LECTURE NOTES

ON

CONTROL SYSTEMS

II B. Tech II Semester (IARE-R18)

2020 – 2021

Prepared by:
Ms. L Babitha, Assistant Professor

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL E NGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
DUNDIGAL, HYDERABAD - 500 043
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module I:
Students will be able to:
Knowledge Level
CO No Course Outcomes (Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 1 Compare open and closed loop control systems with their merits and Remember
demerits to know the accuracy of the system.
CO 2 Illustrate the basic concepts of Control Systems for modeling and develop Understand
the mathematical form of complex physical systems.
CO 3 Relate the different physical and mechanical systems into equivalent Understand
electrical models using force-voltage and force-current analogy.

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module I:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
PO 3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module I:

Course Program Outcomes

Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO 1 √

CO 2 √ √

CO 3 √ √ √
 MODULE I
INTRODUCTION AND MODELING OF
PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
 1.1 Basic elements of control system
In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the development and
advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure shows the basic components of a control
system. Disregard the complexity of the system; it consists of an input (objective), the control system and
its output (result). Practically our day-to-day activities are affected by some type of control systems.
There are two main branches of control systems:
1) Open-loop systems and
2) Closed-loop systems.

Basic Components of Control System

1.2 Open-loop systems:

The open-loop system is also called the non-feedback system. This is the simpler of the two
systems. A simple example is illustrated by the speed control of an automobile as shown in Figure 1-2. In
this open-loop system, there is no way to ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed
automatically. The actual speed might be way off the desired speed because of the wind speed and/or road
conditions, such as uphill or downhill etc.

Basic Open Loop System

Closed-loop systems:
The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. A simple closed-system is shown in
Figure 1-3. It has a mechanism to ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed automatically.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is applied
to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some duration of time.
During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on
and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the
traffic lights control system operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time control
systems based on the type of the signal used.

 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in discrete
time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems based on the
number of inputs and outputs present.
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output. Whereas,
MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more than one input and more
than one output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the feedback
signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by considering the output of the
overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a
controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, the output of
the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence, the closed loop control
systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the
input is an example of a closed loop control system.

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the following
table.
If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part of the system
input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role in order to improve the performance of
the control systems. In this chapter, let us discuss the types of feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of Feedback

There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback

 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback

The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s)R(s) and feedback output. The following figure shows
the block diagram of positive feedback control system

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being, consider the transfer
function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,
  T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.A

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s)R(s) and system output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system
is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value
of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH' value is
negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain of the
system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the variation in open
loop gain (G) is defined as
So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal of (1+GH). So,
Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative
because the gain of feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of the system
gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the
values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control system
will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and without
feedback due to noise signal alone.

1.3 Mechanical Translational systems

The model of mechanical translational systems can obtain by using three basic elements mass,
spring and dashpot. When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is

opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system. The force acting on a
mechanical body is governed by Newton’s second law of motion. For translational systems it states that the
sum of forces acting on a body is zero.
Force balance equations of idealized elements:
Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and elasticity. Let a force
be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is proportional to acceleration of a body.

Let f = applied force

fm =opposing force due to mass
2 2
Here fm α M d x / dt
2 2
By Newton’s second law, f = f m= M d x / dt

Consider an ideal frictional element dash-pot shown in fig. which has negligible mass and
elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The dashpot will be offer an opposing force which is
proportional to velocity of the body.
Let f = applied force
f b = opposing force due to
friction Here, f b α B dx / dt
By Newton’s second law, f = fb = M d x / dt
Consider an ideal elastic element spring is shown in fig. This has negligible mass and friction.

Let f = applied force

f k = opposing force due to elasticity

Here, f k α x
By Newton‗s second law, f = f k = x

Mechanical Rotational Systems:

The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three elements, moment of
inertia [J] of mass, dash pot with rotational frictional coefficient [B] and torsional spring with stiffness[k].
When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing torques due
to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torque acting on rotational mechanical
bodies is governed by Newton‗s second law of motion for rotational systems.
Torque balance equations of idealized elements
Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible friction and elasticity.
The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is proportional to the angular acceleration.

