Lesson 1

ISLAM
Islam, the world’s second-largest religion, was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century
in Arabia. The term "Islam" derives from the Arabic word for submission, reflecting the faith’s central
tenet of submitting to the will of God. This founding ethos has guided the religious, cultural, and
social developments of Muslim communities around the globe.

1. Context of Pre-Islamic Arabia

Before the advent of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was marked by complex social, religious, and
cultural dynamics. Two of the most significant cities were Mecca and Medina. Mecca, in particular,
held both religious and commercial importance. It was considered a sacred site even before the rise of
Islam, serving as a prominent center of trade and pilgrimage. The Quraysh tribe, who traced their
lineage back to Prophet Abraham, were the custodians of the Kaaba—a cube-shaped sanctuary that
housed numerous idols representing various deities, making it a revered site for polytheistic
worshippers from across Arabia.

 Social and Moral Conditions

The period preceding Prophet Muhammad is referred to in Islamic tradition as the Jahiliyyah, or the
"Age of Ignorance." This era was characterized by widespread idolatry, moral decay, and social
injustice. Practices such as infanticide, polyandry, tribal warfare, and murder were common. Society
was deeply tribal and hierarchical, where weaker tribes often paid tribute or protection money to
stronger ones. Caravan raiding, blood feuds that lasted generations, and general lawlessness created a
volatile and insecure environment.

 Life of the Bedouins

The Bedouins, nomadic tribes native to the Arabian deserts, lived in tents and led harsh lives marked
by horse and camel breeding, hunting, and occasional raiding. Their diet largely consisted of dates,
camel milk, and meat. Spiritually, their beliefs were rooted in animism and superstition—they
believed in jinn (spiritual beings or demons) and often worshipped natural elements such as trees,
wells, caves, and stones. Stones were frequently used as altars, upon which sacrificial blood was
poured while tribesmen performed ritual dances around them.

 Religious Landscape of Mecca

While Allah was acknowledged by the Meccans as the Creator and Sustainer, He was worshipped
alongside numerous other gods and goddesses. Notably, al-Lat, al-Uzza, and al-Manat were prominent
female deities, and Hubal was revered as the chief idol in the Kaaba, often represented in human
form. Islamic tradition holds that the Kaaba was originally built by Abraham and his son Ishmael,
following the destruction of an earlier structure during a flood. The Black Stone, embedded in one
corner of the Kaaba, drew pilgrims from far and wide—a practice that continues in Islamic pilgrimage
(Hajj) today.

 Presence of Monotheistic Faiths

Despite the dominance of polytheism, a few individuals known as the Hanifs remained committed to
monotheism, claiming spiritual descent from Abrahamic faith. In addition, there were established
communities of Christians and Jews in Mecca and surrounding regions. The Christian population was
divided mainly into Monophysites and Nestorians, often embroiled in internal theological disputes
and syncretistic practices such as veneration of saints and images. The Jews, especially concentrated
in the Hijaz region, had a well-developed religious life centered around their synagogues and schools,
and they played a dominant role in the economic affairs of the region. However, they maintained a
distinct identity and generally remained socially separate from Arab tribal society.

2. Life of Prophet Muhammad

 Early Life and Background

Prophet Muhammad was born in 570 AD in the city of Mecca, into the respected tribe of Quraysh. His
father, Abdullah, died before his birth, and his mother, Amina, passed away when he was still a young
child. Orphaned early, he was first cared for by his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, and after his death, by
his uncle Abu Talib, who became a lifelong guardian and supporter.

From a young age, Muhammad displayed exceptional character, honesty, and integrity, earning him
the title "Al-Amin" (the Trustworthy) from his community. He was known for his upright conduct,
truthfulness, and moral purity. As a young man, he engaged in trade, traveling with caravans and
gaining a reputation for fair dealing. At the age of 25, he entered the service of a wealthy widow
named Khadija, who later proposed marriage to him. They were married, and among their children
was Fatima, who would later become a significant figure in Islamic history.

 Spiritual Awakening and First Revelation

Muhammad was deeply spiritual and often retreated to the Cave of Hira, located in the hills near
Mecca, for meditation and reflection. At the age of 40, in the year 610 AD, during one such retreat, he
received the first revelation from Angel Jibreel (Gabriel). The message began with the command
"Iqra" ("Read/Recite") from Surah Al-‘Alaq (96), marking the beginning of his prophetic mission.
Despite being unlettered (Nabiyy al-Ummi), he became the recipient of divine revelation, which
would later form the Quran.

Shaken by the experience, he confided in Khadija, who took him to her cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal, a
Christian scholar. Waraqa confirmed that Muhammad’s experience was similar to the call received by
earlier prophets of the Old Testament. This moment marked the birth of a new monotheistic faith:
Islam.

 Early Converts and Opposition

Among the first converts to Islam were Khadija, his wife, and Abu Bakr, a close friend who would
later become the first Caliph. A small group of faithful followers began to form, but their beliefs were
met with strong opposition from the Meccan elite due to economic interests and religious
conservatism tied to the Kaaba’s idol worship.

Over time, a delegation from Medina, consisting of 75 pilgrims who visited Mecca annually, invited
Muhammad to come and resolve inter-tribal conflicts and lead the city. Receiving divine approval, the
Prophet migrated to Medina in 622 AD, along with about 200 followers—an event known as the
Hijra, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The people of Medina welcomed him
warmly.
 Prophet in Medina
In Medina, Muhammad’s role expanded significantly. He evolved from being a preacher and moral
reformer to a statesman, judge, military leader, and lawgiver. He established the Ummah, a unified
Muslim community, and gradually Islam was recognized as a new religious and socio-political force.
However, the Jewish tribes of Medina, who initially had treaties with the Muslims, eventually
opposed him, refusing to accept his prophethood.

To bring unity, Muhammad formulated agreements among tribal factions, and even entered into
treaties with Jewish and Christian communities, although some of these alliances would later dissolve
due to political tensions. Over time, many came to recognize Muhammad as both a spiritual leader
and a political authority.

 Major Battles and Expansion of Islam

 Battle of Badr (624 AD): The first major battle between the Muslims and the Meccans.
Though outnumbered, the Muslims achieved a decisive victory, capturing several Meccan
prisoners who were later ransomed.

 Battle of Uhud (625 AD): A setback for the Muslims. They were defeated by the Meccans,
and Muhammad was wounded.

 Battle of the Trench (627 AD): The Meccans attacked Medina again, but the Muslims, using a
strategic trench defense, successfully repelled the assault.

In 628 AD, Muhammad entered into the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah with the Meccans. The agreement
allowed Muslims to perform pilgrimage the following year and granted Muhammad the right to
peacefully spread Islam.

By 630 AD, Muhammad led a peaceful conquest of Mecca. The idols within the Kaaba were
destroyed, and the city embraced Islam. The Prophet then sent envoys to neighboring tribes, inviting
them to accept the new faith.

 Final Years and Death

In 631 AD, Muhammad performed his Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca, where he delivered his
famous Farewell Sermon, emphasizing equality, justice, and unity among Muslims. The
following year, on the 8th of June, 632 AD, the Prophet passed away in Medina after a brief
illness. His death marked the end of the prophetic era, but the community he established
continued to grow rapidly under his successors.

3. Core Teachings of Islam

A. Four Foundations of Islamic Doctrine

The core beliefs and legal framework of Islam are built upon four foundational sources that guide the
faith and practice of Muslims:
i. The Qur’an
The Qur’an, regarded as the primary and most sacred text in Islam, derives its name from the Arabic
word “Iqra” meaning “to read” or “to recite.” This reflects the first divine command received by the
Prophet Muhammad in 610 AD. The revelations continued over a period of 22 years, concluding in
632 AD, the year of the Prophet's death.

Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the literal word of God (Allah), revealed through the Angel Gabriel
(Jibreel) in segments, and faithfully transmitted by the Prophet Muhammad. It contains 114 chapters
(Surahs), each composed of verses (Ayahs), and was revealed in both Mecca and Medina, addressing
different contexts and situations.

The Qur’an addresses a wide range of themes including:

 Creedal beliefs (Tawheed, or oneness of God)

 Moral and ethical guidelines

 Laws and jurisprudence

 Lessons drawn from historical events

 Warnings to disbelievers and promises to believers

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Qur’an is its linguistic beauty and eloquence, considered a
miracle in itself, particularly since the Prophet Muhammad was unlettered (Nabiyy al-Ummi). It is
written in classical Arabic, referred to as the language of the Divine Breath (Nafs al-Rahman). Its
unparalleled style, emotive power, and rhetorical excellence are believed to be inimitable, which is
why no human composition can match it.

ii. Hadith
The Hadith refers to the authenticated reports of the sayings, actions, and approvals of the Prophet
Muhammad, as observed and transmitted by his companions. These records were initially preserved
orally, but later compiled in written form by early Islamic scholars.

Since the Prophet is believed to have lived under divine guidance, his teachings and actions serve as a
practical interpretation of the Qur’an. The Hadith covers various aspects of daily life, including:

 Legal rules and jurisprudence

 Religious obligations (like prayer, fasting, almsgiving, pilgrimage)

 Spiritual practices and ethics

 Distinctions between what is halal (permissible) and haram (forbidden)

 Guidelines for jihad, family matters, and personal behavior

The Hadith serves as a secondary source of Islamic law and acts as a commentary on the Qur’an,
clarifying and expanding on what is revealed. Among the most widely accepted and authoritative
collections are the Six Canonical Hadith Collections, known as:

 Sahih al-Bukhari
 Sahih Muslim
 Sunan Abu Dawud
 Jami’ al-Tirmidhi
 Sunan al-Nasa’i
 Sunan Ibn Majah

iii. Ijma (Consensus)

Ijma refers to the consensus of qualified Islamic scholars or the Muslim community on matters of
faith and practice. It is recognized as a legitimate source of Islamic jurisprudence, especially when the
Qur’an and Hadith do not provide explicit answers.

There are two main types of Ijma:

 Ijma al-Ummah – the consensus of the entire Muslim community.

 Ijma al-A’immah – the consensus of recognized religious scholars or jurists.

Ijma ensures continuity and unity in Islamic interpretation, especially as new issues and circumstances
arise over time.

iv. Qiyas (Analogical Reasoning)

Qiyas is the process of deductive reasoning or analogical comparison, used by Islamic jurists when
direct guidance from the Qur’an and Hadith is not available. By drawing parallels between a known
ruling and a new issue, scholars derive legal judgments in line with Islamic principles.

For example, although the Qur’an does not mention modern intoxicants like drugs, by using Qiyas,
scholars extend the prohibition of wine (khamr) to them, based on the common factor of causing harm
or loss of consciousness.

Qiyas plays a key role in adapting Islamic law to the challenges of changing times and new realities,
ensuring its relevance and applicability across generations.

B. Articles of Faith in Islam

The fundamental belief system of Islam, known as the Articles of Faith (Iman), consists of six
core doctrines that every Muslim is expected to affirm. These form the foundation of Islamic
theology and spirituality:
i. Belief in Allah (Tawheed)
Muslims believe in Allah, the one and only God, who is unique, eternal, and without partner or equal.
Allah is not begotten, nor does He beget. His divine attributes include:

 Life (Al-Hayy): Allah is ever-living, with no beginning or end.

 Knowledge (Al-‘Aleem): He is all-knowing, aware of all that happens in the universe.

 Power (Al-Qadeer): Allah is all-powerful and has control over everything.

 Will (Al-Mureed): He wills and acts according to His divine wisdom and purpose.

 Hearing (As-Samee’): He hears all sounds, regardless of language or location, without ears.

 Seeing (Al-Baseer): He sees all things without the need for eyes.
 Speech (Al-Kaleem): He speaks, but not in a human way—His speech is divine and perfect.

The belief in Allah forms the central axis around which all Islamic practices and principles revolve.

ii. Belief in Angels (Mala’ikah)

Muslims believe in angels, spiritual beings created from light, who are genderless, sinless, and
completely obedient to Allah. They do not possess free will and are constantly engaged in the worship
of God and the execution of His commands.

