Honors Biology Intro in Biology & Biochemistry Unit Review
Introduction
❖ Characteristics of Life
➢ How can you determine if something is alive?
❖ Themes of Biology
➢ What are different ways we study Bio?
❖ Scientific Method
➢ Controlled Experiment
➢ Dependent vs Independent Variable
➢ Terminology
➢ Hypothesis writing
Ecosystems
❖ Abiotic vs biotic
o Factors affecting ecosystems
❖ How energy is obtained
o Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
❖ Difference between Energy Flow & Matter Cycling
❖ Relationships in Ecosystems
o Symbiosis (Mutualism, Parasitism, Commensalism)
❖ Biodiversity
o Species Richness vs Abundance
o How to Assess Biodiversity
❖ Ecosystem services
❖ Threats to Biodiversity
o HIPPCO
Biochemistry
❖ Chemistry
o Atoms vs Molecules
o Atomic and Molecular structure
o Bonding
▪ Role of Valence electrons
▪ Covalent
▪ Ionic
▪ Hydrogen
o Reactions
▪ Acid/Base-- Ions and pH (in solutions)
▪ Dehydration Synthesis/ Hydrolysis
o Water – why is it so important?
▪ Polarity
▪ Hydrogen Bonding—adhesion/cohesion
▪ Amphipathic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic molecules
o Cycles in an Ecosystem
▪ Water Cycle
● Evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, condensation, run
off, ground water
▪ Carbon Cycle
● Photosynthesis, Respiration, Combustion, Decomposition
● How do humans affect it?
❖ Biochemistry
o Molecules of Life
▪ Basic structure of each
▪ Elements contained
▪ Significance/Role in the body
● Carbohydrates: (define and give examples)
o Monosaccharide (isomers)
o Disaccharide
o Polysaccharide
● Lipids
o Fatty Acids & glycerol
o Saturated vs. Unsaturated
o Triglycerides, Phospholipids
● Proteins
o Amino Acid – structure
o Enzyme/substrate complex
▪ specificity and shape
▪ activation energy
▪ rates and environmental factors affecting
enzymes
● Nucleic Acids
o Nucleotides - structure
o Role in body
❖ Digestion
o Chemical vs. Mechanical
o The pathway/GI tract
▪ Different organs, structure and function
▪ Accessory organs
▪ Digestive enzymes
● Examples of 1 enzymes to digest each type of
macromolecule
o Where is it produced in the body?
Review Questions:
1. Design a controlled experiment to determine what pH plants grow best in.
2. How do the themes of Biology relate to the characteristics of life?
3. Why do organisms need energy and how do they get it?
4. Explain why biodiversity is important in ecosystems and how you can assess
it.
5. Identify some ways ecosystems are useful for humans. Defend whether we
should use ecosystems for our own purposes.
6. What are the various ways humans are hurting our environment?
7. What are valence electrons and why are they significant?
8. What types of bonds would you expect to find with organic molecules?
9. What type of bonds form between the atoms that make up a water molecule?
What type of bonds form between water molecules?
10.What is a chemical reaction? How does it involve bonds and energy?
11.Diagram & explain the water, and carbon cycles and how humans influence them.
12.What is activation energy, how do enzymes affect it?
13.Describe the structure and function of an enzyme and what is meant by a “lock
and key” model? What is meant by the substrate and the active site?
14. What factors affect enzyme activity? Why is it important that enzymes function
within such a strict set of conditions? (think homeostasis)
15.What does it mean for a molecule to be polar? How does the “behavior” of
electrons result in polarity?
16. What are some unique characteristics of water and why are they important for life
on earth?
17. Describe the role of hydrogen bonding in determining the properties of water.
18.Which properties of water are responsible for a plant’s ability to move water
upwards against gravity?
19.Which properties of water are responsible for the way that an insect sits on top of
water?
20.Which properties of water are responsible for maintaining a stable temperature
within the cells of the body?
