1

ELECTROSTATICS
TWO KINDS OF CHARGES :
( 1 ) Positive charge ( 2 ) Negative charge

TWO MODES OF CHARGING :

( 1 ) Charging by friction ( 2 ) Charging by induction

CONSERVATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE :

The net charge of an isolated system is always zero i. e. charge can neither be created nor be destroyed in isolation , it can be
produced or destroyed in equal and opposite pair only .

QUANTIZATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE :

Charge of any body is always in integral multiple of charge of an electron i. e. charge of a body is always in terms of e , 2e , 3e ……
q=ne
here n = numbers of electrons
e = charge of an electron = 1.6 × 10-19 C

COULOMB'S LAW :
The force of attraction or repulsion between two point static charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them .
(1) F q1 q2
(2) F 1
r2
Combining both ,
F q1 q2 q1 r q2
r2
F=1 q1 q2
4πЄ0 r2

Here 1 = 9 × 109 Nm2/C2

4πЄ0
Є0 is also known as absolute electrical permittivity of free space
Є0 = 8.85 × 10-12 C2/Nm2

COULOMB'S LAW IN VECTOR FORM :

Force on charge q1 due to charge q2

F12 = 1 q1 q2 r21 r12 r21

4πЄ0 r2
q1 r q2
Force on charge q2 due to charge q1

F21 = 1 q1 q2 r12
4πЄ0 r2

But r21 = -r12

now F12 = -F21

Hence both the charges exert on each other forces , equal in magnitude and opposite in direction .

UNITS OF CHARGE :
The S.I. unit of charge is Coulomb ( C )
The C.G.S. unit of charge is stat coulomb or Franklin or e.s.u. ( electrostatic unit )
1 C = 3 × 109 stat coulomb
Another unit of charge is e.m.u. ( electromagnetic unit )
1 e.m.u. = 10 C = 3 × 1010 e.s.u.
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RELATIVE ELECTRICAL PERMITTIVITY OR DIELECTRIC CONSTANT :
When two charges q1 and q2 are placed in free space , according to Coulomb's law force between them
F0 = 1 q1 q2 …………..(1)
4πЄ0 r2
when the same two charges are placed in any medium other than free space , then force between them
Fm = 1 q1 q2 …………(2)
4πЄ r2
here Є is the permittivity of the medium
dividing eq (1) by eq (2)

F0 = Є = Єr or K
Fm Є0

Here Єr is called relative electric permittivity or dielectric constant K of medium .

Hence dielectric constant is a ratio of electric permittivity of medium to the electric permittivity of free space .

For free space K=1

For dielectrics ( insulators ) K>1
For metals ( conductors ) K= ꝏ

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION :
The total force on any charge due to a number of q2
other charges at rest is the vector sum of all the
forces on that charge due to other charges taken q1
one at a time . q0
Suppose we have a group of charges q1 , q2 , q3 , r2
……………………………… qn . The net force on a given r1
charge q0 due to this group of charges r0 q3

F = F01 + F02 + F03 + …………………….. + F0n r3

O

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION :

LINEAR CHARGE DENSITY :
The charge per unit length of a line charge is called linear charge density .
λ = dq
dl
Unit = C / m

SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY :

The charge per unit surface area is called surface charge density .
σ = dq
dS
Unit = C / m2

VOLUME CHARGE DENSITY :

The charge per unit volume is called volume charge density .
ρ = dq
dV
Unit = C / m3

ELECTRIC FIELD :
The space around any charge in which any other charge can experience force of attraction or repulsion is called electric field .

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY :

At any point in electric field the electric field intensity is equal to the force experienced by unit positive test charge placed at that
point .
E=F
q0
It is a vector quantity . S.I. unit is N/C
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ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A POINT CHARGE :
Imagine a positive test charge +q0 is placed at point P .
According to Coulomb's law force on test charge +q0 P
F=1 q q0 q r +q0
4πЄ0 r2
By the definition electric field intensity at P
E=F
q0

1 q q0
E = 4πЄ0 r2
q0

E=1 q
4πЄ0 r2

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES :

Electric field lines are some imaginary lines that can represent electric field about any charge .