Major functions of angels include:

 Delivering revelation to the prophets (e.g., Jibrail).

 Controlling natural phenomena (e.g., Mikail oversees sustenance).

 Taking souls at death (e.g., Izrail).

 Blowing the trumpet on the Day of Judgment (e.g., Israfil).

Each human is assigned two angels:

 One on the right shoulder to record good deeds.

 One on the left shoulder to record bad deeds.

Though Iblis (Satan) was once among the heavenly beings, he was expelled from Paradise for
refusing to bow to Adam. Islamic belief also includes the existence of jinn, supernatural beings
created from smokeless fire. Some jinn are rebellious and mislead humans (as Iblis does), while
others can be obedient and even pious.

iii. Belief in the Revealed Books (Kutub)

Muslims affirm belief in the divinely revealed scriptures sent to earlier prophets, including:

 The Suhuf (Scrolls) of Adam and Abraham

 The Tawrah (Torah) to Moses

 The Zabur (Psalms) to David

 The Injil (Gospel) to Jesus

 And finally, the Qur’an to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)

Islam teaches that while previous scriptures were divinely revealed, they were altered or corrupted
over time. As a result, the Qur’an is considered the final, complete, and unaltered word of God,
serving as a confirmation and culmination of the earlier scriptures. It is believed to be a miraculous
summary and guidance for all of humanity.

iv. Belief in the Prophets (Nabiyyin/Rusul)

Muslims believe that God has sent prophets and messengers to guide humanity. According to Islamic
tradition, there were 124,000 prophets and 315 messengers, although only 28 are mentioned in the
Qur’an.
Key distinctions:

 A Nabi (Prophet) receives divine revelation for personal guidance and community example.

 A Rasul (Messenger) is commanded to deliver the message publicly, often given a new Shari’ah
(law).

Important figures include:

 Adam – the first prophet.

 Muhammad (PBUH) – the final prophet and messenger, known as Khatam an-Nabiyyin (Seal of
the Prophets).

Prophets are believed to be ma’soom (sinless), serving as moral examples and intermediaries through
whom God's guidance is revealed.

v. Belief in the Resurrection and the Day of Judgment (Akhirah)

Muslims believe in a life after death and a final Day of Judgment when all individuals will be
resurrected and held accountable for their deeds.

Key elements include:

 The blowing of the trumpet by Israfil, signifying:

o The end of the world

o The death of all creatures

o The resurrection of the dead

 Deeds will be weighed on a scale.

o Paradise (Jannah) is the reward for righteousness.

o Hell (Jahannam) is the punishment for disbelief and evil.

People will cross a bridge thinner than a hair and sharper than a sword over hellfire. The righteous
will pass safely; others will fall.

Signs of the Last Day include:

 The appearance of Dajjal (Antichrist)

 Widespread moral decay and rebellion

 Wars and natural disasters

 The sun rising from the west

 The return of Jesus (Isa), who will defeat the Dajjal, reestablish justice and Islam, and live for 40
years before dying and being buried in Medina.
vi. Belief in Divine Predestination (Qadar)
Muslims believe that everything that happens—good or evil—is according to God's divine will and
decree, and that it has been preordained in the Divine Record (al-Lawh al-Mahfuz).

There are various theological schools of thought:

 Jabariyyah: Believe humans have no free will; all actions are determined by God.

 Qadariyyah: Emphasize human free will; individuals are responsible for good or evil.

 Ashariyyah: A balanced view—God creates actions, but humans acquire them and are
accountable.

This belief encourages trust in God’s plan while affirming personal responsibility and moral
accountability.

These six Articles of Faith form the doctrinal framework of Islam and are essential for every
Muslim’s belief system, guiding their understanding of God, existence, morality, and the afterlife.

4. The Five Pillars of Islam

The core framework of Islamic religious practice is built upon five fundamental acts of worship and
devotion, known as the Five Pillars. These pillars represent the outward expression of a Muslim’s
faith and are considered obligatory for every believer.

i. Shahada (Declaration of Faith):

The Shahada is the central affirmation of Islamic belief and the first step toward embracing Islam. It
states:
“La ilaha illallah, Muhammadur rasulullah” meaning “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is
the Messenger of Allah.”
This declaration affirms monotheism and the acceptance of Muhammad as the final prophet. It is the
foundational duty of every Muslim and must be sincerely recited and believed in order to be
considered a true follower of Islam. It signifies entry into the Islamic faith.

ii. Salat (Prayer):

Salat, or the five daily prayers, are a ritual obligation and a constant reminder of the believer’s
submission to God. The prayers are performed at five specific times each day: at dawn (Fajr), noon
(Dhuhr), mid-afternoon (Asr), sunset (Maghrib), and night (Isha).
Before performing Salat, Muslims are required to cleanse themselves through Wudu (ablution), which
symbolizes spiritual purification. If water is not available, Tayammum (dry ablution using clean earth
or sand) may be performed.
Each prayer is performed while facing the Kaaba in Mecca, reinforcing unity in worship. The physical
postures—standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting—demonstrate humility and devotion to Allah.

iii. Saum (Fasting during Ramadan):

During the month of Ramadan, Muslims observe a strict fast from sunrise (Fajr) to sunset (Maghrib),
refraining from food, drink, smoking, perfumes, and marital relations. The daily fast is broken with a
meal called Iftar, and the pre-dawn meal is called Suhoor.
Fasting is not just about abstaining from physical needs but also about spiritual reflection, self-
discipline, and repentance. It is a time to seek forgiveness for past sins and to grow closer to God.
Fasting is obligatory for all adult Muslims except for the sick, travelers, pregnant or nursing women,
the elderly, and young children.

iv. Zakat (Almsgiving):

Zakat is a mandatory act of charity, where Muslims donate a fixed portion (typically 2.5%) of their
accumulated wealth annually to those in need. It is both a social and spiritual act that purifies one’s
wealth and promotes social justice.
Recipients of Zakat include the poor, the needy, those employed to collect Zakat, new converts to
Islam, slaves seeking freedom, those in debt, those striving in the cause of God, and stranded
travelers.
The donor must be a Muslim, a free person (not a slave), and must own wealth above a certain
minimum threshold (called Nisab) for a full lunar year.

v. Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca):

The Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca that every Muslim who is physically and financially able must
perform at least once in their lifetime.
It takes place annually in the Islamic month of Dhul Hijjah. Pilgrims wear a special white garment
called Ihram—symbolizing purity, equality, and the renunciation of worldly distinctions.
Key rituals include:

 Tawaf: Circling the Kaaba seven times.

 Sa’i: Walking between the hills of Safa and Marwah.

 Standing at Arafat (Wuquf): A day of prayer and reflection.

 Ramy al-Jamarat: Symbolically stoning the devil by casting pebbles at pillars in Mina.

 Animal sacrifice: Commemorating Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son.

 Shaving or cutting hair: Symbolizing purification and renewal.

The Hajj fosters a profound sense of unity, brotherhood, and submission among Muslims from all
over the world.

These Five Pillars are not only acts of worship but also means of shaping a Muslim’s moral, spiritual,
and communal life. They embody the essence of faith in action and provide structure to the believer’s
relationship with God and fellow human beings.

5. The Caliphate in Islam

After the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, the Muslim community faced the urgent need for
leadership to guide both its spiritual and political affairs. This leadership role, known as the Caliphate,
was intended to serve as the religious head, chief judge, military commander, and political ruler of the
Islamic state. However, the succession was not without controversy, leading to deep divisions among
the Prophet’s followers.
 Debate Over Succession:
A major source of confusion and division was whether the new leader should be the Prophet's
heir by blood or the most qualified and pious individual among the companions. This
disagreement led to the eventual emergence of two major sects within Islam: Sunni (who
supported the most eligible candidate) and Shia (who supported the Prophet's family,
particularly Ali).
 The Rightly Guided Caliphs (Rashidun Caliphs):
The first four caliphs, known as the "Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Al-Khulafa' al-Rashidun), are
revered for their close association with the Prophet and their efforts to lead according to
Islamic principles:
1. Abu Bakr (632–634 CE): A close companion of the Prophet and the first caliph. He
united the Arabian Peninsula and fought the apostasy wars (Ridda wars).
2. Umar ibn al-Khattab (634–644 CE): Known for expanding the Islamic empire into
Persia, Syria, and Egypt. He was an excellent administrator and established many
foundational institutions.
3. Uthman ibn Affan (644–656 CE): From the Umayyad clan. He compiled the Qur’an
into a single, authoritative text. His rule faced criticism for favoritism toward his
family and ended in assassination.
4. Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE): The Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. His caliphate
was marked by internal conflict and civil war.
 Major Events and the Split:
o The Battle Between Ali and Mu’awiya: Ali’s leadership was challenged by Mu’awiya, the
powerful governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman. Belonging to the Umayyad clan,
Mu’awiya opposed Ali (of the Hashim clan) over the handling of Uthman’s assassination.
Their conflict culminated in a battle, which ended with an uneasy treaty.

o Assassination of Ali: Ali was assassinated in 661 CE by a member of a radical group called
the Kharijites. His death marked the end of the Rashidun Caliphate.

o Rise of the Umayyad Dynasty: Mu’awiya declared himself caliph, establishing the Umayyad
Caliphate with its capital in Damascus. This marked the beginning of dynastic rule in Islam.

o The Shia-Sunni Split: A major turning point occurred when Husain, the son of Ali, was killed
in the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) by the forces of Yazid, son of Mu’awiya. This tragic event
became the defining moment for the formation of the Shia sect, which honors Husain as a
martyr and symbol of resistance against tyranny.

The early caliphate period was foundational in shaping Islamic governance, law, and theology. It
also laid the groundwork for the enduring political and theological divisions within the Muslim world.
6. Sunni–Shia Division in Islam
The division between Sunni and Shia Muslims is one of the most significant in Islamic history.
Though both groups share core beliefs in the oneness of God, the prophethood of Muhammad, and the
Qur’an, they differ in matters of religious authority, leadership, and certain theological interpretations
—mainly originating from disagreements over succession after the Prophet Muhammad’s death.

 Sunni Islam (Ahl al-Sunna wa’l-Jama‘ah):

The term Sunni comes from "Sunna", meaning the customs or practices of the Prophet Muhammad.
Sunni Muslims uphold the belief that the leadership of the Muslim community (caliphate) should be
determined by consensus (ijma') and the most qualified individual, rather than through lineage.

Key beliefs and practices include:

o Recognition of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali are all
accepted as legitimate successors to the Prophet.

o Reliance on the Six Major Books of Hadith (Traditions): These include Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih
Muslim, Sunan Abu Dawood, Jami` at-Tirmidhi, Sunan an-Nasa’i, and Sunan Ibn Majah.

o Emphasis on Ijma’ (Consensus): The consensus of the community and scholars is considered a
source of Islamic law and guidance.

o The majority of the Muslim world today identifies as Sunni.

 Shia Islam (Shi‘atu Ali – the Party of Ali):

Shia Muslims believe that leadership of the Muslim community should have remained within the
family of the Prophet, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib. For Shias, the
caliphate was not merely a political office but a spiritual and divinely appointed role.

Key beliefs and practices include:

o Ali as the True Imam: Shia Muslims hold that Ali was the rightful successor to the Prophet and
that leadership (Imamate) should continue through his descendants.

o Doctrine of the Light of Muhammad (Nur Muhammadi): It is believed that the spiritual light of
the Prophet was passed down to Ali and subsequently to the other Imams.

o Own Collection of Traditions (Hadith): Shia Islam relies on a different set of hadith collections
and attributes authority to sayings and teachings of the Twelve Imams.

o Imamate Instead of Caliphate: Shias believe in a line of infallible Imams, beginning with Ali, who
are not elected but divinely chosen.

This division has not only shaped theological doctrines but has also significantly influenced
Islamic history, politics, culture, and law throughout the centuries. The legacy of this split continues to
be felt across the global Muslim community today.
Sufism (Islamic Mysticism)
The term Sufism is believed to be derived from the Arabic word “ṣūf”, meaning wool, referring to the
coarse woolen garments worn by early Muslim ascetics as a sign of renunciation and humility.