21.Define Acids and Bases. How do they affect the solution that they are in? What
ions do they each release? What does pH measure?
22.How do buffers work? What is an example of buffers working in the human
body?
23.What are the 4 major macromolecules and their monomers? What elements are
included in each? What are the major functions of each?
24. Describe the difference between a monomer and a polymer and how cells in the
body use them.
25. What are 3 common monosaccharides? What is the chemical formula for a
monosaccharide?
26. What are some common disaccharides? What is the chemical formula for a
disaccharide?
27.How is a disaccharide formed? How is a disaccharide broken? (Dehydration
Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis). Which atoms of a monosaccharide are involved in
these two reactions? Which functional groups are involved?
28.Draw an amino acid and label the 4 major parts. How many different amino acids
are there? What is the major difference between amino acids?
29. Draw methyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, hydroxyl, amino and phosphate groups. What
is the chemical formula of each? What types of larger molecules are each one
found on?
30. What is a peptide bond and how is it formed? What functional groups are
involved?
31.Look at a figure of a lipid. Be able to identify the nonpolar and polar, hydrophilic
and hydrophobic regions. What do those terms mean and how do they help the
function of a lipid?
32. Compare and contrast unsaturated vs. saturated fatty acids.
33. What type of bond is formed between glycerol and the carboxyl end of a fatty
acid chain?
34. What is a phospholipid? Describe its structure, its polarity and it’s role in making
cell membranes.
35. Describe the structure of a nucleic acid. What is their function in the body? What
are the two types of molecules that are made up of nucleic acids and store
information?
36. List in order the organs of the gastrointestinal tract. What are their functions?
37. What are the accessory organs used during digestion? What is their function?
38.What enzymes are used during digestion? Where are they made? Where do they
do their work? What foods are they designed to break down?
39.Compare and contrast chemical vs. mechanical digestion and list the ways that
each takes place in the various organs.
40.Trace the path of a saltine vs. a hamburger from your plate through your body.
Describe the different enzymes involved.
Honors Biology
Unit 3 Test Review
Cells, Transport, Respiratory & Nervous System
Cell Structures and Their Functions
★ The Basic Unit of Life
○ Discovery of the cell
○ The Cell Theory
○ The 2 types of cells
■ Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
■ Cell types by kingdom (archaea, eubacteria, fungi, protista, plantae,
animalia)
● Know some characteristics of each and an example
● What are similarities and differences
● Binomial nomenclature (determining species names)
■ Animal vs Plant
● Differences and similarities
○ What is important to a cell?
■ Size
● Surface area to volume ratio
■ Structure follows function
★ Cell Structure
○ Prokaryotic
■ Structures and shapes
○ Eukaryotic
■ All the organelles and functions
■ Examples of different shapes/assembly of organelles
Exchanging Materials with the Environment
★ Transport
○ Membrane as a barrier
■ Components of a membrane
● Phospholipids bilayer
● Glycoproteins – transport proteins
● Cholesterol
■ Selectively permeable
● What can go in and what can’t?
○ Passive Transport
■ Diffusion
● Concentration gradient
● Higher to lower!
■ Osmosis
● Hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic solutions
● Turgor pressure vs plasmolysis
■ Facilitated Diffusion
● What uses this?
● Transport proteins
○ Active Transport
■ Sodium potassium pump
○ Endocytosis vs Exocytosis
■ Pinocytosis
■ Phagocytosis
Cell Transport Applied: Nerve Impulses
★ Neuron (structure follows function!)
★ Nerve Impulse
○ Resting potential
■ Active Transport (sodium potassium pump)
○ Action potential
■ Depolarize and repolarize
■ Facilitated Diffusion
○ Direction of impulse
★ Cell Communication
○ Synapse
○ Neurotransmitters/exocytosis
Respiratory System
★ Parts: Mouth, Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Epiglottis, Trachea, Lungs, Bronchi,
Alveoli
★ What causes air to flow in/out of the lungs?
