Physics Session 1 Notes

Electric dipole: A system of two equal and opposite point charges fixed at a small distance constitutes an
electric dipole. Electric dipole is analogous to bar magnet or magnetic dipole in magnetism.

Dipole moment
Every dipole has a characteristic property called dipole moment, which is
similar to magnetic moment of a bar magnet. If 2a is the distance between the charges +q and –q, then
electric dipole moment is p = q.2a
unit of dipole moment is Coulomb-meter and dimensional formula [LAT]
Dipole moment is a vector quantity and its direction is from negative charge to positive charge as shown.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO DIPOLE

At a point on the axis of a dipole:

𝑞 1
Electric field due to +q charge 𝐸1 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑙)2 0
1 𝑞
Electric field due to −q charge 𝐸2 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑙)2
0
1 𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑞 1 1
Net electric field is 𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑙)2 − 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑙)2 = 4𝜋𝜀 ((𝑟−𝑙)2 − (𝑟+𝑙)2 )
0 0 0

𝑞 4𝑟𝑙 1 2𝑝𝑟
E = 4𝜋𝜀 ((𝑟 2−𝑙2 )2) = 4𝜋𝜀 ( 2 −𝑙2 )2 (q.2l =p (dipole moment))
0 0 𝑟
1 2𝑝
If r>>l then E = the electric field is in the direction of the dipole moment
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

At a point on the equatorial line of dipole:

1 𝑞
Electric field due to +q charge 𝐸1 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
0𝑥
1 𝑞
Electric field due to −q charge 𝐸2 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑥2
Vertical component of E1 and E2 will cancel each other and horizontal components
will get added, so net electric field at P is 𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃 (E1=E2)
1 𝑞 𝑙
𝐸 = 2𝐸1 cos 𝜃 => 2 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥2 𝑥 (2ql=p and 𝑥 = √𝑙 2 + 𝑟 2
0
𝑝
𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑙2 +𝑟2 )2
𝑝
If l<<r then 𝐸 = (electric field is opposite direction to dipole moment)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟)3

POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE

An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges separated by a
very small distance. If 'q' is the charge and 2a the length of the dipole then
electric dipole moment will be given by p = (2a) q.
Let AB be a dipole whose centre is at 'O' and 'P' be the point where the
potential due to dipole is to be determined. Let r, θ be the position
coordinates of 'P' w.r.t the dipole as shown in figure. Let BN & AM be the
perpendiculars drawn on to OP and the line produced along PO. From geometry
ON = a cos θ =OM. Hence the distance, BP from +q charge is 𝑟 − 𝑎 cos 𝜃 [because PB = PN as AB is very
small in comparison with r]. For similar reason AP = 𝑟 + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 [AP = PM]
1 𝑞
Hence potential at P due to charge +q situated 𝑉1 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃
 1 −𝑞
Similarly potential at P due to charge –q at A is 𝑉2 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃
Hence total potential at P is 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
1 𝑞 1 −𝑞 𝑞 1 1
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 4𝜋𝜀 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃 − 𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃]
0 0 𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃 0
1 𝑞2𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 [(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)] but r>>a then 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 ≈ 𝑟 2
0
1 𝑝 cos 𝜃 1 𝑝⃗.𝑟̂
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 in vector form 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2 0 𝑟2
Hence potential varies inversely as the square of the distance from the dipole.
1 𝑝
Special Cases: 1) On the axial line: For a point on the axial line θ=0˚ then 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
0𝑟
2) Point on the equatorial line: For a point on the equatorial line θ=90˚ then V=0