Let T = applied torque

Tj =opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the body
2 2
Here Tj= α J d θ / dt
By Newton‗s law
2 2
T= Tj = J d θ / dt

Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig. which has negligible moment of inertia and
elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it. The dash pot will offer an opposing torque is proportional to
angular velocity of the body.

Let T = applied torque

Tb =opposing torque due to friction
Here Tb = α B d / dt (θ1- θ2)
By Newton‗s law
T= Tb = B d / dt (θ1- θ2)

. Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in fig. which has negligible moment
of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The torsional spring will offer an opposing torque
which is proportional to angular displacement of the body

Let T = applied torque

Tk =opposing torque due to friction
Here Tk α K (θ1- θ2)
By Newton‗s law
T = Tk = K (θ1- θ2)

Modeling of electrical system

Electrical circuits involving resistors, capacitors and inductors are considered. The behavior of such
systems is governed by Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws
 Resistor: Consider a resistance of R Ω carrying current i Amps as shown in Fig (a), then the voltage

drop across it is v = R I
Inductor: Consider an inductor ― L H carrying current i Amps as shown in Fig (a), then the voltage
drop across it can be written as v = L di/dt

Capacitor: Consider a capacitor ‗C‗ F carrying current ‗i‗ Amps as shown in Fig (a), then the voltage
drop across it can be written as v = (1/C)∫ i dt

Steps for modeling of electrical system

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law or Kirchhoff’s current law to form the differential equations describing
electrical circuits comprising of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Form Transfer Functions from the describing differential equations. Then
simulate the model.

Example

R1 i(t) + R2 i(t) + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt = V1(t)

R2 i(t) + 1/ C ∫ i(t) dt = V2(t)
Electrical systems
RLC circuit. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system shown. We obtain the following
equation;

Resistance circuit

11
Armature-Controlled dc motors
The dc motors have separately excited fields. They are either armature-controlled with fixed field
or field-controlled with fixed armature current. For example, dc motors used in

instruments employ a fixed permanent-magnet field, and the controlled signal is applied to the
armature terminals.
Consider the armature-controlled dc motor shown in the following figure.

Ra = armature-winding resistance, ohms La =

armature-winding inductance, henrys ia =
armature-winding current, amperes
if = field current, a-pares
ea = applied armature voltage, volt eb
= back emf, volts
θ = angular displacement of the motor shaft, radians T =
torque delivered by the motor, Newton*meter
J = equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load referred to the motor shaft kg.m2
f = equivalent viscous-friction coefficient of the motor and load referred to the motor shaft.
Newton*m/rad/s
T = k1 ia ψ where ψ is the air gap flux, ψ = kf if , k1 is constant For
the constant flux

Where Kb is a back emf constant -------------- (1)

The differential equation for the armature circuit

The armature current produces the torque which is applied to the inertia and friction; hence
Assuming that all initial conditions are condition are zero/and taking the L.T. of equations (1),
(2) & (3), we obtain
Kps θ (s) = Eb (s)
2 +fs)
(Las+Ra ) Ia(s) + Eb (s) = Ea (s) (Js
θ (s) = T(s) = K Ia(s)
The T.F can be obtained is

Analogous Systems
Let us consider a mechanical (both translational and rotational) and electrical system as shown in the fig.

From the fig (a)

2 2
We get M d x / dt + D d x / dt + K x = f

From the fig (b)

2 2
We get M d θ / dt + D d θ / dt + K θ = T
From the fig (c)

2 2
We get L d q / dt + R d q / dt + (1/C) q = V(t)
Where q = ∫i dt
They are two methods to get analogous system. These are (i) force- voltage (f-v) analogy and (ii)
force-current (f-c) analogy

Force –Voltage Analogy

Force – Current Analog

Problem
1. Find the system equation for system shown in the fig. And also determine f-v and f-i
analogies
For free body diagram M1

For free body diagram M2

(2)
Force –voltage analogy

From eq (1) we get

From eq (2) we get

…..(4)

From eq (3) and (4) we can draw f-v analogy

Force–current analogy

From eq (1) we get

……..(5)
From eq (2) we get

…………(6)

From eq (5) and (6) we can draw force-current analogy

The system can be represented in two forms:
Block diagram representation

Signal flow graph

1.3 Transfer Function
A simpler system or element maybe governed by first order or second order differential equation.
When several elements are connected in sequence, say ―n‖ elements, each one with first order, the total
order of the system will be nth order
In general, a collection of components or system shall be represented by nth order differential
equation.