★ How does structure relate to function
o Oxygen in-→ Carbon Dioxide out
Questions
1. What are the functions of all the organelles in plants and animals?
2. Why are plant cells different from animal cells?
3. What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
4. Be able to identify the 6 kingdoms and key characteristics of each.
5. Give examples of how structure follows function in both organelles and whole cells.
6. Draw, label and explain the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.
7. What are the different types of passive transport? What is the cell membrane's
function in this?
8. What happens to cells in different solutions and concentrations?
9. Give an example of active transport and why it is needed.
10. What are endocytosis and exocytosis, and what are the steps in each?
11. Why does drinking salt water cause you to become dehydrated?
12.How does a nerve impulse travel down an axon? How does it go from neuron to
neuron?
13.How do the circulatory system and respiratory system work together?
Where is the interface between the two systems? How do the structure of alveoli
and capillaries at their interaction point allow them to carry out their function?
Honors Biology
Energy Test Review
(DO NOT LIMIT YOURSELF TO THIS STUDY GUIDE)
Energy, Life, and the Biosphere
❖ Organisms and Energy
o Types of Energy (chemical, electromagnetic/radiant)
o How energy is obtained
▪ Autotrophs
▪ Heterotrophs – cell respiration
o Energy Flow
▪ First and Second Law of Thermodynamics – relation to ecosystems
and ecosystem pyramid diagram
▪ Trophic Levels
o Energy in Food Webs
▪ Trophic levels, 10% rule
Cellular Respiration
❖ An Overview of Respiration
o Cell Respiration
▪ What is the general process?
▪ Glycolysis
▪ What is needed / made
o Anaerobic Respiration
▪ Facultative or obligate
▪ Purpose of Fermentation?
▪ Examples of anaerobic respiration/methane in the environment
❖ wetlands, dams, landfills
o Aerobic Respiration
▪ The Stages
❖ Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, ETC
❖ How are these related?
o Cell Respiration vs Photosynthesis
▪ How are they related?
▪ How do they help each other?
o The Structure of Mitochondria
The Reactions of Respiration
❖ Anaerobic Respiration
o Glycolysis
▪ Know the complete pathway
▪ How many total/net ATP?
▪ Where does it occur?
o Fermentation
▪ What is the purpose for those organisms using this pathway?
▪ What is lactic acid fermentation?
▪ What is alcoholic fermentation?
▪ Where does it occur?
▪ How efficient?
❖ Aerobic Respiration
o Glycolysis
o Formation of Acetyl CoA (often included in the Krebs cycle)
▪ Where does it take place?
▪ What are the byproducts?
o Krebs Cycle
▪ The main goal of the Krebs Cycle.
▪ The 4 byproducts and their functions.
▪ Where does it take place?
▪ The steps and diagram of the cycle.
o Electron Transport Chain
▪ Where does it take place?
▪ How does it work?
▪ What does it require?
▪ Chemiosmosis
▪ Know and understand the role of oxygen.
o Energy Yield
▪ Know the complete breakdown of glucose!
▪ How much ATP are made at various steps
❖ Cardiovascular System
o Circulatory System
▪ Blood vessels
● Arteries, capillaries, veins
● Where do they go?
● What are differences in structure and function?
▪ Circulation loops
● Pulmonary vs systemic
● Evolution, efficiency
▪ Hearts
● Flow of blood through them
▪ Regulation and transport
● Respiration
o Airflow
o How it works with the circulatory system
o How structure follows function
● Blood composition
o Erythrocytes, leukocytes, plasma
o Platelets and blood clots
o Function of each part
o What problems could arise?
Photosynthesis
❖ Photosynthesis Reactions
o Where does it take place?
▪ Chloroplast structure
● How does the structure help?
o General reactions
▪ What are the energy conversions?
