Basic Concepts of

MODULE 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF CONCRETE Concrete

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Types of Concrete
1.3 Grades of Concrete
1.4 Proportioning of Materials of Concrete
1.5 Importance of Concrete
1.6 Advantages of Concrete
1.7 Disadvantages of Concrete
1.8 Selection of Material
1.9 Reinforcement in Concrete
1.10 Properties of Concrete in Plastic Stage
1.10.1 Workability
1.10.2 Freedom from Segregation
1.10.3 Freedom from Bleeding
1.11 Properties of Concrete in Hardened Stage
1.11.1 Strength
1.11.2 Durability
1.11.3 Impermeability
1.11.4 Dimensional Changes
1.12 Process Diagram of Concrete
1.13 Concreting Operations
1.13.1 Storage
1.13.2 Batching
1.13.3 Mixing
1.13.4 Transporting
1.13.5 Placing
1.13.6 Compaction
1.13.7 Finishing
1.13.8 Curing
1.14 Summary

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most widely used material in construction industry. In this module,
you shall be studying definition and importance of concrete, properties of
concrete in plastic and hardened stage and process diagram of concrete and
concrete operations.
Objectives
After going through this module, you should be able to
 identify the ingredients of concrete,
 acknowledge the importance of concrete, 5
Concrete Technology  describe the properties of concrete,
 draw the process diagram of concrete, and
 explain the different operations of concrete.

1.2 TYPES OF CONCRETE

Concrete plays very important role in construction industry as a construction
material. It is a stone like hard material obtained by mixing cement, sand (fine
aggregate), coarse aggregate and water in some specific proportions. The concrete
can be mould in any desired shape in plastic stage. The chemical reaction between
cement and water binds the aggregate into a solid mass. Concrete’s strength
increases with age. Cement, sand (fine aggregate) and water combine to form
mortar, which fills the voids in coarse aggregate to form concrete.
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) has considerable strength in compression but it has
very little strength in tension. Hence, the use of (PCC) is normally restricted to
situations, where high compressive strength and weight are of the primary
requirements. PCC is, therefore, used in the construction of bed blocks, massive
gravity dams, dock-walls, columns, arches and gravity retaining walls, etc.
As concrete is weak in tension, steel bars (reinforcement) are used in concrete.
Such a concrete is called as Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). Steel
reinforcement is generally placed in the tension zone of the member before
concreting is done. Sometimes to reduce the size of concrete member or if the
concrete member is subjected to reversal of stresses then steel reinforcement may
be provided in compression zone also.
Cement concrete can be defined as a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate
and water in some specified proportion.
Sometimes special ingredients known as ‘Admixtures’ are also added to improve
some properties of concrete.
The fresh mixture of cement, sand coarse aggregate and water in plastic stage are
called as ‘Fresh Concrete’.
As time passes, the mixture of ingredients of fresh concrete gets hardened which
is called as hardened concrete.

1.3 GRADES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is graded according to its compressive strength. In this classification the
concrete is designated by M followed by a numerical number; letter M refers to
the mix and the number to the specified characteristic compressive strength of
15 cm  15 cm  15 cm cube at 28 days curing expressed in N/mm2. The
characteristic strength is defined as the strength of concrete below which not more
than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. Generally, the concrete upto grade
M15 is used for plain concrete works. Minimum grade of concrete for RCC is
M20 (as per IS 456 : 2000). M5, M7.5 grades are generally used for lean concrete
bases and simple foundations for masonry walls. Grades M15 and M20 are used
for normal reinforced concrete works. Grades lower than M40 cannot be used in
pre-tensioned pre-stressed concrete and lower than M30 cannot be used in
post-tensioned concrete.