Potential energy of a dipole in an external electric field

Electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field experiences torque is given by
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 in vector form 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗
The torque on the dipole tends to align the dipole along the direction of electric
field. The net force experienced by it is zero.
𝜃 𝜃
The work done by external torque is 𝑊 = ∫𝜃 2 𝜏𝑑𝜃 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 1
𝜃
𝑝𝐸[− cos 𝜃]𝜃21
= = −𝑝𝐸 [cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 ] = 𝑝𝐸 [cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 ]
The work done stored in form of potential energy 𝑈 = 𝑝𝐸 [cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 ]
The potential energy of dipole in an electric field is
𝑈 = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 in vector form 𝑈 = −𝑝⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗
If θ = 90˚ then U = 0 and 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 maximum
If θ = 0˚ then U = −𝑝𝐸(minimum) and 𝜏 = 0 (minmum)
If θ = 180˚ then U = 𝑝𝐸 (maximum) and 𝜏 = 0 (minimum)
So, if 𝑝⃗ is parallel to 𝐸⃗⃗ then, potential energy is minimum and torque on the dipole is zero, and the dipole will
in stable equilibrium.
If 𝑝⃗ is antiparallel to 𝐸⃗⃗ then, potential energy is maximum and again torque is zero, but it is in unstable
equilibrium
Torque on Dipole
BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGES
a) Charge is additive. The total charge on a body is equal to algebraic sum of positive and negative
charges on it. This property is a consequence of the fact that the charge is a scalar
b) Charge is transferable: If a charged body is put in contact with another body, then charge can be
transferred to another body.
c) Charge is always associated with mass Charge cannot exist without mass though mass can exist without
charge. So, the presence of charge itself is a convincing proof of existence of mass.
The mass of a body changes after being charged. When a body is given a positive charge, its mass decreases.
When a body is given a negative charge, its mass increases.
d) Charge is quantised: The quantization of electric charge is the property by virtue of which all free charges
are integral multiple of a basic unit of charge represented by e. Thus, charge q of a body is always given by
𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒 n = positive or negative integer
The quantum of charge is the charge that an electron or proton carries.
Note: Charge on a proton = (−) charge on an electron = 1.6 × 10 -19C
e) Charge is conserved: In an isolated system, total charge does not change with time though individual
charge may change, i.e., charge can neither be created nor destroyed. Conservation of charge is also found to
hold good in all types of reactions either chemical (atomic) or nuclear. No exceptions to the rule have ever
been found.
f) Charge is invariant Charge is independent of frame of reference. i.e., charge on a body does not change
whatever be its speed.
COULOMB’S LAW: (INVERSE SQUARE LAW)
“The force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary electric charges is directly proportional to the
product of magnitude of the two charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. This force acts along the line joining those two charges”

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟 2 => 𝐹 ∝ => 𝐹 = 𝐾 => 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜖
𝑟2 𝑟2 0 𝑟2
Where K is proportional constant, it depends on the medium between the charges and also on the system of
units in which the charges and distance r it also called coulomb constant
1
𝐾 = 4𝜋𝜖 , where 𝜖0 is called permittivity of the free space the value of 𝜖0 = 8.8542 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁𝑚2
0
1
Value of 𝐾 = 4𝜋𝜖 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2
0
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹0 = 9 × 109 (𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛) , when 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1𝐶 then 𝐹0 = 9 × 109 N
𝑟2
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Lines of Force: Line of force is an imaginary path along which a unit +ve test charge would tend to move in an
electric field.
a) All lines of force diverge out from a positive charge and converge into a negative charge.
b) The tangent to the line of force at any point on it gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
c) No two electric lines of force intersect each other. (If they intersect at a point, at that point the electric field
should have two different directions which is not possible).
d) Electric lines of force are always normal to the surface of a conductor. (Magnetic lines of force need not be
normal to the magnet.)
e) Electric lines of force do not pass through the conductor.
f) Electric field lines are open lines. They start from positive charge and end on negative charge. (Magnetic
lines of force are closed loops)
g) The number of lines of force per unit cross sectional area at any point is proportional to the magnitude of
electric field strength E at that point.
h) The lines of force are crowded where the field is strong and sparse where the field is weak. We can
compare the intensities of the field at two points by studying the distribution of field lines.
i) The field lines have no physical existence. They are purely a geometrical construction which help us to
visualise the nature of electric field in a region.
i) In a charge free region electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any breaks.
j) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative nature of electric
field.
k) The number of field lines passing through the area perpendicular to the field is known as electric flux φ.

Charging by induction When a charged body is kept closer to a neutral body, charge is induced in the neutral
body. This induction is due to realignment of charge in the neutral body. The nearer side of neutral body gets
unlike charge and the farther end gets like charge, hence induction precedes attraction Inducing body neither
gains nor loses the charge.
Ex: A metal sphere can be charged by induction as shown in below figure. When the positively charged rod is
brought nearer to a neutral metal sphere which is on insulating stand as shown in figure 1, the positively
charged rod attracts negative charges in the sphere towards the rod and repels the positive charges in the
sphere away from the rod.

Now the sphere is connected to the ground through a metal wire as shown in figure 2. (The earth can be
treated as a good conductor and a huge reservoir of charge). Then electrons will flow from the ground to
neutralize the positive charge on the metal sphere.
Now the metal wire is removed and the positively charged rod is taken away, then we are left with a uniformly
distributed negative charge on the sphere as shown in 3.
NOTE: 1) If a dielectric is charged by induction, then induced charge 𝑞1 is less than inducing charge q.
1
Induced charge 𝑞1 = −𝑞 (1 − 𝑘) where k is dielectric constant. For metals 𝑘 =∝ and so 𝑞1 = −𝑞.
2) The nature of the induced charge is always opposite to that of inducing charge.
3) Charging a body by means of induction is preferable since the same charged body can be used to
charge any number of bodies without loss of charge.
4) Repulsion is the sure test to detect charge on a body (or) repulsion is the sure test of electrification.