Sufism represents the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, emphasizing inner purification,
personal experience of the Divine, and love for God over rigid formalism or intellectual theology.

 Key Characteristics of Sufism:

o Mystical and Ascetic Lifestyle:

Sufis are often known for their mystical devotion and ascetic practices, seeking detachment from
material possessions. Their ideal is to “own nothing and be owned by nothing”, expressing
complete surrender to the will of God.

o Reaction Against Intellectualism:

Sufism arose partly as a response to the legalism and intellectualism that dominated early Islamic
theology. While not opposing knowledge, Sufis emphasized experiential knowledge of God
through love, meditation, and inner discipline.

o Famous Mystic – Mansur al-Hallaj:

One of the most well-known early Sufis, Mansur al-Hallaj, famously declared: “Ana al-Haqq” (I
am the Truth)—a controversial statement interpreted as mystical union with God. This led to his
execution, and he is revered as a martyr in Sufi tradition.

o Veneration of Saints and Shrines:

Sufism holds a strong belief in awliya’ (saints)—pious individuals believed to be close to God.
Their shrines are often visited as places of prayer and spiritual inspiration. This practice, however,
has been criticized by some Islamic movements as unorthodox.

o Spiritual Discipleship – Shaykh and Murīd:

Central to Sufi practice is the relationship between the Shaykh (spiritual guide) and the Murīd
(disciple). The disciple submits to the spiritual guidance of the master to attain deeper union with
the Divine.

o Dhikr (Remembrance of God):

A hallmark of Sufi devotion is Dhikr, meaning “remembrance”—the repeated chanting or
recitation of God’s names, often in rhythmic and meditative patterns. This can be done silently or
aloud, individually or collectively, and is meant to bring the heart into direct awareness of God.

Sufism has played a profound role in the spread of Islam, especially through missionary efforts,
poetry, music, and rituals. Notable Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafiz, and Rabia al-Adawiyya continue to
inspire spiritual seekers across religious boundaries even today.

Lesson 2
SIKHISM

Introduction to Sikhism
 Sikhism is a monotheistic religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent during the late 15th
century CE. It is recognized as one of the major world religions and is deeply rooted in both spiritual
devotion and social responsibility.

 Founder: Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

 Sacred Scripture: Guru Granth Sahib

 Meaning of “Sikh”: Derived from the Pali word Sikkha and the Sanskrit word Śiṣya,
meaning disciple or learner. A Sikh is one who follows the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus
and venerates the Guru Granth Sahib as their eternal spiritual guide.

Distinctive Features

Sikhism possesses several unique characteristics that distinguish it from other religious traditions:

1. Community-Centered Faith:
Sikhs maintain a strong sense of belonging to the Panth (community), with the Punjabi language
and culture holding significant importance.

2. Rejection of Asceticism:
Sikhism discourages celibacy, ascetic withdrawal, and professional begging as religious ideals.
Instead, it prescribes a life of a householder—engaging in honest work, fulfilling family
responsibilities, and participating in community service.

3. Service and Charity:

Acts of selfless service (seva) and charitable works are central to Sikh practice, along with an
emphasis on corporate and collective responsibility.

4. Teachings Based on the Ten Gurus:

The faith is founded upon the spiritual and ethical guidance of the ten Sikh Gurus, whose
teachings promote equality, justice, and devotion to God.

Relationship with Other Religions

Although Sikhism developed as a distinct tradition, its founders drew inspiration from both
Hindu Bhakti saints (Sants) and *Muslim Sufi mystics.

 Influences from Islam:

o Monotheism.

o Rejection of idolatry.

o Denial of caste distinctions.

 Influences from Hinduism:

o Metaphysical concepts from the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.

 Rejections:

o From Islam: Formal orthodoxy and superficial piety.

 o From Hinduism: Caste system, untouchability, physical mortifications, asceticism,
pilgrimages, and the doctrine of divine incarnations.

Life of Guru Nanak Dev (1469–1539)

1. Early Life

Guru Nanak was born in 1469 in the village of Talwandi (present-day Nankana Sahib, Pakistan)
to Hindu parents. From a young age, he displayed a unique and contemplative personality, showing
little attachment to material life.

2. Family and Early Career

Nanak married and initially participated in family life. However, he gradually lost interest in
worldly affairs, preferring meditation and spiritual reflection. He worked as an accountant but spent
much of his time with his companion Mardana, engaging in hymn composition and organizing
community singing (kirtan).

3. Mystical Experience

At the age of 30, Guru Nanak had a profound mystical experience while bathing in a river. He
disappeared for three days and nights, after which he returned in silence. Renouncing worldly
responsibilities, he began his mission of preaching the message of one God.

4. Missionary Journeys

Guru Nanak undertook extensive travels (Udasis), visiting regions such as Assam, Sri Lanka,
Arabia, and various parts of India. He preached against hypocrisy, ritualism, and social injustice,
promoting devotion to God, equality, and ethical living.

5. Final Years and Legacy

In his later years, Guru Nanak settled at Kartarpur on the banks of the Ravi River. There, he
continued to compose hymns, lead communal worship, and guide his followers.

He passed away at the age of 70 in 1539. Revered by both Hindus and Muslims, he is remembered as
Baba Nanak or Nanak Shah, a spiritual reformer whose vision laid the foundation for Sikhism.

The Ten Gurus of Sikhism

The term Guru in Sikhism signifies a “descent of the divine,” referring to one who imparts divine
wisdom and guidance. In Sikh tradition, the spiritual and moral guidance of humanity was provided
through ten successive human Gurus, each chosen by his predecessor.
All ten Gurus shared the same divine knowledge and purpose, forming an unbroken chain of
revelation from God. This succession culminated in the Guru Granth Sahib, which was declared the
eternal Guru after the tenth Guru.

The Ten Gurus

1 Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

 Founder of Sikhism.
  Preached belief in one God, equality of all people, rejection of caste and ritualism, and devotion
through Naam Simran (meditation on God’s name).

2 Guru Angad (1539–1552)

 Consolidated and strengthened the Sikh community.

 Popularized the Gurmukhi script, a significant step in establishing a distinct Sikh identity separate
from Hindu scriptures.

 Promoted physical health and sports.

3 Guru Amar Das (1552–1574)

 Introduced major social reforms:

o Advocated for women’s emancipation.

o Opposed veiling (purdah) and the practice of sati.

 Reorganized religious festivals to align with Sikh teachings, removing Hindu ritual content.

 Introduced Langar (free community kitchen) as a core expression of equality and service.

4 Guru Ram Das (1574–1582)

 Founded the city of Ramdaspur (later known as Amritsar), which became the spiritual and
cultural center of Sikhism.

 Contributed hymns to the Sikh scriptures.

5 Guru Arjan (1581–1606)

 Oversaw the construction of the place of worship at Amritsar, later known as the Golden Temple
(Harmandir Sahib).

 Compiled the Adi Granth, incorporating:

o Hymns of previous Gurus.

o His own writings.

o Hymns of Hindu saints (Bhagats) and Muslim Sufis.

 Installed the Adi Granth in the Golden Temple.

 Developed Amritsar into a thriving trade center.

 Provided refuge to Khusrau, the rebel son of Emperor Jahangir, which led to his arrest, torture,
and execution — becoming the first Sikh martyr.

6 Guru Hargobind (1606–1645)

 Transformed the Sikh community into a militant force to defend against oppression.

 Introduced the concept of Miri (temporal authority) and Piri (spiritual authority).

 Built the Akal Takht (Throne of the Timeless One) as a symbol of political and spiritual
sovereignty.
7 Guru Har Rai (1645–1661)

 Maintained an armed militia of horsemen for community protection.

 Expanded Sikh missionary activities, spreading the faith with zeal.

 Promoted herbal medicine and care for the sick.

8 Guru Har Krishan (1661–1664)

 Became Guru at the young age of five.

 Invited to Delhi by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb but contracted smallpox while serving the sick
and died at the age of eight.

 Remembered for compassion and service despite his short life.

9 Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664–1675)

 Actively defended religious freedom, particularly for persecuted Kashmiri Hindus under Mughal
rule.

 Arrested and publicly beheaded in Delhi on the orders of Emperor Aurangzeb for refusing to
convert to Islam — remembered as the “Protector of Hindus” (Hind di Chadar).

10 Guru Gobind Singh (1675–1708)

 A dynamic leader, poet, and warrior.

 On Baisakhi Day in 1699, initiated a dramatic transformation by founding the Khalsa (“The
Pure”), a community of committed Sikhs bound by distinct vows.

 Tested the loyalty of his followers before initiating them with Amrit (nectar) and creating the
order of the Khalsa.

 Instituted the Five K’s for Khalsa members:

1. Kesh — uncut hair and beard.

2. Kangha — wooden comb to keep hair tidy.

3. Kara — steel bracelet worn on the right wrist.

4. Kachera — soldier’s short trousers.

5. Kirpan — ceremonial sword.

 Bestowed uniform names: Singh (“lion”) for men and Kaur (“princess”) for women.

 Added hymns of Guru Tegh Bahadur to the Sikh scriptures.

 Declared that there would be no human successor after him; the Guru Granth Sahib would serve
as the eternal Guru.

 Fought against both Hindu hill chiefs and the Mughals.

 Assassinated in 1708.

Significance of the Ten Gurus

 The teachings and leadership of the Ten Gurus shaped Sikhism into a religion that blends
spiritual devotion with social justice, community service, and defense of the oppressed. This
lineage preserved the unity of the faith and provided the foundation for Sikh identity, culminating in
the authority of the Guru Granth Sahib as the living, eternal Guru.

The Sikh Scripture

Compilation of the Adi Granth

The compilation of the Sikh scripture began under the leadership of Guru Arjan. He gathered
and organized the sacred compositions that would form the foundation of Sikh religious life. These
included:

 The hymns of Guru Nanak, preserved from the days of Kartarpur.

 The hymns of other Sikh Gurus who followed Nanak.

 The spiritual poetry of Bhagats such as Kabir, Namdev, and Ravidas, among others.

 Selected writings from Sufi saints, reflecting the inclusive spiritual vision of Sikhism.

Guru Arjan dictated these selected works to Bhai Gurdas, who served as the principal scribe. The
text was written in Gurmukhi script and was completed in 1604. Contributors to the scripture came
from diverse religious traditions and social backgrounds, demonstrating Sikhism’s rejection of caste
and sectarian barriers.

The collection was organized into sections called Mahala, denoting the respective Guru whose
compositions were included.

Later Additions by Guru Gobind Singh

The standardized compilation of the Sikh scripture was finalized by Guru Gobind Singh, the
tenth Guru. He added additional hymns to the Adi Granth, shaping it into the authoritative scripture
of the Sikh faith.

Divine Guidance and Religious Practice

The Sikh scripture, now revered as the Guru Granth Sahib, is considered the eternal spiritual
guide for the Sikh community. It holds a central place in Sikh worship and life.

Key devotional practices associated with the Guru Granth Sahib include:

 Akhand Path – An unbroken, continuous reading of the entire scripture, typically performed on
special occasions.

 Karah Prashad – A sweet offering distributed at the conclusion of the recitation, symbolizing
that no one should leave the Guru’s presence hungry.

 Langar – The practice of eating together in a communal kitchen, expressing the Sikh ideal of one
family of equals, regardless of caste, creed, or social status.

The Sikh Beliefs

1. Monotheism and the Nature of God

Sikhism is a strictly monotheistic faith, affirming the belief in a single, eternal, and all-
encompassing divine reality. God is described as both immanent (present in all creation) and
transcendent (beyond the limitations of time and space). Sikh scripture refers to God as the Primal
Truth (Sati) and the Beautiful One (Suhanu), existing before all creation.

The Mool Mantar encapsulates the Sikh understanding of God:

"There is one God. True is His name. Creative is His personality and immortal is His form. He is
without fear, without enmity, unborn, and self-illumined. He is obtained by the Guru’s grace."

God is:

 The sole reality, unique and indivisible (Ek Onkar).

 Beyond time, birth, and death.

 Free from human traits such as hatred or fear.

 Self-existent, with no creator above Him.