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC FIELD LINES :

(1) Electric field lines are continuous curves but they do not form closed loop .
(2) Tangent to the electric field line at any time gives the direction of electric intensity at that point .
(3) No two electric field lines can intersect each other , if they do so it will represent two direction of electric field at the point of
intersection which is impossible .
(4) The electric field lines are always normal to surface of a conductor .
(5) The electric field lines contract longitudinally and dilate laterally .
(6) Crowding the electric field lines represent more intense electric field .

ELECTRIC DIPOLE :
An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by some small distance .
Ex. NaCl , HCl , H2O 2a
-q a O a +q
ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT :
Electric dipole moment is equal to the product of magnitude of either charge and dipole length .
Electric dipole moment ,
p = q × 2a
It is a vector quantity . S.I. unit is C m .
Its direction is from -q to +q
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ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO ELECTRIC DIPOLE :
(1)ON AXIAL LINE : E1 E2
Electric field intensity at point P due to +q charge r
E1 = 1 q (OP) P
4πЄ0 ( r - a )2 -q a O a +q
Electric field intensity at point P due to -q charge
E2 = 1 q (PO)
4πЄ0 ( r + a )2
As electric field intensity is a vector quantity and E1 > E2 , therefore net intensity at P
E = E1 - E2 (OP)

E=q 1 1
4πЄ0 ( r - a )2 ( r + a )2

E=q ( r + a )2 - ( r - a )2
4πЄ0 ( r2 - a2 )2

E=q 4a r
4πЄ0 ( r2 - a2 )2

E=1 2 ( q × 2a ) r
4πЄ0 ( r2 - a2 )2

Put q × 2a = p

E=1 2pr
4πЄ0 ( r2 - a2 )2

If dipole is very short 2a << r ; neglecting , a2 w.r.t. r2

E=1 2p r
4πЄ0 r4

E=1 2p
4πЄ0 r3

ON EQUATORIAL LINE :
Electric field intensity at P due to +q charge E1 E1sinθ
E1 = 1 q (BP)
4πЄ0 ( r2 + a2 )
E1cosθ θ P
Electric field intensity at P due to -q charge E2cosθ θ
E2 = 1 q (PA)
4πЄ0 ( r2 + a2 )
E2 E2sinθ
E1 and E2 are equal in magnitude and different √ r2 + a 2
in direction therefore resolving them into two r
rectangular components , E1sinθ and E2sinθ
cancel out each other being equal and opposite .
Now E1cosθ and E2cosθ being in same direction
are added up to give resultant intensity at P . θ θ
A B
E = E1cosθ + E2cosθ ( BA ) -q a O a +q

E = 2E1cosθ ( ˙.˙ E1 = E2 )

E=2 q cosθ
4πЄ0 ( r2 + a 2 )

Here cosθ = a
√ r2 + a 2
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E=2 q a
4πЄ0 ( r2 + a2 ) √ r2 + a2

E=1 q 2a
4πЄ0 ( r2 + a2 )3/2

Here q 2a = P

E=1 p
4πЄ0 ( r2 + a2 )3/2
For a short dipole 2a << r , therefore neglecting a2 w.r.t. r2

E=1 p
4πЄ0 ( r2 )3/2

E=1 p
4πЄ0 r3

TORQUE ON ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD :

E
Force on +q charge of dipole A +q
F=qE ( along E ) F=qE
a
Force on -q charge of dipole
F=qE ( opposite to E ) O

Both the forces are equal and opposite , a

therefore net force on the dipole will be
zero . However these forces are parallel F=qE θ
so they form a couple which tries to B -q C
rotate the dipole in electric field . Now
torque of this couple

τ = either force × perpendicular distance between them

τ = q E ( AC )

In Δ ABC AC = sinθ
AB
AC = AB sinθ = 2a sinθ

Now τ = q E × 2a sinθ

τ = q 2a E sinθ
Here q 2a = p

τ = p E sinθ

In vector form

τ=p×E

Case (1) If dipole is placed ‖ to electric field θ = 0°

τ = p E sin0° = 0
Now the dipole is in stable equilibrium .