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 Table 1.1 : Grades of Concrete Basic Concepts of
Concrete
Designation Mix Characteristic Group
Proportion Compressive (as per IS 456 : 2000)
Strength in N/mm2
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 Lean Mix
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5
M10 1:3:6 10 Ordinary Concrete
M15 1:2:4 15
M20 1 : 1½ : 3 20
M25 1:1:2 25 Standard Concrete
M30 30
M35 35
M40 40
M45 Designed 45
M50 50
M55 55
M60 60 High Strength Concrete

1.4 PROPORTIONING OF MATERIALS OF

CONCRETE
Concrete must be satisfactory in two states namely, plastic and harden. The
choice of proportion is governed by both these conditions. In general cement, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate and water should be so proportioned that the resulting
concrete has the following properties:
(a) While fresh it is workable enough for economical and uniform
placement, but not excessively fluid.
(b) When hardened, it has sufficient strength and ability for its purpose.
(c) Involves minimum cost for material and labour.
Once the quality of cement and aggregate is selected next is to decide the
proportion of cement : fine aggregate : coarse aggregate. The proportioning of
cement, sand and coarse aggregate is also termed as mix design; while
proportioning these and water cement ratio, it must be kept in mind that the fresh
concrete be workable enough for uniform placement and once hardened has
sufficient strength and durability.
Factors governing the choice of mix proportion are:
(a) Strength of concrete.
(b) Quality control.
(c) Durability and workability.
(d) Water cement ratio.
(e) Aggregate cement Ratio.
(f) Grading and type of aggregate.
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Concrete Technology (g) Maximum and minimum size of aggregate.
There are various methods of mix design but there are also methods which give
rough proportioning used in day-to-day works.
Table 1.2 : Mix Proportion

Sl. No. Type of Construction Mix Proportion

(by Volume)

1. Mass concrete foundation 1 : 6 : 12

1 : 5 : 10
1:4:8

2. Mass concrete in superstructure 1:3:6

3. All normal reinforced concrete works such 1:2:4

as beam, column, slab, etc.

4. Impermeable construction and heavy 1 : 1½ : 3

concrete works

5. Long span arches, heavily loaded structure 1:1:2

1.5 IMPORTANCE OF CONCRETE

Concrete is the most important basic construction material because it is difficult
to get another versatile and mouldable material like concrete at such a low cost.
Concrete has following important characteristics :
(a) It has good compressive strength.
(b) It has good durability.
(c) It has required impermeability.
(d) It has good fire resistance.
(e) It has abrasion resistance.
Concrete is weak in tension. The weakness of concrete in tension can be
overcome by providing reinforcement and pre-stressing techniques.
Following are the important projects in Civil Engineering where we use the
concrete as a basic construction material.
(a) Roads,
(b) Bridges,
(c) Buildings,
(d) Railways,
(e) Airports,
(f) Dams, etc.

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

The advantages of using concrete are :
(a) It is quite strong; durable and fire proof.
8
 (b) It is further economical in long run compared to other materials; Basic Concepts of
Concrete
requires less maintenance if used properly.
(c) It can be moulded to any shape and size for architectural and
decorative purposes.
(d) It is quite strong in compression and along with steel as reinforcing
material to resist tension, concrete has unlimited structural uses.
These two materials have approximately same coefficient of
expansion, and develop very good bond with each other.
(e) Concrete can be used as grouting material to fill up cracks.
(f) It can be pumped, hence places where spaces for material storages are
not available it can be transported through pipe line.

SAQ 3
1.7 DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
It has hardly any disadvantage if constructed properly; further some deficiencies
can be overtaken by using some admixtures. Following are the disadvantages of
concrete.
(a) It has low tensile stresses hence surface cracks develop which lead
water to penetrate and cause corrosion of steel. But this drawback can
be minimized by using steel bars and meshes.
(b) It shrinks on drying and expands on wetting. Provision of expansion
joints is made which minimizes it. Concrete further expands and
contracts, hence expansion joints provided take care of it.
(c) Concrete subjected to sustained loads causes creep.
(d) Concrete cannot be made impervious hence water soluble salts cause
efflorescence which gives bad appearance to concrete. This further
reduces life of electric fittings, etc.
(e) Concrete is liable to sulphate attack and alkalies attacks hence
deteriorates and disintegrates with time.
(f) Concrete itself is a brittle material.