 Known only through His voluntary acts of grace (Prasadi).

Commonly used divine names include Sati Namu (The True Name), Ek Onkar (The One Eternal
Being), Sati Guru (The Enlightener), and Waheguru (The Wonderful Lord).

2. Naam Simran and True Renunciation

Sikhism rejects ascetic withdrawal into forests and the renunciation of worldly life as a spiritual
ideal. True renunciation lies in abandoning lust (Kama), anger (Krodh), greed (Lobh), and
attachment (Moha).

The central discipline is Naam Simran—the remembrance and meditation upon God’s Name. This
involves:

 Continually focusing the mind on God.

 Cleansing oneself of evil tendencies.

 Achieving spiritual joy and peace.

 Expressing gratitude to God through love and service to humanity.

Through constant practice, Sikhs come to realize that God already resides within them and pervades
all existence.

3. Rejection of Incarnation and Reinterpretation of Hindu Concepts

Sikhism rejects the notion of God taking human form or incarnating. Although names from Hindu
mythology appear in Sikh scripture, they are reinterpreted to refer only to the One Supreme God, not
as separate deities or avatars.

The Gurus themselves never claimed to be divine incarnations. Instead, they served as enlightened
spiritual teachers guiding humanity toward God.
4. The Concept of the Guru

While the term Guru refers historically to the ten Sikh Gurus, in the ultimate sense God alone is
the Sati Guru—the supreme and perfect teacher. God communicates truth through the Word
(Shabad), recorded in the Guru Granth Sahib, which Sikhs revere as the eternal Guru. Spiritual
progress requires guidance from the Guru, who reveals the path to God.

5. Hukam: The Divine Will

Hukam refers to God’s divine will or order, which governs all creation. It is beyond full human
comprehension, yet everything exists within it. The universe itself was brought into being by God’s
Hukam.

Hukam is discerned only through Nazar (God’s gracious glance). This divine grace is central to Sikh
theology, as God is above all a God of grace.

6. Karma and Divine Grace (Gur-Prasad)

Sikhism acknowledges the moral law of karma, where one’s present life is influenced by past
actions. However, divine grace overrides karma. Key beliefs include:

 Human birth is considered a privileged state because of the capacity to discern right from wrong.

 A better future existence depends on moral conduct in the present life.

 No human action can by itself break the cycle of rebirth; only God’s grace can bring liberation.

 Karma determines birth, but grace leads to salvation.

7. Haumai (Ego) and Separation from God

The main barrier to union with God is Haumai—egoism or self-centeredness—rooted in

ignorance and expressed through reliance on oneself rather than God. This manifests as lust, anger,
greed, and attachment, leading to human misery.

God’s grace, revealed through the Gurus’ teachings, breaks the bonds of haumai, enabling spiritual
liberation.

8. Salvation and Union with God

The ultimate goal in Sikhism is union with God, also described as Mokh (deliverance) or
emancipation from the cycle of birth, death, and karma.

 Salvation is entirely dependent on God’s grace; it cannot be earned through good deeds nor
denied because of bad ones.

 The liberated soul is called a Jivanmukta—one who attains freedom while still alive.

 The highest spiritual stage is beyond description and can only be experienced.

9. Rejection of Superficial Ritualism

Sikhism emphasizes inward cleansing and devotional love (Bhagati) over external rites. It
rejects:

 Pilgrimages, fasting, and ceremonial bathing.

 Ascetic practices, caste distinctions, ritual purity, and mechanical observances.

10. Sahaj: The Path of Spiritual Progress

The ideal spiritual path in Sikhism is called Sahaj—a state of natural, balanced, and harmonious
living.

 It is pursued while fulfilling the responsibilities of a householder.

 It involves purifying the mind, cultivating loving devotion to God, and yearning for His grace.

 This path leads ultimately to union with God, the destiny of human existence.

LESSON 3
BUDDHISM

Historical Context and Background

Buddhism arose in India during a period of significant social, religious, and intellectual unrest. It can
be understood, in part, as a protest movement against the prevailing dominance of the Brahmanical
priestly class and the rigid religious and social structures of the time. The priestly order had
established a system that placed heavy demands on the people—extracting wealth in the form of
money and cattle, requiring costly sacrifices, and enforcing elaborate rituals. These practices were
often perceived as burdensome, exploitative, and devoid of genuine spiritual value.

Furthermore, the religious atmosphere was marked by polytheistic worship, rigid adherence to caste
regulations, magical rites, and extreme ascetic practices. This climate led to widespread dissatisfaction
and social disintegration. Many began questioning the meaning of life, searching for deeper answers,
and longing for a more authentic path of liberation. The land, therefore, was ripe for a transformative
religious movement—one that would challenge entrenched traditions, reject oppressive priestcraft and
ritual blood sacrifices, and address the existential questions troubling the people.

The Rise of the Śramaṇa Movement

Before the emergence of Buddhism, a broader ascetic movement, known as the Śramaṇa tradition,
had already begun to take shape. This movement represented a spiritual and intellectual departure
from orthodox Brahmanical religion.

Brahmanical Ascetics

The Brahmanical ascetics, often referred to as Jatilas, remained loyal to the Vedic tradition. They
envisioned renunciation as a stage to be entered only after the completion of social duties, and only
those belonging to the Brahmin caste were allowed to adopt this path. These ascetics withdrew into
the forests, practiced austerities, tended sacrificial fires, and continued to uphold Vedic sacrifices.
They usually lived in organized groups under the guidance of a leader and formed colonies within
forested regions.

Śramaṇas and Their Distinctiveness

In contrast, the Śramaṇas (Paribbājakas) took a radical departure from Vedic orthodoxy. They
rejected the authority of the Vedas, renounced sacrificial rituals, and discarded caste distinctions
entirely. Their asceticism was often more rigorous, and they lived as wandering mendicants. Some
wandered alone, while others followed a spiritual leader.

They adopted distinctive outward practices:

 Some went naked (Digambaras),

 Others wore only a single garment (Nigaṇṭhas),

 Still others shaved their heads (Muṇḍakas).

Their central aim was to overcome worldly suffering through rigorous self-restraint (saṃvara) and
self-mortification (nijjarā).

 Saṃvara emphasized non-violence (ahiṃsā), truthfulness, abstinence from theft, celibacy,

and detachment from possessions.

 Nijjarā involved severe forms of physical self-denial and mortification as a means of purging
karmic bondage.
For the Śramaṇas, worldly life was meaningless, while the solitary life of renunciation promised
peace and liberation. This intellectual and spiritual environment profoundly influenced Siddhartha
Gautama (the Buddha), shaping his own journey toward renunciation and awakening.

Buddhism as a Radical Alternative

Buddhism emerged from this ferment as a radical and reformative movement. While it shared
certain concerns with the Śramaṇas, it also rejected the extremes of both Brahmanical ritualism and
ascetic self-mortification. At its core, Buddhism was a protest against the hollow ritualism, costly
sacrifices, and oppressive social hierarchies perpetuated by the Brahmanical order.

The Buddha opposed the ceremonial and ritualistic observances of his time, denounced the Vedic
system of sacrificial rites, penitential austerities, and superstition, and resisted the authority of the
priestly class and the caste system. Instead, he emphasized an alternative path grounded in moral
discipline, mental training, and spiritual insight.

This system directed practitioners toward the ultimate goal of nirvāṇa, the cessation of suffering and
liberation from the cycle of birth and death. In this sense, Buddhism was not only a spiritual
movement but also a revolutionary response to the religious, social, and ethical questions of its age.

Life of the Buddha

Birth and Early Life

Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, was born in 563 BCE in Kapilavastu, a region
situated in present-day Nepal. Belonging to the Śākya clan, his family name was Gautama and his
personal name Siddhartha. He was the son of King Suddhodhana, ruler of the Śākya tribe, and
Queen Mahāmāyā. Born into a royal household, Siddhartha grew up amidst privilege and security.

From childhood, he was given the finest education, excelling in diverse branches of learning. He was
also highly skilled in martial training, particularly archery. His father, anxious to shield him from the
harsh realities of existence, ensured that he was surrounded only by luxury, beauty, and pleasure. At
the age of sixteen, Siddhartha married Yashodharā, and for the next thirteen years enjoyed a
comfortable and blissful life within the palace.

The Four Sights and the Awakening of Compassion

Despite his sheltered upbringing, Siddhartha’s perception of life began to change when he
encountered the realities of human suffering. On separate occasions, while driving through the city,
he witnessed four significant sights that profoundly altered his understanding of the world:

1. An old man, weak and clad in rags.

2. A sick man, groaning in agony, helpless on the roadside.

3. A corpse, carried by mourners in deep grief.

4. A wandering ascetic (sadhu), clothed in saffron, serene and composed in meditation despite
the world’s turmoil.

The first three sights revealed to Siddhartha the inevitability of aging, disease, and death, and
awakened in him the recognition that suffering (dukkha) pervades human existence. The final sight
inspired him with hope that liberation might be possible through renunciation and spiritual discipline.
These experiences ignited in him a deep quest to seek an escape from the endless cycle of birth,
suffering, death, and rebirth.

The Great Renunciation

At the age of 29, shortly after the birth of his son, Rāhula, Siddhartha decided to leave behind his
royal life in pursuit of truth. This event, known as the Great Renunciation, marked his transition
from prince to seeker. Shaving his head, donning a yellow robe, and adopting the life of a wandering
ascetic, he began his search for the ultimate solution to suffering.

For six years, Siddhartha engaged in rigorous ascetic practices, joining various groups of ascetics and
engaging in dialogues with prominent philosophers of his time. He subjected himself to extreme
austerities and self-mortification, to the point that his body grew frail and near death. Realizing that
such practices did not lead to enlightenment, he abandoned extreme asceticism and returned to a
balanced life sustained by moderate nourishment. This decision caused his ascetic companions to
abandon him, but it also prepared him for his breakthrough realization.

Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree

Determined to find the truth, Siddhartha seated himself under a Peepal tree (later called the Bodhi
tree) at Bodh Gaya, vowing not to rise until he attained enlightenment. For 49 days, he meditated
deeply, enduring temptations and trials in the form of storms, visions of wealth, blazing weapons, and
seductive distractions.

At the age of 35, Siddhartha attained enlightenment, becoming the Buddha—“the Enlightened One.”
He realized the Four Noble Truths, which explain the nature of suffering and the path to its
cessation, and he discovered the Middle Way, avoiding both indulgence in luxury and the extremes of
asceticism.

Ministry and Teachings

Following his enlightenment, the Buddha dedicated the next 45 years of his life to teaching and
guiding others. He traveled extensively across northern India, preaching the Dhamma (the truth of his
realization) and establishing a community of disciples. He initially trained sixty close disciples and
sent them out to spread the message of salvation, emphasizing compassion, morality, meditation, and
wisdom as the foundation of spiritual life.

His teaching was not restricted to caste, gender, or social status. The universality of his message drew
people from diverse walks of life—kings, merchants, peasants, and even members of marginalized
groups—into his fold.

Final Years and Death

The Buddha lived until the age of 80, continuing his ministry until his final days. At Kusinara, after
consuming a meal that caused him illness, he lay surrounded by about 500 disciples. Before passing
into parinirvāṇa (the final release from the cycle of birth and death), he gave his last exhortation:

“Work out your own salvation with diligence.”

These words encapsulated his teaching: liberation is not granted by divine intervention or priestly
rituals, but through one’s own effort, mindfulness, and discipline.
The Basic Teachings of Buddhism

The Centrality of Enlightenment

The meaning and significance of Buddhism revolve around the concept of enlightenment
(sambodhi). For Buddhists, the ultimate goal of life is the attainment of Nirvāṇa, a state of liberation
from suffering and the cycle of birth and death. The entire framework of Buddhist thought, practice,
and discipline is directed toward conditioning the mind and body to reach this awakened state.

In Buddhist understanding, the Buddha is not primarily a supernatural being or a prophet sent by a
deity. Instead, he is recognized as one who, through his own effort and discipline, attained complete
enlightenment and thereby discovered the path to liberation for all sentient beings.