Case (2) If dipole is placed opposite to electric field θ = 180°

τ = p E sin180° = 0
Now the dipole is in unstable equilibrium .
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POTENTIAL ENERGY OF DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD :
As torque on an electric dipole
τ = p E sinθ
Due to this torque the dipole rotates . Small amount of work done in rotating the dipole through small angle dθ
dW = τ dθ
dW = p E sinθ dθ
Now total work done in rotating the dipole from angle θ1 to θ2
θ2
W= p E sinθ dθ
θ1
θ2
W = p E [ -cosθ ]
θ1
W = p E [ -cosθ2 + cosθ1 ]
W = p E [ cosθ1 - cosθ2 ]

Case (1) if θ1 = 0° and θ2 = θ

W = p E [ 1 - cosθ ]

Case (2) if θ1 = 90° and θ2 = θ

W = -p E cosθ
This work done is stored in the dipole as electric potential energy therefore
U = -p E cosθ
In vector form

U = -p . E

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL :
At a point in electric field electric potential is equal to the work done in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to that
point .
If W is the work done in bringing a test charge q0 from infinity to a point in electric field then electric potential at that point ,

V=W
q0

It is scalar quantity . It's S. I. unit is Volt .

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE :

Electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is equal to the work done in carrying a unit positive test
charge from one point to another .
If W is the work done in carrying a test charge q0 from point A to another point B in electric field then electric potential
difference ,

VB - VA = W
q0

It is also measured in Volt .

ELELCTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE :

Consider an imaginary test
charge +q0 is brought from +q0
infinity towards a point P q r P B dx A ꝏ
at a distance r from a point x
charge q . Suppose at any
instant test charge +q0 is at a point A , then according to Coulomb's law force on test charge +q0 at A
F=1 q q0
4πЄ0 x2
Small amount of work done in displacing the test charge +q0 through a distance dx from point A to B against electric force
dW = F dx cos 180°
dW = -1 q q0 dx ( cos 180° = -1 )
4πЄ0 x 2

Now total work done in displacing the test charge +q0 from ꝏ to point P
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r
W= -1 q q0 dx
4πЄ0 x2
ꝏ

r r
W = q q0 -1 dx = q q0 1 = q q0 1 - 1
4πЄ0 x2 4πЄ0 x 4πЄ0 r ꝏ
ꝏ ꝏ

W= 1 q q0
4πЄ0 r
By the definition electric potential at P
V=W
q0
V= 1 q
4πЄ0 r

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO ELECTRIC DIPOLE : P

Electric potential at P due to +q charge
V1 = 1 q
4πЄ0 r1
Electric potential at P due to -q charge
V2 = -1 q r2 r r1
4πЄ0 r2
Total electric potential at P C
V = V1 + V2
V= q 1 - 1
4πЄ0 r1 r2 B a θ A
In Δ OAC , cos θ = OC -q a +q
OA θ O
OC = OA cos θ = a cos θ
Similarly in Δ OBD OD = a cos θ D
r1 ≈ CP = OP - OC = r - a cos θ
r2 ≈ DP = OP + OD = r + a cos θ
Put these values in eq (1)
V=q 1 - 1
4πЄ0 (r - a cos θ) (r + a cos θ)

V=q r + a cos θ - r + a cos θ

4πЄ0 r2 - a2 cos2θ

V=1 q 2a cos θ
4πЄ0 r2 - a2 cos2θ

V=1 p cos θ
4πЄ0 (r2 - a2 cos2θ)

Case (1) On axial line of dipole θ = 0° ; cos θ = 1

V=1 p
4πЄ0 ( r2 - a2 )
If the dipole is very short 2a << r ; neglecting a2 w.r.t. r2
V=1 p
4πЄ0 r2