1.8 SELECTION OF MATERIAL

The quality and characteristics of concrete mainly depends on the quality of
materials used. Materials selected for concrete must conform to required
specifications depending on strength of concrete. Fresh cement of approved
quality should be used and stored properly to prevent deterioration. Aggregate
used should be well graded, free from silt, organic matter and other undesirable
impurities. Water to be used for concreting should be potable, free from all
impurities. Many times admixtures are used to improve various properties of
concrete. Admixture selected should be such that it should not have any adverse
or deteriorating effect on other materials and on concrete as a whole.

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Concrete Technology
1.9 REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE
Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension. Steel is equally
strong in tension and compression but for long steel bars, it cannot resist equal
amount of compressive force due to its buckling. Thus, the combination of steel
and concrete is made to take up the stresses. Such combination of steel and
concrete is called as reinforced concrete.
Following are the grades of steel reinforcement.
(a) Mild steel (Fe250) : Grade I is known as mild steel (m.s.)
(b) High Tensile Deformed Steel : It is further classified as follows :
(i) Grade Fe 415
(ii) Grade Fe 500.
Following are the advantages of steel reinforcement.
(a) It has high tensile strength.
(b) It can develop good bond with concrete.
(c) It is easily available.
(d) Its coefficient of thermal expansion is nearly equal to that of concrete.
(e) It is easy to cut, bend, bind or weld.
(f) Concrete is not producing any harmful effect on the embedded steel.
The various forms in which steel is used as reinforcement in RCC work are round
bars, deformed bars, twisted bars, square bars and flats. Sometimes expanded
metal fabric or fabric made by welding or weaving steel wire in the form of
oblong or square mesh are also used as reinforcement in slabs, shells and concrete
roads. For works of large dimensions like massive foundations, etc. sections like
rolled steel beams, channels or angle iron are also used as reinforcement. Mild
and medium tensile steel bars of round section are most commonly used in RCC
work. The diameter of round bars used in normal building are 6 mm, 8 mm,
10 mm, 12 mm, 16 mm, 18 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 28 mm, 32 mm, 36 mm and
40 mm. Bars of greater diameter, i.e. 45 mm and 50 mm are only used in
exceptionally heavy foundations, large girders or counterforts, etc.
With the introduction of deformed bars and twisted bars, the use of plain round
bars is gradually reducing. Deformed bars or high yield strength deformed bars
(HYSD) are furnished with lugs, ribs or other form of surface deformations for
the purpose of increasing their bond strength with concrete. It is seen that the
process of twisting a plain or deformed bar results in the increase in yield stress,
tensile strength and bond strength. Twisted plain or deformed bars not only have
high yield stress but also have strength that is 40 % more than that of plain round
bars. On account of increased bond strength such bars do not need end hooks and
require reduced length for overlaps, etc. thereby leading to reduction in the cost of
reinforcement and labour.

SAQ5

10
 Basic Concepts of
1.10 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE IN PLASTIC Concrete
STAGE
The reaction between cement and water is called as hydration of cement. The
extent of hydration of cement and the resultant microstructure of hydrated cement
affects the physical properties of concrete. Cement when mixed with water forms
hydrated compounds of very low solubility. The reaction of cement with water is
exothermic in nature. The reaction releases a lot of heat which is called as heat of
hydration. Different compounds of cement hydrate at different rates and liberate
different quantities of heat.
The following properties of fresh concrete are of significance.
1.10.1 Workability
The ease with which the concrete can be placed on the forms and compacted is
called workability of concrete. It can also be defined as the amount of internal
useful work required to fully compact the concrete to optimum density in the
mould. The workability of concrete depends upon water content, shape, size and
grading of the aggregates, ratio of coarse and fine aggregates and the use of
admixtures, if any. Workability is generally measured by the slump test.
1.10.2 Freedom from Segregation
The separation of cement water paste from the rest of the material is called as
segregation. It is an undesirable property which should be prevented in all
circumstances as it is very harmful to concrete properties. Segregation makes a
concrete weak in hardened stage. Segregation can be avoided by proper grading,
proper proportioning, use of optimum quantity of water, optimum compaction,
proper handling, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing.
1.10.3 Freedom from Bleeding
The appearance of water on the surface of concrete after compaction is called
bleeding. Bleeding indicates the presence of excess water in concrete or
deficiency of fine material or too much finishing. Bleeding disturbs the
uniformity of the surface and makes it dusty, porous and weak. Bleeding can be
reduced by using proper mix, constant water-cement ratio, richer concrete, air
entraining agents and fine sand. It is harmful to the concrete and it reduces the
strength of hardened concrete.