▪ Needed – water, light, carbon dioxide
▪ Made – oxygen, carbon compounds
o Light Reaction
▪ The process
▪ Chemiosmosis
▪ Products? Oxygen, ATP, NADPH
o Calvin Cycle
▪ What is used?
▪ Final products
o What affects Photosynthesis
▪ Photorates
● Light intensity
● Temperature
● Concentration of CO2
● Concentration of O2
o Photorespiration
▪ Adaptations
● C4 pathway
● CAM pathway
o Gas Exchange
▪ Stomata- Structure and Function
❖ Plant Transport System
o Roots
▪ Absorption and storage
▪ Root hairs
o Leaves
▪ Photosynthesis, evaporation, storage, gas exchange
o Stems
▪ transport
o Water & Nutrient Transport
▪ Xylem
● Cohesion-adhesion hypothesis – how does this work?
▪ Phloem
● Pressure-flow hypothesis: Source to sink
Questions:
1. Why do organisms need energy and how do they get it? How does the
energy move from level to level and how does it get “lost”?
2. What are the products of the light reactions, and how are they used? What
are the products of the Calvin cycle, and how are they used? How are
these 2 parts of photosynthesis connected?
3. Why does the Calvin cycle not operate at night? How have plants adapted
to different situations?
4. What is made in each step in cell respiration? Specifically the amount of
ATP made in each step.
5. How do organisms differ in regard to cell respiration? How does this
make sense evolutionarily?
6. Explain how all of the reactions are reliant on each other in both cell
respiration and photosynthesis.
7. Where is the ETC found (in each reaction) and how does this help it to
work?
8. Where does each stage in photosynthesis and cell respiration take place?
How does the structure follow the function of the reaction?
9. What are the similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria?
10.What are the electron carriers in each reaction, cell respiration and
photosynthesis?
11.Why is it ecologically beneficial to have cell respiration and
photosynthesis in balance?
12.What are 3 different ways both cell respiration and photosynthesis can be
messed up? What happens with holes in the membranes, one of the
enzymes not available, etc.
13.How are aerobic and anaerobic respiration used? Which one is more
efficient (how do they differ in sugar use)? How does this relate to
exercise?
14.How do plants obtain water and how do root hairs help?
15.How do plants move water and organic materials? How do the properties
of water help transport items throughout the plants? How can
transpiration help water reach the top of tall trees?
16.Trace the pathway of blood through the body.
17.Describe the different chambers of the heart. What does your pulse tell
you and what affects it?
18.Describe the location and function of the different structures of the
circulatory system that keep blood flowing in only one direction.
19.Describe the differences in function between erythrocytes and leukocytes.
20.How do the circulatory system and respiratory system work together?
What is the goal of these two systems working together? Where is the
interface between the two systems? How do the structure of alveoli and
capillaries at their interaction point allow them to carry out their function?
Cell Cycle Review Sheet
(DO NOT LIMIT YOURSELF TO THIS STUDY GUIDE)
Cell Cycle
❖ The phases
➢ Regulation
❖ Cancer
➢ What is a possible cause?
➢ What are some ways to diagnose and treat?
Chromosomes
❖ Chromosome Structure & Vocabulary
➢ Chromosome vs chromatid
➢ Centromere, DNA
➢ Spindle fibers
➢ Homologous Chromosomes: Diploid vs haploid
Mitosis
❖ The Phases
➢ Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
➢ What happens in each
➢ Pictures of each
➢ Chromosome count in each
❖ Cytokinesis
➢ Cleavage furrow, cell plate
DNA
❖ Structure
➢ nucleotide components
➢ double helix
➢ complementary bases
❖ Replication
➢ semi-conservative replication
➢ new strand made in the 5’ → 3’ direction
➢ continuous and discontinuous strands
■ Okazaki fragments
➢ Enzymes involved
■ DNA Polymerase I and III
■ DNA Ligase
■ Primase
■ DNA Helicase
Questions:
1. What causes cancer and can we use the knowledge of cell cycle regulation to fight against
cancer?
