scale intergration
DPI-dots per inch
LPS-letters per second
LPM-letters per minute
CRT-cathode ray tube
LCD-liquid crystal display

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LNB-low noise breaker WAN-wide area network
SIM-serial MAN-metropoliten area network
OBV POS-point of sale
MODEM-modulator de modulator EFTPOS-electronic fund transfer at point of sale
BIT-binary digit DBMS-data base management system
SQL-structured query language MIS-
QBE- DBA-data base administrator
LED-light emmiting diot COM-
UTP IT-information technology
ALU-arithmetic logic unit DSS-
CU-control unit UPS-uninterapted power supply
PC-personal computer
MS-DOS-microsoft disk operating system
BASIC-beginners all symbolic?
COBOL-common business oriented language
ABC-attana soft barry computers
IBM-
TDM
WORM-write once read menu
LASER-light?
RAID-
DBA-data base administrator
WWW-world wide web
RTGS-real time gross settlement
USB-universal serial bus
DTP-desk top publisher
CD-R-compact disk reader
CD-RW-compact disk rewritable
LAN-local area network

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