SAQ 6
1.11 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE IN HARDENED
STAGE
The following properties of hardened concrete are of significance :
1.11.1 Strength
The ability of concrete to bear loads is called its strength. The strength of
hardened concrete mainly depends upon water-cement ratio, quality of cement,
degree of compaction and curing.
The strength is further classified as :
(a) Compressive strength.
(b) Tensile strength.
11
Concrete Technology (c) Bond strength.
(d) Shear strength.
Compressive Strength
High compressive strength is the most important property of the concrete.
Therefore, concrete is used to resist compressive stresses. The strength of
concrete is measured in N/mm2 (MPa). The compressive strength of
concrete is affected by water-cement ratio, degree of compaction, type and
quality of cement, type and texture of aggregate, curing, temperature at
which the concrete is hardened, time of hardening, etc.
Tensile Strength
Concrete has low tensile strength. It is only 10 percent of the compressive
strength. Due to low tensile strength, concrete is not used to resist tensile
forces. In reinforced cement concrete works, reinforcement is provided for
bearing tensile stresses. The tensile strength is of great importance in
resisting cracking due to change in moisture content or temperature. The
measurement of tensile strength of concrete is very difficult. The most
practical method is to measure the tensile strength in bending which is
usually called flexural strength.
Bond Strength
The property of adhesion between concrete and steel reinforcement is called
its bond strength. Bond strength of concrete depends on its compressive
strength and the surface characteristics of the steel bars. Bond strength is
more for bars in compression than bars in tension. The bond strength can be
increased by using deformed bars instead of plain bars and by decreasing
the water cement ratio.
Shear Strength
Shear strength is about half of the compressive strength. Shearing of
concrete is always accompanied by tension and compression due to bending.
Concrete fails in shear due to diagonal tension.
1.11.2 Durability
Durability of concrete is its resistance to disintegration under the forces of
environment such as weathering, chemical attack, fire and corrosion of steel, etc.
Generally, dense and strong concretes have better durability in extreme weather
conditions. Durability of concrete depends upon the quality of materials used and
optimum water cement ratio. Generally, sound cement, durable aggregates, dense
grading of aggregates, careful batching, mixing, placing, compaction and long
periods for curing give concrete of better durability.
1.11.3 Impermeability
The resistance provided by concrete to the flow of water through it is called
impermeability. Excess water during manufacturing of concrete leaves a large
number of continuous pores leading to permeability in concrete. Impermeability
is important specially for exposed and water-retaining structures. Impermeable
concrete can be obtained by using low water cement ratio, dense and well graded
aggregate, full compaction, sufficient curing, etc. Concrete can also be made
12
impermeable by covering the surface by special gasoline-proof members, plastic Basic Concepts of
Concrete
films, etc.
1.11.4 Dimensional Changes
The dimensional changes of concrete depends upon
(a) Elasticity,
(b) Shrinkage,
(c) Creep, and
(d) Thermal expansion.
Elasticity
Concrete is not truly elastic material but has an approximately linear
compressive stress-strain curve within the range of normal working stresses.
The value of modulus of elasticity is not constant for all stresses. It
measures the stiffness of concrete members. The modulus of elasticity
depends upon the strength, moisture content, type of aggregate and age of
concrete. The modulus of elasticity for concrete is defined as the ratio of
unit stress to unit strain and varies from 30,000 to 50,000 N/mm2. It is
assumed to be constant for design purposes.
Shrinkage
During hardening and drying of concrete, there is slight reduction in its
volume which is known as shrinkage. The shrinkage is higher with higher
cement or water content. Average coefficient of total shrinkage for cement
concrete may be taken as 0.003. The extent of shrinkage depends upon the
efficiency of the curing arrangements, water absorbed by the formwork,
types of cement, richness of mix and amount of water. The mineral
character of the aggregate also affects shrinkage of concrete in which it is
used. Concrete shrinks due to the chemical action of the colloids produced
by water when it reacts with cement and due to physical drying out of
concrete. Shrinkage can be reduced by using low water cement ratio,
saturating aggregates, designing the concrete mix properly, non-absorbent
formwork and reducing the height of fall of concrete during placing
operations. The advantage of shrinkage in concrete is that it grips the
reinforcement tightly and help in preventing its slipping. It is the main cause
of bond between reinforcement and concrete.
Creep
The continuous and permanent deformation of concrete under sustained
loading is known as creep or time-yield or plastic flow. Creep is the
permanent deformation. It is due to closure of internal voids, viscous flow
of cement water paste, crystalline flow in aggregates. The shrinkage and
creep occur simultaneously and they are assumed to be additive for
simplicity. The deformation which occurs immediately after the application
of the load is called as instantaneous deformation. The deformation beyond
instantaneous strain is creep. Creep is a function of time. Creep occurs both
in compressive and tensile loading and it is assumed that the magnitude of
the creep is the same in both the cases. It has been determined that strain
due to creep is three times the strain that occurs when the load is first
applied. Sometimes, creep is desirable in RCC structures as it helps in
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Concrete Technology uniform distribution of stress. It relives the concrete stress and adds to the
steel stress. It reduces the development of cracks.
The rate of creep depends upon the following factors :
Strength
Increase in strength causes reduction in creep.
Proportion of Mix
Creep decreases as the water cement ratio and volume of cement paste
decreases.
Aggregate
Creep increases as the aggregate becomes finer and is greater with
porous aggregates.
Curing
Creep decreases as the hydration of cement proceed.
Age
The rate of creep decreases with the increase in time.
Type of Cement
Fineness of cement affects the strength development at early ages and
this affects creep of concrete.
Thermal Expansion
The expansion of concrete takes place due to rise in temperature. The
thermal expansion in concrete causes considerable deformation and cracks.
It is controlled by providing special expansion joints in big concrete
structures. The value of the thermal coefficient varies a little with the
richness of mix and the amount of water present in the mix. It is not
uniform throughout the mass of concrete. Thermal expansion depends
largely on the cement content and type of aggregate used. Concrete
prepared from siliceous aggregate expand more than those concretes which
are prepared from calcareous aggregates. The expansion of cement paste is
more than that of aggregate.