Case (2) On equatorial line of dipole θ = 90° ; cos θ = 0

V=0

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE :
A surface held in electric field at every point of which electric potential is the same , is known as equipotential surface .
By the definition of potential difference
VB - VA = W
q0
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If points A and B lies on the same equipotential surface then VA = VB
W=0
q0
W=0 ( q0 ≠ 0 )
Hence no work is done in moving the test charge from one point to another on an equipotential surface .
Further by the definition of work done

W = F. dr

W = q0 E . dr
As work done on equipotential surface is zero , therefore

0 = q0 E . dr

E . dr = 0 ( q0 ≠ 0 )

E ꓕ dr
Hence electric field intensity is always normal to every point of equipotential surface .
The equipotential surfaces for various charge configurations are ,

RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL :

Suppose a test charge +q0 moves from point A to B from one equipotential surface to another , by the definition of potential
difference VB - VA = W
q0
( V - dV ) - V = W
q0
-dV = W B ( V - dV )
q0
dr
But the work done W = F dr
W = q0 E dr
Put this value in eq (1) A V
-dV = q0 E dr
q0
E = - dV
dr
Here -dV represents rate of fall of potential with distance , which is also known as potential gradient . It is a vector quantity
dr
The S.I. unit of potential gradient is V/m .
In vector form dV = - E . dr
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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY :
Electric potential energy of a system of two point charges
is equal to the work done in bringing the two charges to ꝏ
their respective position from infinitely large mutual
separation .
Electric potential at P due to charge q1 at O
V= 1 q1
4πЄ0 r
If W is the work done in carrying charge q2 from
ꝏ to point P then by definition of electric potential q1 q2
V=W
q2 O r P
W = q2 V
W= 1 q1 q2
4πЄ0 r
This work done is stored in the system as electric potential energy , therefore
U= 1 q1 q2
4πЄ0 r

Special case : When two charges are placed in an external electric field
Suppose q1 and q2 are two point charges at position vectors r1 and r2 respectively in an external electric field .
Work done in bringing charge q1 from ꝏ to position r1
W1 = q1 V1
Work done in bringing charge q2 from ꝏ to position r2
W2 = q2 V2
While bringing q2 from ꝏ to position r2 , work has been done against the field due to q1
W3 = 1 q1 q2
4πЄ0 r12
Now potential energy of the system = total work done in assembling the charges
U = W1 + W2 + W3
U = q1 V1 + q2 V2 + 1 q1 q2
4πЄ0 r12

ELECTRIC FLUX :
Electric flux over a surface in electric field is equal to the number
of electric field lines crossing this surface .
or
Electric flux of a surface held in electric field is equal to the
surface integral of electric field over that surface . ds

фE = E . ds E

It is a scalar quantity . It's S.I. unit is Nm2/C or V m .

GAUSS THEOREM :
The surface integral of electric field over any closed surface in vacuum i.e. total electric flux over a closed surface in vacuum is
1/Є0 times the total charge q contained inside it .

фE = E . ds = q
Є0
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DEDUCTION OF COULOMB'S LAW FROM GAUSS'S THEOREM : E
Consider an isolated positive point charge q at O . Imagine a gaussian spherical ds
surface of radius r about charge q such that at every point of this sphere
E ‖ ds . By Gauss's theorem , P

E . ds = q q r
Є0 O

E ds cos 0° = q
Є0

E ds = q
Є0
E ( 4π r2 ) = q
Є0
E=1 q
4πЄ0 r2
If a point test charge +q0 is placed at point P on the surface of the sphere then force on charge +q0
F = q0 E
F=1 q q0
4πЄ0 r2
This is Coulomb's law .