The Nature of the Buddha

Theravāda Perspective

The Theravāda school presents the Buddha as fully human. He was born naturally like any other
person, but through his determination and insight attained the highest possible state of human
existence. He is thus described as acchariya manussa—an “extraordinary human being.” In this view,
the Buddha is not divine, nor is he considered to be inspired by any external deity. Instead, he is
revered as one who rose above both gods and men, embodying the fullest potential of human spiritual
development.

The Concept of “Buddha”

The title Buddha, meaning “Enlightened One,” is not exclusive to Siddhartha Gautama but applies to
all rare beings who, after countless ages, succeed in destroying the intoxicants of the mind and
attaining complete enlightenment. The Pāli tradition refers to a succession of 24 Buddhas in the past,
beginning with Dīpaṅkara, and culminating in Gautama Śākyamuni. According to Buddhist belief,
the next Buddha yet to come will be Maitreya, who will appear in a future age.

Dhamma and Vinaya: The Two Pillars of Teaching

The Buddha’s teaching is preserved in two complementary aspects:

 Dhamma (Doctrine): These are the ethical and philosophical discourses of the Buddha,
designed to guide the mind toward Nirvāṇa. They emphasize moral conduct, mindfulness, and
insight into the nature of reality.

 Vinaya (Discipline): These consist of the rules and regulations laid down for the monastic
community. The Vinaya ensured the order, harmony, and spiritual focus of the Saṅgha,
allowing monks and nuns to live in a way conducive to enlightenment.

Together, the Dhamma and Vinaya were initially transmitted orally, forming the foundation of the
Buddhist tradition.

The Concept of Saṃsāra

A central doctrine in Buddhism is the acceptance of saṃsāra, the endless cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth. This idea, already present in other Indian philosophies, was reinterpreted in Buddhist teaching
with a particular emphasis on the role of desire and craving.

According to Buddhism, all sentient beings are propelled by craving (taṇhā) and consequently reborn
into various forms of existence. Rebirth may occur in higher realms (as gods or humans) or lower
realms (as animals, hungry spirits, or beings in torment), depending on the moral quality of one’s
actions (kamma). However, even a favorable rebirth cannot escape the inevitabilities of suffering—
disease, aging, disappointment, and death.

True liberation comes only through release from the cycle of saṃsāra. This is achieved by eliminating
craving and thereby breaking the bondage to existence (bhava). Once liberated, the being attains a
state of perfection free from defilement, existing beyond space and time, where perpetual peace and
happiness prevail.

The Doctrine of Kamma (Action)

The principle of kamma is foundational in Buddhism. Kamma refers to intentional action driven by
will, and it is this volitional action that determines the course of rebirth.

 The roots of evil actions are identified as lust (rāga), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha).

 Conversely, wholesome actions arise from their opposites: non-lust (arāga), non-hatred
(adosa), and non-delusion (amoha).

Kamma not only influences individual rebirths but also plays a role in the wider evolution of the
cosmos. The collective kamma of beings within a particular world-system (cakkavāḷa) governs its
evolution (saṃvatta) and dissolution (vivaṭṭa). As one world system declines and perishes, another
emerges.

It is important to note that early Buddhism does not posit a creator-god as the source of the universe.
Instead, the universe is understood as an ongoing cycle of creation and decay, shaped by the
accumulated kamma of sentient beings.

The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

The Middle Path

Central to the Buddha’s teaching is the principle of the Middle Path (majjhimā paṭipadā), a way of
life that avoids the two extremes of existence:

 Indulgence in sensual pleasures, which binds one to desire and dissatisfaction.

 Extreme asceticism or self-torture, which weakens the body and mind without leading to
liberation.

The Buddha taught that detachment from worldly attachments and desires, when practiced through the
Middle Path, leads to true freedom from suffering and ultimately to Nirvāṇa.

The Four Noble Truths

At the heart of Buddhist doctrine lies the Four Noble Truths (cattāri ariyasaccāni), which
summarize the essence of the Buddha’s enlightenment.

1. The Truth of Suffering (dukkha)

Existence is marked by suffering. Birth, disease, old age, and death are unavoidable realities
of human life. Suffering also arises from unfulfilled desires and from possessing what one
does not wish to have. Thus, life in saṃsāra is inevitably characterized by dissatisfaction and
impermanence.
 2. The Truth of the Cause of Suffering (dukkha-samudaya)
The root of suffering is craving (taṇhā)—the relentless desire for sensory pleasures,
existence, or even non-existence. This craving fuels attachment to the transient and
unsatisfactory world, binding beings to the cycle of rebirth.

3. The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (dukkha-nirodha)

Liberation from suffering is possible. By extinguishing craving and desire, one can eliminate
suffering at its root. Freedom from passion and attachment leads to a state of peace and
Nirvāṇa, the ultimate cessation of suffering.

4. The Truth of the Path to the Cessation of Suffering (dukkha-nirodha-magga)

The means to liberation is the Noble Eightfold Path, which provides practical guidance for
ethical conduct, mental discipline, and spiritual insight.

The Noble Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path (ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga) is the practical framework by which the cessation of
suffering can be attained. It is not a set of rigid rules but a comprehensive guide to right living,
cultivating wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline.

1. Right View (Sammā-diṭṭhi)

Understanding and accepting the teachings of the Buddha, especially the Four Noble Truths,
and recognizing the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and selfless nature of existence.

2. Right Intention (Sammā-saṅkappa)

Cultivating pure thoughts and intentions, characterized by renunciation of sensual pleasure,
goodwill instead of ill-will, and harmlessness toward all living beings.

3. Right Speech (Sammā-vācā)

Refraining from falsehood, slander, harsh words, and idle chatter. Speech should be truthful,
harmonious, kind, and purposeful.

4. Right Action (Sammā-kammanta)

Conducting oneself ethically: abstaining from killing living beings, stealing, and engaging in
unlawful or harmful sexual acts.

5. Right Livelihood (Sammā-ājīva)

Earning one’s living in a manner that causes no harm to others. Professions involving
violence, exploitation, or deceit are discouraged.

6. Right Effort (Sammā-vāyāma)

Diligently striving to prevent the arising of unwholesome states, to abandon existing
unwholesome tendencies, to cultivate wholesome states, and to sustain them with persistence.

7. Right Mindfulness (Sammā-sati)

Maintaining constant awareness and attentiveness to body, feelings, thoughts, and
phenomena. Mindfulness fosters clarity, alertness, and freedom from desire and sorrow.

8. Right Concentration (Sammā-samādhi)

Practicing meditation that leads to deep states of concentration and absorption. Through four
successive stages of meditative absorption (jhāna), the practitioner abandons pleasure, pain,
and distraction, achieving profound equanimity and inner peace.

Conclusion
Together, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path provide a comprehensive framework for
understanding the human condition and achieving liberation. The Four Noble Truths diagnose the
problem of existence—suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation—while
the Eightfold Path prescribes the practical steps toward that liberation. By following the Middle Path,
the practitioner gradually loosens the grip of craving and ignorance, progressing toward
enlightenment and ultimate freedom in Nirvāṇa.

LESSON 4
ZOROASTRIANISM
Introduction

Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest revealed religions, originating in ancient Persia (modern-
day Iran). Although it was once a dominant faith in the region and exerted a profound influence on
religious and philosophical thought across the ancient world, its followers today number only in small
communities, primarily in Iran and India (where they are known as Parsis).

Historically, Zoroastrianism was a missionary religion, actively spreading its teachings during the
height of the Persian empires, particularly under the Achaemenids and Sasanians. In the present age,
however, it has largely ceased to be missionary in character and instead functions as a religion
practiced within a close-knit community.

Despite its decline in numbers, Zoroastrianism remains highly significant. It has played a pivotal role
in shaping later religious traditions, particularly Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, in areas such as
concepts of monotheism, dualism, judgment, heaven and hell, and the final resurrection.

Context of Zoroastrianism

The emergence of Zoroastrianism must be understood against the background of ancient Iranian
society. The people of Iran at that time were closely related to the Aryans of India, sharing
similarities in language, culture, and religious practices. Much like their Indian counterparts, they
followed a religious system that was polytheistic and deeply rooted in nature worship and ritual
observances.

Pre-Zoroastrian Religious Practices

Before the rise of Zoroaster, the religion of Iran was predominantly polytheistic. Natural forces such
as the sky, sun, moon, and storm were deified and worshiped as gods (daevas). Alongside
polytheism, animistic beliefs were also widespread. People believed in the presence of innumerable
spirits, both benevolent and malevolent, which needed to be either appeased or controlled through
rituals and sacrifices.

A distinctive feature of the Iranian tradition was the worship of fire. Fire was regarded as sacred and
symbolized purity and divine presence. This reverence for fire continued into Zoroastrianism, where it
took on deeper theological and ritual significance.

The Need for Reform

Over time, the old Iranian religion became increasingly unsuited to the changing conditions of society.
Several factors contributed to dissatisfaction and the eventual call for religious reform:

1. Ritualism and Mechanization of Religion

The growing dominance of priests led to a highly ritualized and mechanical form of religion.
Worship was reduced to elaborate ceremonies without corresponding moral or spiritual depth.

2. Animal Sacrifices and Magic Rituals

Excessive reliance on animal sacrifices and magical rites—performed for purposes ranging
from prosperity to protection—created a heavy burden on the people.

3. Priestly Exploitation
Many priests became greedy and oppressive, using religion as a means to exploit the
population for wealth and power.
 4. Social and Economic Change
As the Iranian people transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle to a more settled agrarian society,
the old religious practices—shaped by pastoral and nomadic traditions—became increasingly
irrelevant. The continued demand for animal sacrifices conflicted with the needs of a
developing agricultural economy, making the old system unsustainable.

The Emergence of Zoroaster

It was in this context of dissatisfaction with polytheism, ritualism, and priestly corruption that
Zoroaster (Zarathustra) arose. He introduced a reformed religion that emphasized ethical
responsibility, a cosmic struggle between good and evil, and devotion to the supreme god Ahura
Mazda. His teachings provided not only a critique of the old religion but also a moral and spiritual
framework more suited to the evolving social and economic life of the Iranian people.

Zoroaster (Zarathustra)

Historical Background

Zoroaster, also known by his Persian name Zarathustra, is regarded as the founder and chief prophet
of Zoroastrianism. Scholars place his life between 1000 and 500 B.C., though the exact dates remain
uncertain. The primary source of information about him is drawn from the Gathas, a collection of
hymns preserved in the Avesta, the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism.

Born in Iran, Zoroaster belonged to a pastoral tribe. Tradition identifies his father as a priest, although
some accounts suggest he may have been a merchant. Regardless of his precise background, Zoroaster
grew up in a religious environment and developed into a profound seeker of truth. He is remembered
as the “Prophet of Iran,” a title reflecting both his personal mission and the transformative role he
played in shaping Persian religion.

Legends Surrounding His Birth

Like many great religious figures, Zoroaster’s birth is surrounded by legend. It was believed to have
been prophesied three thousand years before his time. Mythological traditions narrate that the
glory of Ahura Mazda descended upon his mother, a fifteen-year-old unmarried girl, marking his
conception. At his birth, he is said to have laughed instead of crying, symbolizing divine favor and
an extraordinary destiny.

Search for Truth

From his early years, Zoroaster demonstrated deep compassion and concern for humanity. His restless
pursuit of truth led him to travel from place to place, questioning existing religious practices that had
become highly ritualistic and burdened with superstition. He spent long periods in meditation in the
desert, seeking insight into the ultimate meaning of life and the divine order of the world.

Revelation and Prophetic Call

At the age of thirty, Zoroaster experienced a profound religious vision that changed the course of his
life. According to tradition, the archangel Vohu Manah (“Good Thought”) appeared to him,
interrogated him, and, upon being satisfied with his answers, escorted him in spiritual form into the
presence of Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity. In this encounter, Ahura Mazda purified and
commissioned Zoroaster as his prophet, entrusting him with the doctrines and duties of the true
religion.
Over the next eight to ten years, Zoroaster continued to receive revelations through meetings with
Ahura Mazda and other archangels. These encounters strengthened his conviction that he had been
divinely appointed to reform religion, to convert humanity to the worship of the one true God, and to
purify life from corruption and wickedness. His mission was not confined to a single community but
carried a universal message, emphasizing the transcendence of Ahura Mazda and the moral
responsibility of all people.