2. Draw and label a chromosome.
3. Make 1 diagram for mitosis. Assume that the chromosome number in G1 of the cell is 6. Be
sure to include the following:
a. Include the chromosome number and DNA strand number at each phase
b. Explanation of what happens in each phase
c. Label each phase
4. If the chromosome number in G1 is 40, what is the chromosome number in each stage:
a. G2
b. Metaphase
c. Anaphase
d. Prophase
e. Final daughter cells
5. How do nucleotides arrange themselves into a DNA strand (types of bonds included)?
6. How and why does DNA replicate? What could go wrong during replication?
7. Draw and label the parts of DNA replication. Name all the enzymes involved in replication
and what they do.
Molecular Genetics Review Sheet
Hardy Weinberg
❖ Equations
➢ p+q=1
➢ p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
➢ Assumptions
❖ Relating to Molecular Genetics
➢ Genotype vs Phenotype vs Trait
RNA
❖ Overall RNA structure
➢ Single Stranded
➢ Base pairs (Uracil substitute!)
➢ Should be able to draw a molecule
❖ 3 Types
➢ What does each type do?
❖ 5 Differences between RNA & DNA
Transcription:
❖ Where does it occur
❖ What enzymes are involved in transcription
❖ Sequence of events for transcription
❖ Why is transcription important/necessary?
❖ mRNA processing (Splicing)
➢ Introns vs. Exons
❖ Be able to transcribe a sequence of DNA into an mRNA
Translation
❖ Where does it occur?
❖ Genetic Code
➢ How does it work
➢ What are codons
➢ What is the role of tRNA
■What is an anticodon?
➢ What is the role of rRNA
❖ What are the steps of translation? How does translation stop?
❖ Be able to translate an mRNA into a protein
Gene Expression:
❖ The Central Dogma - what does this mean?
❖ Prokaryotic Gene expression
➢ Parts of an Operon
■Promoter
■Operator
■Repressor
■Functional gene
➢ Explanation of Lac Operon and role of Lactose in gene expression
❖ Eukaryotic Gene expression
➢ What are transcription factors?
➢ Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression
■Don’t worry about knowing exactly how transcription
factors work…just the overall concept.
Mutations:
❖ Chromosomal Mutations
➢ Deletion, Duplication, Translocation, Inversion
❖ Gene Mutations
➢ Point mutations vs. Frameshift Mutations
■What causes each?
■What are the results of each?
❖ Somatic vs Germline Mutations
➢ Oncogenes (growth factor genes, tumor suppressor genes)
Review Questions
1. How do allele frequencies impact genotypic frequencies in a population?
2. How can you find p and q in a population?
3. What could impact the allele frequencies in a population?
4. Name two ways that RNA polymerases are like the DNA polymerases? What
is the functional significance of these similarities?
5. There are a number of stages from initial transcribing, through the
processing of RNA to make it ready for a protein to be synthesized using it as
a template. At which of these stages can there be regulation?
6. What are the three types of RNA involved in protein synthesis? What does
each do?
7. Where is the promoter region located? What binds to a promoter region and
what is the effect?
8. How does prokaryotic gene expression differ from eukaryotic gene
expression? What could happen if you put an eukaryotic gene inside of a
prokaryotic cell?
9. What is an evolutionary advantage to the eukaryotic gene expression?
10.DNA inside of the E Coli living inside your intestine has undergone mutations
that have changed the nucleotide sequence of the promoter, thus not allowing
RNA polymerase to bind. Assuming you have just consumed a glass of milk
containing lactose, explain if the enzymes needed to break down lactose
would be made.
11.Describe the relationship between the enhancer, transcription factors and
promoter in eukaryotic cells.
12.What causes cancer and can we use the knowledge of cell cycle regulation to
fight against cancer?
13.Why does a kidney cell act as a kidney cell? And how are they different from
heart cells?
