Concrete Technology: INTRODUCTION

Concrete is a construction material composed of a binding material (such as cement), fine aggregates
(such as sand) and coarse aggregates ( ballast) mixed with water which hardens and gains strength with
time. Portland cement is the commonly used type of cement for production of concrete. Concrete
Technology is a subject that deals with the study of properties of concrete and practical
applications of concrete.

Uses of concrete
Concrete is used as a construction material for almost all types of structures such as buildings, industrial
structures, dams, roads, tunnels, multi-storey buildings, skyscrapers, bridges, sidewalks and
superhighways etc. In building construction, concrete is used in the construction of foundations,
columns, beams, slabs and other load bearing elements.

Example of famous and large structures made with concrete are Hoover Dam, Panama Canal and Roman
Pantheon. It is the commonest human-made building material used for construction.
Advantages of cement concrete as a building material
1. Fresh concrete can be placed and moulded into almost any desired shape
2. Hardened concrete is strong in compression
3. Concrete can be prepared on site without the need of very expensive equipment and in the
factory
4. Concrete has the same coefficient of linear thermal expansion as steel. Therefore the two
materials can be bonded together into a composite material called reinforced concrete.
5. Concrete does not catch fire easily
6. Concrete is a good fire resistant material
7. Concrete is a good thermal insulator
8. Concrete is a good sound insulator

Disadvantages of cement concrete as a building material

1. Concrete is very weak in tension. Therefore when a structural member is subjected to bending,
tension reinforcements are required to withstand tensile forces in the structural member .
Generally, strength of concrete in tension is only 10% of its strength in compression.
2. Concrete has a high weight/span ratio. Therefore, it becomes uneconomical for use in long-span
structures.
3. Concrete has a high weight/volume ratio. Therefore, it becomes rather heavy for use in certain
structures. However, the high weight ratio is an added advantage in structures like dams.

Concrete can be casted in any shape. Since it is a plastic material in fresh state, various shapes and sizes
of formworks are used to provide different shapes of concrete products such as rectangular, circular etc.

Various structural members such as beams, slabs, footings, columns, lintels etc. are constructed with
concrete.

Grade of Concrete (strength of concrete)

Grade of concrete denotes the characteristic compressive strength of 28-day old concrete. Cement
concrete materials are mixed in specific proportions to obtain the required strength. Strength of a
concrete mix is specified as C5, C10, C15, C20, C25, C30, etc. according to British Standards (or as M5,
M10, M15, M20, M25, M30 etc., according to ACI). ACI stands for American Concrete Institute. In
these specifications C stands for class of concrete (M signifies Mix) and 5, 10, 15 etc. signify the
characteristic strength of 28-day old concrete in N/mm2 (minimum/guaranteed strength of 28-day
old concrete in N/mm2). For example, grade C30/M30 concrete signifies that characteristic compressive
strength of 28-day old concrete is 30MPa(30N/mm2).

Based on various lab tests, grade of concrete is presented in mix proportions. For example, for C25/M25
grade, the mix proportion can be 1:1:2, where 1 is the ratio of cement, 1 is the ratio of sand and 2 is the
ratio of coarse aggregate based on volume or weight of materials.
The strength is measured with concrete cube or cylinders by civil engineers at construction site. Cube or
cylinders are made during casting of structural members and after hardening it is cured for 28 days.
Then compressive strength test is conducted to find the strength.

Characteristic compressive strength of 28-day old concrete

Concrete Grade Mix Ratio
MPa (N/mm2) psi
Normal Grade of Concrete
C5/M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa(N/mm2) 725 psi
C7.5/M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi
C10/M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi
C15/M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi
C20/M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi
Standard Grade of Concrete
C25/M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi
C30/M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi
C35/M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi
C40/M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi
C45/M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi
High Strength Concrete Grades
C50/M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi
C55/M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi
C60/M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi
C65/M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi
C70/M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE

Binding materials
There are different types of binding materials for concrete. The commonest binding material is cement
for cement concrete. Other binding materials are lime for lime concrete and bitumen for asphalt
concrete which is used for road construction. Various types of cements which have different properties
and applications are used for concrete works. Some of the types of cement are Ordinary Portland
Cement, Pozzolana Portland Cement, Rapid Hardening Portland cement, Sulphate resistant Portland
cement, Low Heat Portland cement, Blast furnace slag Portland cement, White Portland cement ,
High-Alumina cement, etc.
NOTE: High-Alumina cement is not a Portland cement.