Message and Mission

The central theme of Zoroaster’s teaching was the sovereignty of Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, who
was the source of all truth, goodness, and order in the universe. His message called for the rejection of
false gods (daevas) and the abandonment of corrupt practices. Instead, he emphasized a life of
righteousness, purity, and ethical responsibility, lived in alignment with the divine order.

Zoroaster’s prophetic vision was universal in scope. He sought to convert the wicked, purify human
existence, and make the world a progressive place aligned with divine will. His teaching combined
profound spirituality with a practical moral code, shaping not only religious life but also the social
and ethical framework of the Persian world.

Death and Legacy

Zoroaster is believed to have died around 547 B.C., at the age of seventy-seven. His life and message
left a profound legacy, shaping one of the world’s earliest monotheistic traditions. Zoroastrianism
continued to influence subsequent religious systems, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,
particularly in concepts of heaven and hell, judgment, and the cosmic struggle between good and evil.

The Strategy of Zoroaster

Opposition and Struggles

Zoroaster’s mission to establish the worship of Ahura Mazda as the one true God was met with
considerable resistance. His teaching directly challenged the existing religious order, which was
rooted in polytheism, idolatry, and elaborate ritual practices. The entrenched priestly class, who
derived both authority and livelihood from the old religion, strongly opposed his reforms.

In addition to external opposition, Zoroaster faced internal trials. According to tradition, he was
tempted by Angra Mainyu (the Evil Spirit) to abandon his faith in Ahura Mazda. However, Zoroaster
remained steadfast, countering these temptations by reciting sacred texts and affirming his devotion to
the true God. His unwavering conviction in his divine mission—believing himself to be called,
appointed, and sent by Ahura Mazda—enabled him to persevere through long years of rejection and
hardship.

Early Converts and Royal Patronage

For nearly a decade, Zoroaster preached with little success, securing only a single follower—his
cousin. His strategy was initially to convert princes and leaders first, with the hope that their subjects
would follow their example. This approach eventually bore fruit when, after two years of effort, he
gained the support of King Vishtaspa.

The conversion of Vishtaspa proved to be the turning point in Zoroastrianism’s history. Once
persuaded, the king used his political power to propagate the new faith across his realm. This royal
patronage marked the true beginning of Zoroastrianism’s establishment in Iran, and over time it grew
to become the official state religion.

Practical Reforms

One of Zoroaster’s most significant contributions was the infusion of religious meaning into daily life.
He emphasized that acts of faithful labor were themselves a form of service to Ahura Mazda. Practical
tasks—such as destroying weeds, reclaiming wasteland, or extending irrigation systems—were
understood as victories over evil, since they represented the triumph of order and productivity over
chaos and destruction. This approach elevated ordinary life into a sphere of sacred duty, integrating
spiritual devotion with ethical and social responsibility.

Expansion Through Conflict

Despite his emphasis on moral and spiritual reform, Zoroaster also recognized the necessity of
conflict in spreading his faith. He interpreted struggles against unbelievers as part of the larger cosmic
battle between good and evil, a theme central to his theology. Historical accounts suggest that
Zoroastrianism’s expansion was intertwined with warfare, during which opponents of the faith were
subdued.

Ultimately, Zoroaster himself met a violent end. During a battle in which the king was defeated and
the capital occupied, Zoroaster was killed. Nevertheless, by the time of his death, the religion had
been firmly established and was gaining ground as a dominant spiritual force in the region.

Principal Teachings of Zoroastrianism

The core teachings of Zoroastrianism are primarily preserved in the Gathas, the hymns attributed to
Zarathustra (Zoroaster), and later elaborated in the Avesta. Zoroastrianism is not entirely a new
religion but rather a radical reformation of the old Iranian faith, built upon existing traditions
while rejecting polytheism, excessive ritualism, and immoral practices. Its central emphases include
ethical monotheism, the concept of dualism, and eschatological beliefs.

1. Ethical Monotheism

Reforming the Old Faith

Zoroastrianism should be understood not as an entirely new religion, but as a radical reformation of
the old Iranian faith. While it retained certain elements of the earlier religion, it introduced
significant reforms under the teaching of Zarathustra. Central to this reform was his rejection of
polytheism and excessive ritualism, and the elevation of a single deity, Ahura Mazda (Ormuzd), as
the one and only supreme God.

In the hymns (Gathas) attributed to him, Zarathustra makes no mention of other deities worshiped in
his time, but instead denounces them as false. Ahura (“Lord”) Mazda (“All-wise”) is presented as a
uniquely ethical deity, and his message constitutes what Zoroastrianism understands as the “final and
perfect religion.”

Ahura Mazda’s Supremacy

Ahura Mazda is described as:

 Creator and Sustainer of all things

  Supreme in creation, value, and judgment

 Perfect in truth, goodness, justice, and wisdom

 Omniscient, all-seeing, and almighty

All other gods of the older faith were reinterpreted as evil spirits or devils. Ahura Mazda, however, is
proclaimed as the God of Wisdom, the First and the Last, who knows the future. Zoroastrian
teaching affirms that in the end, Ahura Mazda will destroy all evil and establish truth and
righteousness by his sovereign will.

Other Spiritual Beings

Although Ahura Mazda alone is supreme, his will and activity are manifested through spiritual
realities:

 Spenta Mainyu (Holy Spirit) – the creative, sustaining, and administering spirit of the
universe. Spenta Mainyu is sometimes portrayed as the presence of God himself, and at other
times as a distinct spiritual being. Worship of Ahura Mazda is mediated through Spenta
Mainyu.

 Amesha Spentas (Immortal Holy Ones) – six principal divine agents often interpreted as
personifications of Ahura Mazda’s attributes or as independent spiritual beings. They are:

o Asha – Truth or Righteousness

o Vohu Manah – Good Thought

o Kshathra – Power or Dominion

o Aramaiti – Piety

o Haurvatat – Welfare or Wholeness

o Ameretat – Immortality

These are sometimes regarded as aspects of God’s being, sometimes as forces or cosmic principles,
and at other times as angelic personalities who cooperate with Ahura Mazda in sustaining the world.

God and Humanity

Zarathustra spoke of himself as a friend of God, reflecting a distinctive relational understanding

between God and humanity. Unlike many ancient religions where humans were seen primarily as
slaves or servants of the gods, Zoroastrianism affirms that human beings are endowed with freedom
of choice. Every individual has the responsibility to choose between good and evil, and this moral
freedom is central to Zoroastrian religious life.

2. The Concept of Dualism in Zoroastrian Thought

The Cosmic Struggle between Good and Evil

One of the most distinctive features of Zoroastrianism is its doctrine of dualism, which posits an
ongoing cosmic struggle between the forces of good and evil. According to Zoroastrian tradition, the
universe was shaped by the existence of two opposing spiritual realities: Spenta Mainyu (the Holy
Spirit) and Angra Mainyu (the Evil Spirit, later known as Ahriman). These are not merely
symbolic but are understood as powerful, active principles that contend with one another for
supremacy.

Both spirits are believed to have originated from Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity. Some traditions
even describe them as “two sons of one father.” Yet their essential opposition arose not from their
origin but from the exercise of their freedom of choice. Spenta Mainyu chose truth, righteousness,
and goodness, thereby remaining in intimate union with Ahura Mazda, who himself embodies perfect
wisdom and moral perfection. By contrast, Angra Mainyu deliberately chose falsehood, deception,
and evil, setting himself in opposition to both Ahura Mazda and the order of creation.

Thus, from the very beginning of the universe, Zoroastrianism presents the cosmos as the arena of an
ethical and spiritual conflict. On one side stands Ahura Mazda, together with Spenta Mainyu and the
hosts of beneficent beings; on the other, Angra Mainyu and his allies, identified with the daevas (evil
spirits). This conflict is not simply metaphorical but represents a real struggle woven into the fabric of
existence itself.

Zarathustra’s Mission within the Dualistic Framework

For Zarathustra (Zoroaster), this cosmic conflict was not a distant or abstract reality but the very core
of human life and mission. He regarded himself as called by Ahura Mazda to be a fighter for truth
against falsehood and to summon others into this battle. Importantly, Zoroastrianism emphasizes that
evil does not act in isolation—its influence becomes effective only when human beings freely choose
to align themselves with it. Thus, moral failure is seen as humanity’s responsibility, not the inevitable
consequence of an all-powerful evil.

The daevas—beings once regarded as shining deities in the earlier Iranian religion—were
reinterpreted as malevolent spirits allied with Angra Mainyu. They became the enemies of truth,
righteousness, and of Ahura Mazda himself. The struggle against these powers was often portrayed as
fierce and desperate, but Zoroastrian teaching consistently affirms that the final triumph will belong
to Ahura Mazda and the forces of good.

Human Responsibility and Ethical Choice

Zarathustra redefined religion not primarily in terms of ritual performance but as a matter of ethical
commitment and personal choice. The struggle between good and evil is not confined to the cosmic
realm; it also runs through the heart of every individual. Each person is free to decide which side they
will serve, and this decision has eternal consequences.

 The Fighter’s Ideal: Zarathustra likened the faithful life to that of a warrior engaged in
battle. Paradise, or union with Ahura Mazda in the “House of Song,” is not a passive gift but a
victory to be won. It requires spiritual strength, ethical integrity, and active commitment to
truth and righteousness.

 The Active Life: For Zarathustra, religion was not about abstract contemplation but about
concrete, moral action. Truth and righteousness are not hidden mysteries; they are accessible
to all and must be practiced in daily life.

 Opposition to Ritualism: This practical orientation led Zarathustra to reject much of the
elaborate ritualism of the old religion. Animal sacrifices, magical ceremonies, and excessive
priestly rituals were condemned as distractions from the true requirement of God: living
rightly in community with one’s fellow human beings.

Conclusion
The Zoroastrian doctrine of dualism is not merely a metaphysical speculation but a profoundly ethical
teaching. It portrays the universe as a battleground of good and evil while simultaneously affirming
human freedom and responsibility. By shifting emphasis from ritual to moral action, Zarathustra
presented a vision of religion that demanded active participation in the struggle for truth,
righteousness, and justice. This emphasis on ethical monotheism and moral dualism gave
Zoroastrianism its distinctive character and enduring influence on later religious traditions.

3. Eschatological Conceptions in Zoroastrianism

The Belief in Life after Death

Zoroastrianism teaches that the human soul is immortal and not destroyed at bodily death. Upon
death, the soul departs, and the body must be handled with utmost care so as not to contaminate the
sacred elements of creation—fire, air, water, and earth. For this reason, Zoroastrians neither practice
burial nor cremation. Instead, they developed a unique funerary custom to ensure ritual purity.

After the prescribed prayers and rites are completed, the body is placed in a dakhma, commonly
known as the "tower of silence." These towers are usually situated on elevated ground or hills and
remain open to the sky. There, the body is left exposed until vultures or other scavenging birds
consume the flesh. This practice reflects the deep Zoroastrian concern for preserving the purity of
nature’s elements while also affirming the temporary and perishable nature of the physical body.

In some regions, particularly in modern Mumbai, practical adaptations of this ritual have been
employed. In such cases, the bodies may be placed in specially designed wells near the tower, where
natural processes, sometimes aided by acidic solutions, reduce the remains without contaminating the
environment.

The Great Day of Judgment

Eschatology holds a central place in Zoroastrian thought. The tradition anticipates an ultimate end of
time when a general resurrection of the dead will occur. This will be followed by the Great Day of
Judgment, a decisive moment when the moral worth of every individual will be tested.

Central to this judgment is the "Bridge of the Separator" (Chinvat Bridge), which each soul must cross
after death. Beyond this bridge lies paradise, the dwelling place of Ahura Mazda. The righteous—
those who aligned themselves with truth, righteousness, and the will of Ahura Mazda—will safely
cross into eternal bliss. In contrast, the wicked, who chose falsehood and evil, will fall into hell.