1.12 PROCESS DIAGRAM OF CONCRETE

Process diagram of concrete as depicted above consists of the following

operations in sequence.
(a) Procurement of ingredients of concrete.
(b) Proper storage and handling of ingredients of concrete.
(c) Batching of materials for making concrete.
(d) Mixing of ingredients in proper proportion.
(e) Transporting the fresh concrete to the required place or site.
(f) Placing the fresh concrete in moulds or formwork.
(g) Compacting the concrete in formwork.
14
 (h) Curing of concrete. Basic Concepts of
Concrete
(i) Finishing of concrete to get good appearance.
(j) Testing of concrete in plastic and hardened stage

Procurement of Storage and

Ingredients of Handling of
Concrete Ingredients

Mixing of Batching of
Ingredients Ingredients

Transporting of Placing of
Concrete Concrete

Curing of Compaction of
Concrete Concrete

Finishing of Testing of
Concrete Concrete

1.13 CONCRETING OPERATIONS

To obtain good quality concrete not only materials and their proportions are
important but the concreting operations also play a very critical role. Concreting
operations include storage of materials, proportioning and batching, mixing,
transporting, placing, compacting, finishing and curing. The concreting operations
affect the strength and other properties of concrete can be achieved as per
requirements by using suitable controls on various concreting operations.
1.13.1 Storage
The cement should be stored carefully. It may absorb moisture from the
atmosphere and may become useless for the structural work if not properly stored.
Absorption of one to two percent of moisture has no appreciable effect on quality
of cement but if it exceeds five percent, the cement becomes useless. Hence,
when cement is to be stored for a long period, it should be stored in airtight
containers. If moisture is kept away from cement, it is found that cement will
maintain its quality for large period.
It is advisable to avoid storing of cement in jute bags for a period longer than
three months. If it is unavoidable, the cement should be tested to check its quality.
The loose cement may be stored indefinitely in airtight containers.
The cement bags are stacked in piles. It is economical to form a pile of 10 bags of
cement. A distance of about 30cm should be kept between the piles of cement
bags and exterior walls of building. The distance between two piles should be
about 90 cm.
For long storage, the top and bottom of piles should be covered with waterproof
paper or tarpaulins.