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO AN INFINITE LONG LINE CHARGE :

Consider a gaussian cylindrical surface of length l and
radius r with an infinite long line charge at it's axis . E ds
At the curved surface of this cylinder E ‖ ds
Electric flux passing through the curved surface
ds r ds
E . ds = E ds cos 0° = E ds = E ( 2π r l )
+ + + + +
On the circular ends of cylinder as E ꓕ ds , therfore
electric flux passing through these ends will be zero E
( ˙.˙ cos 90° = 0 ) l
Now total electric flux фE = E ( 2π r l )
By Gauss's theorem фE = q
Є0
E ( 2π r l ) = q
Є0
If λ is the linear charge density then charge in length l of line charge
q=λl
Now E ( 2π r l ) = λ l
Є0
E= λ ( Here 1 = 18 × 109 )
2πЄ0 r 2πЄ0

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED SPHERICAL SHELL : ds E

(a) Outside the spherical shell :
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R having charge q is distributed
uniformly over the surface of shell . imagine a gaussian spherical surface
of radius r outside the spherical shell such that at every point on outer r
sphere E ‖ ds . By Gauss's theorem
q
E . ds = q O R
Є0

E ds cos 0° = q
Є0

E ds = q
Є0
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E ( 4π r2 ) = q
Є0
E=1 q
4πЄ0 r2
Hence for a point outside the spherical shell the entire charge given to shell behave as if it is concentrated at the centre of shell .
(b) At the surface of shell :
r=R
E=1 q
4πЄ0 R2
But surface charge density σ = q
4πR2

E=σ E
Є0
(c) Inside the spherical shell :
By Gauss's theorem
E ( 4π r2 ) = q Emax
Є0
As inside the spherical shell q = 0
E ( 4π r2 ) = 0 E=0 E 1
E=0 r2
The variation of electric field with distance is shown by the graph
O r˂R r=R r >R r

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A NON CONDUCTING CHARGED SOLID SPHERE :

(a) Inside the sphere :
Suppose a non conducting solid sphere of radius R having charge q is distributed
over it's entire volume . imagine a gaussian spherical sphere of radius r
inside the solid sphere such that at every point on the inner sphere E ‖ ds
If q' is the charge enclosed by inner sphere then by Gauss's theorem
r ds
E . ds = q'
Є O E
R
E ds cos 0° = q'
Є

E ds = q'
Є
E ( 4π r2 ) = q'
Є
E=1 q'
4πЄ r2
If ρ is the volume charge density then charge inside inner sphere q' = 4 π r3 ρ
3
E = 4 π r3 ρ
3 4πЄ r2
E=rρ
3Є
Clearly E r
At the centre of sphere r = 0 , therefore E = 0 E
(b) At the surface of the sphere :
r=R
E=Rρ Emax
3Є
(c) Outside the sphere :
By Gauss's theorem E r E 1
E ( 4π r2 ) = q r2
Є0
E=1 q O r˂R r=R r>R r
4πЄ0 r2
The variation of electric field intensity with distance is shown by graph
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ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO A THIN INFINITE PLANE SHEET OF CHARGE :
Let us imagine a gaussian cylindrical surface of length 2r
and area of cross-section ds piercing through an infinite ds + + + ds
plane sheet of charge . At the two circular ends P and Q
E ‖ ds . Electric flux passing through these surfaces
E Q + + P E
E . ds = E ds cos 0° = E ds = E ( 2ds ) ds
ds ds
On the curved surface of cylinder E ꓕ ds + + +
therefore no electric flux pass through the curved r r
surface ( ˙.˙ cos 90° = 0 ) . Now total electric flux
фE = E ( 2ds )
By Gauss's theorem
фE = q
Є0
E ( 2ds ) = q
Є0
If σ is the surface charge density then charge enclosed by area ds intercepted by cylinder across thin sheet
q = σ ds
Now E ( 2ds ) = σ ds
Є0
E=σ
2Є0
Special case :
If the infinite plane sheet has uniform thickness , both the surfaces of sheet behave like two independent thin sheets . Now
E = E1 + E2
E=σ + σ
2Є0 2Є0
E=σ
Є0