When water is mixed with the concrete materials, cement reacts with water and hydration of cement
takes place ( hydration of cement is the name given to the chemical reaction between cement and
water). In this reaction the cement forms a hard matrix that binds the fine and coarse aggregates together
into a durable stone-like material.
Aggregates for concrete

Fine aggregates: particles of size from approx. 5mm to approx 0.1mm which possess the following
properties:-
 chemical inertness
 strength
  not water absorbent, etc
Examples of fine aggregates: natural sand(eg quartz sand), crushed rock aggregates eg granite quarry
dust, limestone quarry dust, basalt quarry dust, etc.
Coarse aggregates: particles of size from approx. 5mm to approx 75mm which possess the following
properties:-
 chemical inertness
 strength
 not water absorbent, etc
Examples of coarse aggregates: crushed rock aggregates eg granite chips, limestone chips, basalt chips,
gravels, etc.

Purpose of aggregates in concrete

Why do we use aggregates in concrete? There are many reasons.

1. Perhaps the biggest reason is cost. Aggregates act as a filler and occupy that space which
would have been otherwise occupied by cement. Generally, aggregates make up 60-80% of
the volume of concrete and 70-85% of the mass of concrete. Cement usually costs seven or
eight times what stone and sand cost. Cement is necessary, but the strength can still be
retained when using well-graded aggregates that cost significantly less.
2. Aggregates impart other required properties to concrete. Such properties include strength, thermal
and elastic, fire resistance, sound resistance, permeability, etc properties of concrete.
3. Aggregates impart dimensional stability and volume stability to concrete. Cement is more likely to
be affected by shrinkage. Including aggregate in the mix can control the shrinkage level and prevent
cracking.

Water cement ratio(mass of water divided by mass of cement) plays an important role in the
properties of both wet and hardened concrete. It influences various properties such as workability,
strength and durability. Adequate water cement ratio is required for production of workable concrete.

ACI 318 Building code requirements for structural concrete and ACI 301 Specifications for Structural
Concrete are used in United States as standard code of practice for concrete construction.

There are different types of admixtures which are used to provide certain properties to the
concrete. Admixtures or additives such as pozzolanas or superplasticizers are included in the mixture to
improve the physical properties of the wet mix or of the finished material.

Various types of concretes are manufactured these days for construction of buildings and structures.
These have special properties and features which improve quality of construction as per requirement.
How to Make Concrete?
Concrete is manufactured or mixed in proportions w.r.t. cement quantity. There are two types of
concrete mixes, i.e. nominal mix and design mix. Nominal mix is used for normal construction works
such as small residential buildings. Most popular nominal mix are in the proportion of 1:2:4.

Design mixed concrete are those for which mix proportions are finalized based on various lab tests on
cylinder or cube for its compressive strength. This process is also known as mix design. These tests are
conducted to find suitable mix based on locally available material to obtain strength required as per
structural design. A design mix offers economy on use of ingredients.

Once suitable mix proportions are known, then its ingredients are mixed in the ratio as selected. Two
methods are used for mixing, i.e. Hand Mixing or Machine Mixing.

Based on quantity and quality required, the suitable method of mixing is selected. In the hand mixing,
ingredients are placed on a flat surface and water is added and mixed with hand tools. In machine
mixing, different types of machines are used. In this case, the ingredients are added in required quantity
to mix and produce fresh concrete.

Once the concrete is mixed adequately it is transported to casting location and poured in formworks.
Various types of formworks are available which are selected based on usage.

Poured concrete is allowed to set in formworks for specified time based on type of structural member to
gain sufficient strength.

After casting, curing of concrete is done by various methods to make up for the water lost due to
evaporation, leakage, hydration, etc. Hydration of cement requires water which is responsible for
setting and gaining of strength of the cement. So, curing should generally be continued for 28 days (and
for a minimum 7 days if 28 days is not possible)

Types of concrete construction

Concrete is generally used in two types of construction, i.e. plain concrete construction (PCC) and
reinforced concrete construction (RCC). In PCC, it is poured and casted without use of any
reinforcement. This is used when the structural member is subjected only to the compressive forces and
not bending. In RCC, concrete is poured and casted and reinforced with steel reinforcing bars. Steel
reinforcement is necessary when a structural member is subjected to bending, tension, shearing, torsion.
The reinforcement is required to withstand tensile forces in the structural member as concrete is very
weak in tension compared to compression. Generally, strength of concrete in tension is only 10% of its
strength in compression.

Steps of Concrete Construction

The construction steps are:
1. Selecting quantities of materials for selected mix proportion
2. Mixing concrete
 3. Checking of workability of the concrete mix
4. Transportation of concrete
5. Pouring of fresh concrete in formwork for casting
6. Vibrating the fresh concrete for proper compaction
7. Removal of formwork after suitable time
8. Curing concrete with suitable methods and required time.

Difference between Lean Concrete and Normal Concrete

The main difference between lean and PCC concrete is that lean concrete contains less cement compared
to the water content present in it. This means, when compared to plain cement concrete (PCC), the lean
concrete has a smaller strength.

What is Fire Resistance of Concrete? Mechanism and Factors

Fire resistance of concrete is the ability of concrete to withstand fire or to give protection against fire.
This involves the ability of concrete structural element to continue perform a specific structural function
or confine fire or both.