15
Concrete Technology The cement, which is finely ground, is more active and consequently it absorbs
moisture rapidly from the atmosphere. Hence, more precautions should be taken
to store finely ground cement.
When cement bags are to be removed from piles of sufficient height, the steps
should be formed by taking out two or three bags from front piles. It is also
advisable to remove cement in order of its storage period, i.e. cement which is
stored previously should be taken out first.
Cement is easily affected by water and even atmospheric humidity. Cement
should be stored in dry condition. It should be protected from moisture.
Aggregate should be stored in such a manner that its size and grading is not
disturbed as it does not get mixed with deleterious impurities.
1.13.2 Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. There
are two methods of batching – volume batching and weigh batching.
Volume Batching
In volume batching, materials are taken in litres. If proper care is taken it
gives good results. Aggregates are measured by containers of volume of
35 litres. Water is measured in litres. Volume batching is preferred for
minor works and where quantity is very less.
Weigh Batching
In weigh batching, materials are measured in kg. It gives accurate results.
Cement should always be measured in kg.
1.13.3 Mixing
Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform
concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous,
uniform in colour and consistency. There are two methods adopted for mixing
concrete.
Hand Mixing
In this method, ingredients are mixed in dry state three times on a watertight
platform to avoid loss of water from the mix. Then water is added in correct
quantity and wet mixing is done thoroughly till concrete becomes uniform
in colour and consistency. Generally, 8 to 10 % extra cement is added for
hand mixing.