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO TWO THIN INFINITE PARALLEL SHEETS OF CHARGE :
As a matter of convention electric field from left to
right is taken as positive and field from right to left
is taken as negative . (I) (II) (III)
In region I : ++ ++
EI = - E1 - E2 E1 E1 E1
EI = - σ1 - σ2 ++ ++
2Є0 2Є0 E2 E2 E2
EI = - ( σ1 + σ2 ) ++ ++
2Є0
In region II :
EII = E1 - E2
EII = σ1 - σ2
2Є0 2Є0
EII = ( σ1 - σ2 )
2Є0
In region III :
EIII = E1 + E2
EIII = σ1 + σ2
2Є0 2Є0
EIII = ( σ1 + σ2 )
2Є0
Special case :
If the two sheets have equal and opposite uniform surface charge densities ; σ1 = σ and σ2 = -σ
EI = EIII = 0
EII = σ
Є0
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BEHAVIOUR OF CONDUCTOR IN ELECTRIC FIELD :
(1) In equilibrium electric field is zero everywhere inside a conductor .
Eo
Net E = Eo - Ep = 0 ( ˙.˙ Eo = Ep ) + - + -

+ - + -
Ep
(2) Net charge in the interior of conductor is zero . + - + -
By Gauss's theorem
E . ds = q
Є0
As inside a conductor E = 0 therefore q = 0

(3) Charge can reside only at outer surface of conductor and electric field just outside a charged conductor is always
perpendicular to every point of surface .

(4) Electric potential is constant throughout the volume of conductor and has the same value as on it's surface .
E = -dV
dr
As inside the conductor E = 0
-dV = 0
dr
dV = 0
V = constant

(5) Surface charge density is different at different points of an irregular shaped conductor .

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING :
The phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space from external electric field is called electrostatic shielding .
As electric field inside a conductor is zero therefore to protect delicate instruments from external electric field , we enclose them
in hallow conductors which are called Faraday cages .
Further , an earthed conductor can also acts as a screen against the electric field .

ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE :
When a conductor is given some charge , it's potential increases . The rise in potential is directly proportional to the given charge
q V
q=CV
C=q
V
C is called capacity of conductor . Capacity is the ratio of charge given to the conductor to the rise in it's potential .
It's S.I. unit is Farad (F) .

CAPACITY OF AN ISOLATED SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR :

Suppose a charge q is given to a sphere of radius r which spreads
over the surface of sphere . The potential at any point of the surface
of sphere V=1 q
4πЄ0 r O
As capacity C=q r
V
C = q 4πЄ0 r
q
C = 4πЄ0 r

CAPACITOR :
Capacitor is an arrangement which can store a large amount of charge and energy in a small space .
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PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR :
When a charge +q is given to one plate of a parallel plate capacitor , a charge
-q is induced on the inner face of second plate of capacitor . If K is the + -
dielectric constant of medium between plates then + -
E=σ =q ………..(1) + K -
KЄ0 KЄ0 A +q + -
If V is the potential difference between the plates , + -
E=V …………(2) + -
d d
Comparing eq(1) and eq(2)
V=q
d KЄ0 A
V=qd
KЄ0 A
By the definition capacity
C=q
V
C = q KЄ0 A
qd
C = KЄ0 A
d
Now capacity of a parallel plate capacitor depends upon ,
(1) C K (2) C A (3) C 1
d
For air K = 1 , capacity of air capacitor
C0 = Є0 A
d

ENERGY OF CAPACITOR :
The work done in charging a capacitor is stored in it as electric potential energy . Suppose a capacitor is charged gradually and at
any instant q is the charge stored on it then potential difference between the plates of capacitor
V=q
C
small amount of work done in giving additional charge dq to the capacitor ,
dW = V dq = q dq
C
Now total work done in giving total charge q
q q
W= q dq =1 q2 = 1 q2 - 0 = q2
0 C C 2 0 C 2 2C

this work done is stored as electric potential energy , therefore

U = 1 q2
2C
Put C = q U=1qV
V 2
Again q = C V U = 1 C V2
2

ENERGY DENSITY OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR :

Energy density of a parallel plate capacitor is the energy stored per unit volume of a capacitor .
u = total energy =U
volume between plates of capacitor Ad
u = 1 C V2
2Ad
But C = KЄ0 A u = 1 KЄ0 A V2 = 1 KЄ0 V2
d 2 dAd 2 d2
u = 1 KЄ0 E 2
( ˙.˙ E = V/d )
2
For air K = 1 u = 1 Є0 E2
2
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COMMON POTENTIAL :
suppose C1 and C2 are capacities of two capacitors charged to potentials V1 and V2 respectively .
Total charge before sharing q1 + q2 = C1 V1 + C2 V2
If V is the common potential , then
Total charge after sharing q1' + q2' = C1 V + C2 V = ( C1 + C2 ) V
As no charge is lost in the process , then
Total charge before sharing = Total charge after sharing
C1 V1 + C2 V2 = ( C1 + C2 ) V
V = C1 V1 + C2 V2 = total charge
C1 + C2 total capacity

LOSS OF ENERGY ON SHARING CAPACITORS :

Total energy before sharing U1 = 1 C1 V12 + 1C2 V22
2 2
If V is the common potential after sharing , then
Total energy after sharing U2 = 1 ( C1 + C2 ) V2
2
Put V = C1 V1 + C2 V2
C1 + C2
U2 = 1 ( C1 + C2 ) ( C1 V1 + C2 V2 )2
2 ( C1 + C2 )2
U2 = 1 ( C1 V1 + C2 V2 )2
2 ( C1 + C2 )
Now loss of energy
∆U = U1 - U2

∆U = 1 [ C1 V12 + C2 V22 - ( C1 V1 + C2 V2 )2 ]
2 ( C1 + C2 )

∆U = 1 [ C12 V12 + C1 C2 V12 + C1 C2 V22 + C22 V22 - C12 V12 - C22 V22 - 2C1 C2 V1 V2 ]
2 ( C1 + C2 )

∆U = 1 C1 C2 ( V12 + V22 - 2V1 V2 )

2 ( C1 + C2 )

∆U = 1 C1 C2 ( V1 - V2 )2
2 ( C1 + C2 )

Whether V1 ˂ V2 or V1 > V2 ; ∆U is always positive which shows loss of energy as heat and sparkling .

CAPACITORS IN SERIES :
Suppose three capacitors C1 , C2 and C3 are connected in series .
On flowing same charge Q , suppose V1 , V2 and V3 are the
potential differences across them . Total potential difference
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V=Q + Q + Q
C1 C2 C3
V=Q 1 + 1 + 1 ……..(1)
C1 C2 C3

If C is the equivalent capacity of series combination then

C=Q
V
V=Q ………(2)
C
Comparing eq (1) and eq (2)
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
C C1 C2 C3
If we have only two capacitor
C = C1 C2
C1 + C2
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CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL :
Suppose three capacitors C1 , C2 and C3 are connected in parallel .
On applying same potential difference V , suppose Q1 , Q2 and
Q3 are charges on them. Total charge
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Q = C1 V + C2 V + C3 V
Q = ( C1 + C2 + C3 ) V ………(1)
If C is the equivalent capacity of parallel combination then
C=Q
V
Q=CV ………(2)
Comparing eq (1) and eq (2)
C = C1 + C 2 + C3

NON POLAR AND POLAR DIELECTRIC :

In molecules of non polar dielectrics the centre of positive charge coincide with the centre of negative charge . Hence each
molecule has zero dipole moment and it does not behave like electric dipole .
Ex. H2 , N2 , O2 etc.
In molecules of polar dielectrics the centre of positive charge do not coincide with the centre of negative charge . Hence each
molecule has some permanent electric dipole moment and it behaves like a tiny electric dipole .
Ex. Na Cl , H Cl , H2 O ( H+ OH- )

DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION : E0
When a non polar dielectric is held in an external electric field , the centre of
positive charge in each molecule is pulled towards negative end and centre of + -+ -+ -
negative charge is pulled towards positive end of external electric field . Hence
molecule get distorted and each molecule become a tiny electric dipole with + -+ -+ -
a dipole moment parallel to applied electric field . Ep
The extent of polarization of dielectric is called electric polarization p which is + -+ -+ -
measured by total dipole moment density of material . It's S.I. unit is C/m2
If E0 is the external electric field applied and E is the effective or reduced value of
electric field due to dielectric polarization then dielectric constant of material
K = E0
E

ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY :
The electric polarization is directly proportional to to the effective electric field .
p E
p=χЄE
Here χ is called electric susceptibility of dielectric , it describes the electrical behaviour of a dielectric . It has different value for
different dielectrics . For vacuum χ = 0
Effective electric field inside a dielectric
E = E0 - p = E0 - χ Є E = E0 - χ E
Є Є
E0 = E + χ E = E ( 1 + χ )
E0 = 1 + χ
E
K=1+χ ( ˙.˙ E0 = K )
E
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH :
The maximum electric field that a dielectric material can withstand without breaking down it's insulation is called dielectric
strength . For reasons of safety the maximum electric field actually applied should only 10 % of the dielectric strength of material .

CAPACITY OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB : E0

The capacity of a parallel plate air capacitor
C0 = Є0 A ………(1) + - t + -
d
When a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K and thickness t ˂ d is introduced + - + -
between the plates the molecules of slab get polarized . If E0 is the external electric Ep
field applied then effective electric field in the dielectric slab + - + -
E = E0
K d
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Total potential difference between the plates of capacitor
V = E0 ( d - t ) + E t ( ˙.˙ E = - dV/dr )

V = E0 ( d - t ) + E0 t = E0 ( d - t + t )
K K
Put E0 = σ = q
Є0 Є0 A V=q(d-t+t)
Є0 A K

Now capacity C = q = q Є0 A
V q(d-t+t)
K
C = Є0 A
[(d-t)+t ]
K
C = Є0 A ………..(2)
[d-t(1-1)]
K
As K > 1 therefore comparing eq (1) and eq(2)
C > C0
Hence capacity of a parallel plate capacitor increases due to dielectric slab .
Case (1) If dielectric slab covers the total space between the plates of capacitor ; t=d
C = K Є0 A
d
Case (2) If the slab is of conducting ; K = ꝏ
C = Є0 A
(d-t)
In this case also C > C0

ACTION OF SHARP POINTS :

When particles of air are coming in contact with pointed ends , they get similarly charged and repelled back . Hence a charged
wind is set up which takes away charge from pointed ends . This phenomenon is called action of sharp points or corona
discharge .

VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR :

A Van de graaff generator is used for building up high potential difference of the order of a few million volts .

Principle : This generator is based upon ,

(1) The action of sharp points or corona discharge .
(2) The property, charge given to a hollow conductor is transferred to outer surface and is distributed uniformly over it .

Working : The spray comb B1 is given a positive potential w.r.t. earth by H.T. battery . Due to discharging action of sharp points , a
positively charged electric wind is set up , which sprays positive charge on the belt . As the belt moves and reaches the comb B2 , a
negative charge is induced on the sharp ends of collecting comb B2 and an equal positive charge is
induced on the farther end of B2 . This positive charge shifts immediately to the outer
surface of S . Due to discharging action of sharp points of B2 , a negatively charged electric
wind is set up . This neutralises the positive charge of the belt . The uncharged belt returns
down , collects the positive charge from B1 , which in turn is collected by B2 . This is
repeated , thus the positive charge on S goes on accumulating .
Now the capacity of spherical shell
C = 4πЄ0 R
Here R is the radius of shell .
As V = Q ; V=1 Q
C 4πЄ0 R
Hence V increases with increase in Q .
If q is the charge on the ion to be accelerated then energy acquired by the ion
W=qV
W=1 Qq
4πЄ0 R