Conceptions of Paradise and Hell

Paradise in Zoroastrian thought represents communion with Ahura Mazda, joy, and everlasting reward
for the just. Hell, on the other hand, is described as the "House of the Lie," the abode of falsehood and
wickedness. It is a state of torment and separation from truth, reserved for those who rejected the
divine order. Unlike later theological interpretations in other traditions, Zoroastrianism emphasizes
that judgment is based on the individual’s own deeds and moral choices rather than ritual observances.
Each person must stand on their own record, underscoring the religion’s strong ethical orientation.

Later Developments in Zoroastrianism

Shift Toward Polytheism and Ritualism

While Zoroaster had preached a monotheistic faith centered on the worship of Ahura Mazda, later
developments in Zoroastrianism introduced significant changes. Over time, the religion moved toward
a more polytheistic structure, incorporating a pantheon of gods and divine beings. Zoroaster himself
came to be venerated as a divine figure. The belief system also developed elaborate hierarchies of
angels and archangels, often conceived as counterparts to the forces of evil—devils and demons—
thus reinforcing the dualistic worldview of good and evil.

A notable doctrinal development was the introduction of the resurrection of the body prior to the final
judgment. This teaching emphasized that not only the soul but also the body would share in the
ultimate destiny determined at the end of time.

With these theological expansions came a heightened emphasis on ritual. The Magi, a hereditary
priestly caste, increasingly stressed ceremonial purity over ethical conduct. Physical purity—
particularly concerning fire and the handling of the dead—was elevated to supreme importance. Fire
was revered as sacred, and the human corpse was regarded as a source of pollution. Special
functionaries were assigned the task of carrying dead bodies, which were not buried or cremated but
instead left in open spaces on Towers of Silence to be consumed by vultures. This ritual ensured that
the sacred elements of creation—earth, fire, air, and water—were not defiled.

Influence on Other Religions

Zoroastrianism exerted a notable influence on Judaism and, through it, on Christianity. Concepts such
as angels and demons, resurrection, final judgment, and the sharp ethical dualism between good and
evil show clear parallels with Jewish and later Christian thought. This cross-fertilization of ideas
highlights Zoroastrianism’s role as one of the formative religious traditions of the ancient Near East.

The Scriptures: The Avesta

The sacred writings of Zoroastrianism are collectively known as the Avesta, meaning “knowledge.”
Although once more extensive, only four major sections survive today:

 Yasna – A collection of liturgical texts used in the central act of worship, including the
Gathas attributed to Zoroaster himself.

 Visparad – A supplement to the Yasna, consisting of invocations to various divine beings,

primarily used during festivals.

 Yashts – Hymns of praise dedicated to specific divinities or spiritual powers, reflecting the
later pantheon.

 Vendidad – A legal and ritual code focused on laws of purification and expiation,
emphasizing ritual cleanliness.

These texts reflect both the original spiritual vision of Zoroaster and the ritualistic developments
introduced by the Magi. They are written in the Avestan language, which has remained the liturgical
language of Zoroastrian practice.

The Parsis in India

Following the Muslim invasions of Persia, many Zoroastrians sought refuge in the Indian
subcontinent. These emigrants became known as Parsis. In India, they established themselves as a
distinct religious and cultural community, maintaining their faith and traditions while adapting to a
new social environment.
The Parsis quickly became known for their moral and ethical standards, progressive outlook, and
commitment to education. Despite their relatively small numbers, they exerted an influence far greater
than their population size. Their social concern and contribution to education, commerce, and
philanthropy in India made them a respected and dynamic community.

LESSON 5
JAINISM

Introduction

Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of India, tracing its roots to the teachings of the
Tirthankaras, culminating in the life and message of Mahavira in the 6th century BCE. It presents a
unique spiritual path centered on non-violence, renunciation, and liberation of the soul from the cycle
of birth and rebirth. Distinct from both Hinduism and Buddhism, yet closely related in historical
context, Jainism has contributed profoundly to Indian philosophy, ethics, and culture.

Mahavira’s Life

Birth and Early Years

Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in 599 BCE into a noble Kshatriya
family. His mother, Priyakarini, is said to have received fourteen auspicious dreams before his birth,
signifying that her son would either become a cakravarti (universal monarch) or a Tirthankara
(spiritual teacher who shows the path to liberation). Mahavira was brought up in luxury and comfort,
consistent with his princely background. He later married Yashoda, with whom he had a daughter,
Priyadarshana.

Despite his comfortable life, Mahavira was deeply contemplative and drawn toward renunciation.
However, he refrained from leaving worldly life until after the death of his parents, out of filial duty.
At the age of 30, with the blessings of his elder brother, he renounced his home and began a life of
asceticism, determined to seek liberation (moksha) from the cycle of samsara (birth and rebirth).

Renunciation and Ascetic Practices

Mahavira began his ascetic journey at Kundagrama, where he removed his ornaments, tore out his
hair by hand, and discarded his clothing, choosing to live as a wandering mendicant. His ascetic
practices were extremely rigorous, as he believed that liberation could not be attained without the
severest self-discipline. He observed strict ahimsa (non-violence), ensuring that no living being was
harmed by his actions.

He also cultivated detachment by adopting a wandering lifestyle, never staying in one village for more
than a night, or in a town for more than five nights. During the rainy season, however, he remained in
one place to avoid harming small living beings. His fasting regimen was equally severe—eating only
once a day and often abstaining from food and water for extended periods.

Throughout his ascetic life, Mahavira endured immense hardships. He was attacked by wild animals,
bitten by insects, and even tortured by hostile people. Yet he remained undisturbed, cultivating a mind
free from resentment, attachment, or desire for enjoyment. His unwavering commitment to self-
discipline and self-purification characterized his pursuit of spiritual freedom.

Attainment of Enlightenment

After twelve years of intense meditation and austerities, Mahavira attained kaivalya (omniscience or
perfect knowledge) at the age of 42, while meditating under a sal tree. With this realization, he
became an arhat (worthy one), a jina (conqueror), and a Tirthankara (spiritual guide). His
enlightenment granted him insight into the true nature of existence, the causes of bondage, and the
path to liberation.

Central to his teaching were the Five Great Vows, which formed the foundation of Jain ethical
practice:

 Ahimsa (non-violence)

 Satya (truthfulness)

 Asteya (non-stealing)
  Brahmacarya (celibacy)

 Aparigraha (non-possession or non-attachment)

Preaching and Final Liberation

For the next thirty years, Mahavira traveled extensively, preaching the principles of Jainism and
guiding seekers on the path of liberation. His teachings emphasized ethical conduct, self-discipline,
and detachment from material and sensual pleasures. Over time, he attracted a large number of
disciples, with around 14,000 followers recorded during his lifetime.

At the age of 72, in 527 BCE, Mahavira attained parinirvana (final emancipation) at Papa in Bihar.
His passing marked his complete liberation from the cycle of birth and death, leaving behind a
spiritual legacy that has continued to shape Jain thought and practice for centuries.

Basic Teachings of Jainism

1. The Eternal Universe

Jain philosophy begins with the assertion that the universe is eternal and uncreated. It denies the
existence of a supreme creator or an absolute beginning. The universe, according to Jain thought,
undergoes endless cycles of progression and regression across different eras. In each cycle, religion
experiences periods of decline and eventual disappearance, only to be revived in the succeeding era
through the teachings of the tirthankaras (spiritual teachers).

2. The Division of the World

Jain cosmology describes the universe as structured into distinct realms:

 The Upper World – At the very top reside liberated souls (siddhas), who have freed
themselves from karma and exist in eternal bliss and omniscience. Below them are sixteen
heavens where celestial beings live temporarily, enjoying the fruits of their good deeds until
their karma is exhausted.

 The Middle World – This is the human realm, inhabited by humans, animals, plants, and all
living beings engaged in the cycle of birth and rebirth.

 The Lower World – Beneath the human realm are seven layers of hell, where souls who have
accumulated negative karma undergo punishment before being reborn.

This hierarchical worldview illustrates the moral framework of Jainism, where one’s actions
determine the realm of existence.

3. The Concept of Gods

Jainism is essentially an atheistic system. While it acknowledges the existence of gods, they are not
eternal or supreme beings. Like humans, gods are bound by karma and subject to the cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth. They hold no role in granting salvation. Over time, however, Mahavira and other
tirthankaras became objects of worship, functioning as exemplars rather than divine saviors.

4. Jiva and Ajiva

Central to Jain metaphysics is the distinction between jiva (soul or living substance) and ajiva
(lifeless matter). The soul in its pure form is eternal, weightless, omniscient, and blissful. However,
when it becomes entangled with matter (karma), it is weighed down and trapped in the cycle of
rebirth. Liberation (moksha) occurs when the soul is freed from all karmic matter, rising to the top of
the universe to dwell eternally with other liberated souls.

5. The Human Soul and Rebirth

Jainism emphasizes the eternity of the soul and the reality of rebirth. The true essence of a human
being is spiritual, but the soul remains in bondage due to karma. This bondage occurs because karma
attaches itself to the soul in the same way that heat merges with iron or water with milk.
The ultimate goal of human life is liberation from this bondage. Every soul is potentially divine and
can achieve moksha by following the path of purification taught by the tirthankaras. The process is
gradual, difficult, and only a few succeed.

The path to liberation is articulated through the Three Jewels (Triratna):

1. Right Knowledge – understanding the true principles of dharma.

2. Right Faith – trust in the teachings of the Jinas.

3. Right Conduct – living according to dharma, which includes observing the five great vows.

6. The Concept of Karma

Jainism views karma not merely as moral causation but as a subtle, material substance that attaches
itself to the soul through one’s actions. Desires, passions, and evil deeds make the soul “sticky,”
causing karma to cling and weigh it down. For example, committing himsa (violence) results in the
accumulation of the most negative karma.

 Good actions reduce karmic accumulation, allowing the soul to ascend higher in existence.

 Evil actions increase karmic matter, dragging the soul down into lower forms of life or
hellish realms.

Souls with minimal karma ascend even to the level of gods, though liberation is higher than even the
divine realm. A completely purified soul rises like a feather to the summit of the universe, remaining
forever in omniscience and bliss.

7. Liberation and Asceticism

Salvation in Jainism is entirely self-earned, without assistance from a supreme being. Asceticism is
regarded as the essential path to liberation. The practice requires detachment from both worldly
desires and the longing for the afterlife. Mahavira himself attained liberation through rigorous
austerities, setting the model for all followers.

The Five Great Vows (Mahavratas) undertaken by Jain monks encapsulate the ideal conduct:

1. Ahimsa – non-violence.

2. Satya – truthfulness.

3. Asteya – non-stealing.

4. Aparigraha – non-possession.

5. Brahmacarya – chastity.

8. Monastic Emphasis
Jainism places strong emphasis on monastic life. While laypeople may follow its ethical principles
partially, complete adherence is possible only within ascetic communities. The radical practice of
ahimsa illustrates this monastic commitment—monks sweep the ground before walking to avoid
harming small beings and strain water before drinking. Agriculture was often discouraged since it
harms living organisms like worms. Consequently, Jainism historically found greater following
among merchant and banker classes rather than agricultural communities.

9. Meditation and Spiritual Discipline

Meditation (dhyana) is central to Jain spiritual practice. Scriptures provide extensive guidance on
meditation techniques aimed at detachment, mental control, and self-purification. By mastering inner
thoughts and disciplining the mind, practitioners weaken karmic bonds and move toward liberation.
Meditation also offers physical and psychological benefits, reinforcing self-control and serenity.

10. Sacred Scriptures

The sacred literature of Jainism is collectively known as the Agamas or Ganipitakas. These texts
primarily record the teachings of the tirthankaras, particularly Mahavira, along with rules for
monastic discipline and ethical conduct. They serve as the foundation for Jain doctrine and practice,
preserving both theological principles and practical guidelines for ascetic living.

Basic Divisions of Jainism

Over time, Jainism developed into two major sects—the Digambaras and the Śvetāmbaras—
primarily due to differences in monastic discipline, interpretation of Mahavira’s teachings, and views
regarding women and ascetic practice. These divisions, while sharing the same fundamental doctrines
of Jain philosophy, reveal important distinctions in lifestyle, ritual, and theological emphasis.