Machine Mixing
It ensures a better and uniform mixing of concrete ingredients. It produces
concrete of better quality at a faster rate and at less cost more efficiently.
Now-a-days, concrete mixers are very common. Even for small jobs mixers
are preferred. Following are the types of mixer.
(a) Drum type
(b) Pan type
(c) Paving mixer
(d) Transit mixer
16
 (e) Tilting type – 85T, 100T, 140T, 200T. Basic Concepts of
Concrete
(f) Non-tilting type – 200NT, 280NT, 340NT, 400NT, 800NT.
(g) Reversing – 200R, 280R, 340R, 400R.
Number indicates the quantity of materials in litres in one batch.
1.13.4 Transporting
Concrete can be transported by a variety of methods and equipment. The
precaution to be taken while transporting concrete is that the homogeneity
obtained at the time of mixing should be maintained while being transported to
the final place of deposition. Selection of methods depends on type of work and
site situation.
The methods adopted for transportation of concrete are :
(a) Mortar Pan
(b) Wheel Barrow, Hand Cart
(c) Bucket and Rope Way
(d) Truck Mixer and Dumpers
(e) Belt Conveyors
(f) Chute
(g) Skip and Hoist
(h) Pumps and Pipe Line.
1.13.5 Placing
It is not enough that a concrete mix is correctly designed, batched, mixed and
transported, it is of utmost importance that the concrete must be placed in a
systematic manner to yield optimum results.
Concrete is invariably laid as foundation bed below the walls or columns. Before
placing the concrete in the foundation all the loose earth must be removed from
the bed. Any root of trees passing through the foundation must be cut, charred or
tarred effectively to prevent its further growth and piercing the concrete at a later
date. The surface of the earth, if dry, must be just made wet, so that the earth does
not absorb water from concrete. On the other hand if the foundation bed is too wet
and rain-soaked, the water and slush must be removed completely to expose firm
bed before placing concrete. If there is any seepage of water taking place into the
foundation trench, effective method for diverting the flow of water must be
adopted before concrete is placed in the trench or pit.
The precautions to be taken and methods adopted while placing concrete in the
under-mentioned situations will be discussed.
(a) Placing concrete within earth mould.
(Example : Foundation concrete for a wall or column.)
(b) Placing concrete within large earth mould or timber plank formwork.
(Example : Road slab and airfield slab.)
(c) Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutters.
(Example : Mass concrete in dam construction or construction of
concrete abutment or pier.)
(d) Placing concrete within usual formwork. 17
Concrete Technology (Example : Columns, beams and floors.)
1.13.6 Compaction
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air
from the concrete. In the process of placing and mixing of concrete, air is likely to
get entrapped in the concrete. If this air is not removed fully, the concrete losses
strength considerably. 5 percent voids reduce the strength of concrete by about
30 percent and 10 percent voids reduce the strength by over 50 percent. Therefore,
it is imperative that 100 percent compaction of concrete is one of the most
important aim to be kept in mind in good concrete-making practices.
In order to achieve full compaction and maximum density, with reasonable
compacting efforts available at site, it is necessary to use a mix with adequate
workability. It is also of common knowledge that the mix should not be too wet
for easy compaction, which also reduces the strength of concrete. For maximum
strength driest possible concrete should be compacted 100 percent. The overall
economy demands 100 percent compaction with a reasonable compacting effort
available in the field.
The following methods are adopted for compacting the concrete :
Hand Compaction
(a) Rodding
(b) Ramming
(c) Tamping
Compaction by Vibration
(a) Internal vibrator (Needle vibrator) – e.g. column, beam, slab, footing.
(b) External vibrator (Formwork vibrator) – e.g. column, thin sections.
(c) Table vibrator – e.g. cube testing.
(d) Platform vibrator – e.g. pre-cast units.
(e) Surface vibrator (Screed vibrator) – e.g. concrete roads, industrial
flooring.
Compaction by Pressure and Jolting – e.g. blocks, tiles, etc.
Compaction by Spinning – e.g. cement pipes.
1.13.8 Finishing
Finishing is the operation of attaining a concrete surface of desired
texture and pattern. Functional and decorative requirements determine
the finish of a concrete surface.
Finishing in real sense does not apply to all concrete operations. For a
beam concreting, finishing may not be applicable, whereas for the
concrete road pavement, airfield pavement or for the flooring of a
domestic building, careful finishing is of great importance.
Finishing makes concrete more functional and aesthetic. Concrete’s
end use usually determines the final surface texture and patterns.
Finishing of concrete surface requires one, or many of the following
18
operations:
 Basic Concepts of
 Level the surface Concrete

 Edge the concrete

 Jointing the concrete
 Float the concrete
 Trowel the concrete
 Texture the concrete
Surface finishes may be grouped as under :
(a) Formwork finishes
(b) Surface treatment
(c) Applied finishes

1.13.8 Curing
The process of hardening the concrete mixes by keeping its surface moist for a
certain period after compaction is called curing of concrete. It is one of the
important factors for obtaining better strength. Curing must be organized
immediately after concrete is placed and compacted.
The concrete hardens because of hydration, i.e. the chemical reaction between
water and portland cement. The chemical actions, which accompany the setting of
concrete, are dependent on the presence of water. Although there is sufficient
water at the time of mixing yet it is necessary to ensure that the water is retained
to enable the chemical action to continue till the concrete is fully hardened.
Properties of concrete such as strength, water-tightness, durability, wear
resistance and volume stability improve with the passage of time. Three gallons
of water are required approximately to hydrate one bag of cement.
If the loss due to evaporation is more from newly placed concrete, the hydration
process will stop and concrete will shrink thus creating tensile stresses at the
drying surface. The development of these stresses will result into the formation of
plastic shrinkage cracks.
Thus, curing is important. It improves properties of concrete such as water-
tightness, wear resistance, strength, volume stability and durability.
Methods of Curing
(a) Water curing
(b) Membrane curing
(c) Application of heat
(d) Miscellaneous

1.14 SUMMARY
In this module, you have studied definition of concrete, grades of concrete,
importance of concrete, properties of concrete in plastic and hardened stage and
process diagram of concrete. Now, in next unit, you will study about 19
Concrete Technology manufacturing process of cement, chemical composition of cement, physical
properties of cement, types and uses of cement, field tests of cement, etc.

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