The Digambaras

The term Digambara literally means “sky-clad,” signifying their practice of complete nudity as a
symbol of total renunciation. This sect, considered the more conservative branch of Jainism, insists on
strict adherence to Mahavira’s example of living without clothes, which they interpret as the highest
form of detachment and selflessness. For the Digambaras, nudity represents absolute freedom from
worldly attachments and possessions.

In matters of doctrine, the Digambaras hold a strict view regarding women. They regard women as
embodiments of temptation and obstacles to spiritual progress, often citing Mahavira’s words that
women are “the greatest temptation in the world” and “the cause of all sinful acts.” According to their
interpretation, a woman cannot achieve liberation (moksha) in her present form; her only hope for
salvation lies in being reborn as a man. Historically, Digambaras have been concentrated in the
warmer regions of southern India, where conditions were more conducive to their practice of nudity.

The Śvetāmbaras

The Śvetāmbaras, meaning “white-clad,” represent the more liberal sect of Jainism. Unlike the
Digambaras, they do not emphasize nudity as a religious necessity. Instead, they allow the wearing of
simple white garments, regarding this as compatible with the spirit of renunciation and ascetic
discipline.

A significant distinction of the Śvetāmbaras lies in their inclusive approach to women. They believe
that women, too, are capable of attaining nirvana and therefore permit them to participate in temple
rituals and monastic life. This openness provided greater opportunities for women within the religious
structure and marked an important divergence from Digambara teachings. Geographically, the
Śvetāmbaras are found predominantly in the colder northern regions of India, where nudity would be
impractical.

Comparative Significance

The division between Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras highlights the dynamic nature of Jainism as it
spread and adapted to diverse cultural and geographical contexts. While both uphold the essential Jain
ideals of non-violence, renunciation, and the pursuit of liberation, their contrasting practices illustrate
the balance between conservative rigor and liberal adaptation within the Jain tradition.

Lesson 6 – Hinduism

The Historical Evolution and Development of Hinduism from the Indus Valley Civilization to
the Present

Abstract

This study provides an overview of the historical evolution and development of Hinduism from its
earliest roots in the Indus Valley Civilization to the modern period. Hinduism emerged through the
interaction of the Aryans, who arrived in north-western India toward the end of the Indus Valley
Civilization, with the region’s pre-existing social and religious traditions. Over centuries, this fusion
gave rise to the Vedic religion, which introduced sacred texts, deities, rituals, the caste system, and the
doctrine of karma and samsara. Subsequent eras witnessed significant transformations: the protest
movements of Buddhism and Jainism, the devotional narratives of the Epics and Puranas, the
establishment of sects and philosophical schools, the flowering of the Bhakti movement, and later, the
modern reform movements responding to colonialism and cultural stagnation. While revivalism often
brought renewal, it also introduced challenges of religious extremism and fundamentalism, leaving
Hinduism today at a crossroads between tradition and reform.

Development of Hinduism

1. Defining and Understanding the Term Hindu and Hinduism

The term Hindu is etymologically derived from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which refers to a large body
of water, specifically the river Indus. Initially, the Persians used the term Hindu to describe the people
living beyond the river Sindhu. Later, the Greeks also adopted this usage, referring to the inhabitants
of the Indus Valley. From this root, the word India itself is understood to have originated, derived
through the Old Persian Hindu.

By the 13th century, Muslim invaders popularized the term Hindustan, meaning the “land of the
Hindus.” Over time, especially with the arrival of European merchants and colonizers in the late 18th
century, the term Hindu came to denote the people of Indian origin who did not identify with the
Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam).

The suffix -ism was added in the 19th century, largely through the influence of Sir Monier Monier-
Williams’ book Hinduism (1877). With this, Hinduism came to denote the distinctive culture and
religion of the Hindus, encompassing national, social, religious, and cultural identity.

Alternative Terms for Hinduism

In addition to Hinduism, the tradition is often referred to by its adherents as Sanātana Dharma,
meaning “the eternal religion.” This term highlights its claim as the oldest, most universal faith,
rooted in timeless truth and preserved through ancient scriptures. Another designation is Vaidika
Dharma, or “the religion of the Vedas,” which emphasizes its foundation in the Vedic texts and its
central pursuit of communion between the individual soul (ātman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman).

Distinctive Features of Hinduism

Unlike other major world religions, Hinduism does not originate from a single founder, prophet, or
central scripture. It is not a revealed religion with a fixed beginning, but rather one that has gradually
grown and evolved through diverse cultural, ritualistic, and philosophical traditions. More than a rigid
creed, Hinduism represents a way of life.

It allows for great flexibility in belief and practice, enabling individuals to shape their spiritual path
according to personal inclination. This diversity is reflected in its acknowledgment of an immense
pantheon—traditionally described as 33 crore (330 million) gods and goddesses—symbolizing the
manifold expressions of the divine within the cosmos.

2. Development of Hinduism in the Indus Valley Civilisation (2000–1500 BCE)

The development of Hinduism cannot be understood apart from the interaction between the declining
Indus Valley Civilisation and the arrival of Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in north-western India.
Historian Romila Thapar (A History of India, 1966) observes that the gradual migration of Indo-
Iranians into the subcontinent led to a fusion of languages, cultural practices, and religious ideas with
those of the indigenous inhabitants. By the time the Aryans arrived around 1500 BCE, the great urban
centres of the Indus Valley were already in decline.

Initially, the Indo-Aryans were nomadic cattle-breeders, wandering across the plains of Punjab in
search of pastures. Over time, they settled in small agrarian villages in forested areas, gradually
adopting agricultural practices similar to those of the Indus Valley population. This cultural encounter
produced a fertile ground for exchange, adaptation, and assimilation. What later came to be known as
Hinduism thus emerged as a synthesis of both Vedic and Indus traditions—a linguistic and cultural
blending of Vedic vocabulary with Indus symbols and imagery.

Scholars suggest that many ideas and practices already present in pre-Aryan India were eventually
incorporated into Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit literature. This indicates that the Indo-Aryans were
not only influencing but also being influenced by the original inhabitants, producing a hybrid
religious and cultural heritage that laid the foundation for Hinduism.

Indus Valley Contributions to Hinduism

Several key religious features of Hinduism can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation:

 The Shiva Lingam: The worship of the phallic symbol, associated with fertility and later
with Lord Shiva, is thought to reflect animistic and fertility cults of the Indus tradition.

 The Swastika: A sacred Hindu symbol of auspiciousness and cosmic order, its earliest known
usage is found among the Indus people.

 Yoga and Meditation: Seals depicting human figures in yogic postures suggest that practices
of meditation and bodily discipline predated the Vedic age and later shaped Hindu spirituality.

 Mother Goddess Worship: The veneration of female deities in the Indus Valley was carried
into Hindu traditions, emphasizing fertility, nurture, and cosmic balance.

 Tree and Animal Worship: Sacred trees (such as the pipal) and animals (notably the bull)
were revered in the Indus culture and became integral to Hindu ritual and symbolism.

 Water Purification: Ritual baths and the use of water in sacred rites, evident in Indus
practices, influenced the Hindu emphasis on purification through sacred rivers and ritual
ablutions.

Conclusion

Thus, Hinduism developed not in isolation but within the rich social and religious milieu of the Indus
Valley. The convergence of Indo-Aryan and indigenous traditions created a religious synthesis—a
“melting pot” of ritual, symbol, and belief—that defined the earliest stages of Hinduism. The
continuity of practices such as fertility worship, sacred symbols, meditation, and ritual purification
shows how deeply the Indus legacy is woven into the fabric of Hindu religious life.

3. The Vedic Period (1500–600 BCE)

The Vedic period represents a formative stage in the religious and cultural history of India, during
which many of the foundational concepts of Hinduism emerged. This era is marked by the
composition of the Vedas, the development of ritual practices and priestly authority, the establishment
of social order through the caste system, and the formulation of key doctrines such as karma and
samsara. Collectively, these developments shaped the philosophical and spiritual foundations of
Hinduism, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to influence Indian religious life.

3.1 The Vedas and the Vedanta

The central contribution of the Vedic period lies in the composition of the four Vedas, which are
regarded as the most authoritative scriptures of Hinduism. The Rig Veda, the earliest of the four, is a
collection of hymns and prayers dedicated to various deities. These hymns celebrate natural forces
and cosmic powers, reflecting the worldview of early Indo-Aryan society. The Sama Veda consists
mainly of verses taken from the Rig Veda, but it was adapted into melodies to be sung during rituals.
The Yajur Veda served as a priestly manual, containing sacrificial formulae and detailed liturgical
instructions. The Atharva Veda, in contrast, contains charms, spells, incantations, and rituals for
everyday concerns, reflecting a more practical and popular dimension of religion.

Following the Vedas, the Upanishads—often referred to as the Vedanta, or the "end of the Vedas"—
were compiled. These philosophical texts shifted attention from external rituals to inward realization.
They teach that the ultimate goal of life is to recognize the unity of the individual self (Atman) with
the ultimate reality (Brahman). This realization involves dispelling avidya (ignorance) through vidya
(true knowledge), which leads to liberation (moksha). In this way, the Upanishads laid the
groundwork for Hindu philosophical thought, emphasizing self-realization over ritual performance.

3.2 Vedic Deities and Rituals

The religious life of the Vedic people centered around worship of numerous deities, primarily
associated with natural forces. Agni, the god of fire, played a crucial role as the divine mediator who
carried offerings to the gods. Indra, the warrior god of thunder and rain, was considered the heroic
champion of the Aryans. Varuna, associated with cosmic order (ṛta), represented moral and cosmic
justice, while Rudra, later identified with Shiva, was linked to storms, wind, and disease. Vishnu,
though less prominent in early Vedic hymns, was praised as the preserver of cosmic balance.

Rituals and sacrifices (yajna) were central to Vedic religion. The universe was believed to maintain its
order through these sacrificial acts, which mediated between the divine and human worlds. Priests, as
custodians of ritual knowledge, occupied a privileged role in society. Their growing influence
elevated the status of the Brahmins, who came to be regarded as guardians of sacred wisdom and
mediators of cosmic harmony.

3.3 The Caste System

The Vedic creation hymn, the Puruṣasūkta (Rig Veda 10.90), describes the origin of humankind from
the cosmic being, Purusa. From his head came the Brahmins, custodians of sacred knowledge and
ritual expertise. From his arms came the Kshatriyas, rulers and warriors entrusted with protection and
governance. From his thighs came the Vaishyas, agriculturalists, traders, and artisans who sustained
the economy. From his feet came the Shudras, laborers and servants tasked with menial work.

Although this system initially reflected a functional division of labor, it gradually hardened into a
rigid, hereditary hierarchy. Over time, as Romila Thapar notes, the caste system became increasingly
stratified, with rules concerning purity, pollution, and untouchability strictly enforced. This
established a deeply ingrained social structure that has shaped Indian society for centuries.

3.4 The Doctrine of Karma and Samsara

Another significant development of the Vedic and post-Vedic period was the doctrine of karma.
Karma refers to intentional action, undertaken with conscious will and responsibility. According to
this doctrine, every deed inevitably produces consequences: good actions yield positive results, while
evil actions bring suffering.

Closely tied to this belief is the concept of samsara, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The soul
(Atman) is reborn in successive lives until it attains liberation (moksha) through union with Brahman.
Karma determines the conditions of one’s future existence, making ethical conduct a central concern
of religious life. Thus, the doctrines of karma and samsara offered both an explanation for human
suffering and a pathway to ultimate liberation.

Conclusion

The Vedic period (1500–600 BCE) was a decisive phase in the development of Hinduism. The
composition of the Vedas and Upanishads, the establishment of ritual practices, the rise of priestly
authority, the formation of the caste system, and the articulation of doctrines such as karma and
samsara provided the structural and philosophical framework of the religion. These elements not only
defined the spiritual life of ancient India but also laid the foundation for the later diversity and
richness of Hindu traditions.