In control systems, transfer function characterizes the input output relationship of components or
systems that can be described by Liner Time Invariant Differential Equation

In the earlier period, the input output relationship of a device was represented graphically.

In a system having two or more components in sequence, it is very difficult to find graphical relation
between the input of the first element and the output of the last element. This problem is solved by
transfer function.

Definition of Transfer Function:

Transfer function of a LTIV system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace Transform of the output variable
to the Laplace Transform of the input variable assuming all the initial condition as zero. Properties of
Transfer Function:
The transfer function of a system is the mathematical model expressing the differential
equation that relates the output to input of the system.
The transfer function is the property of a system independent of magnitude and the nature of the
input.
 The transfer function includes the transfer functions of the individual elements. But at the same
time, it does not provide any information regarding physical structure of the system.
The transfer functions of many physically different systems shall be identical.
If the transfer function of the system is known, the output response can be studied for various
types of inputs to understand the nature of the system.
If the transfer function is unknown, it may be found out experimentally by applying known
inputs to the device and studying the output of the system.

How you can obtain the transfer function (T. F.):

Write the differential equation of the system.
Take the L. T. of the differential equation, assuming all initial condition to be zero. Take
the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio is the T. F.

Mathematical Model of control systems

A control system is a collection of physical object connected together to serve an objective. The mathematical
model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equation.

1.4 Synchros
A commonly used error detector of mechanical positions of rotating shafts in AC
control systems is the Synchro.
It consists of two electro mechanical devices.
Synchro transmitter

Synchro receiver or control transformer.

The principle of operation of these two devices is sarne but they differ slightly in their construction.
The construction of a Synchro transmitter is similar to a phase alternator. The
stator consists of a balanced three phase winding and is star connected.
The rotor is of dumbbell type construction and is wound with a coil to produce a
magnetic field.

When a no voltage is applied to the winding of the rotor, a magnetic field is produced.

The coils in the stator link with this sinusoidal distributed magnetic flux and voltages are
induced in the three coils due to transformer action.
Than the three voltages are in time phase with each other and the rotor voltage.
The magnitudes of the voltages are proportional to the cosine of the angle between the rotor
position and the respective coil axis.
The position of the rotor and the coils are shown in Fig.

When x is of the magnetic field coincides with the axis of coil S2 and maximum voltage is
induced in it as seen.
For this position of the rotor, the voltage c, is zero, this position of the rotor is known as the
'Electrical Zero' of die transmitter and is taken as reference for specifying the rotor position.
In summary, it can be seen that the input to the transmitter is the angular position of the rotor and
the set of three single phase voltages is the output.
The magnitudes of these voltages depend on the angular position of the rotor as given
 Now consider these three voltages to he applied to the stator of a similar device called control
transformer or synchro receiver.

The construction of a control transformer is similar to that of the transmitter except that the rotor
is made cylindrical in shape whereas the rotor of transmitter is dumbbell in shape.
Since the rotor is cylindrical, the air gap is uniform and the reluctance of the magnetic path is
constant.
This makes the output impedance of rotor to be a constant.

Usually the rotor winding of control transformer is connected teas amplifier which
requires signal with constant impedance for better performance.
A synchro transmitter is usually required to supply several control transformers and hence the
stator winding of control transformer is wound with higher impedance per phase.
Since the some currents flow through the stators of the synchro transmitter and receiver, the same
pattern of flux distribution will be produced in the air gap of the control transformer.
The control transformer flux axis is in the same position as that of the synchro transmitter.
Thus the voltage induced in the rotor coil of control transformer is proportional to the cosine of
the angle between the two rotors.

1.5 AC Servo Motors

An AC servo motor is essentially a two phase induction motor with modified

constructional features to suit servo applications.
The schematic of a two phase or servo motor is shown

o
It has two windings displaced by 90 on the stator One winding, called as reference

winding, is supplied with a constant sinusoidal voltage.

The second winding, called control winding, is supplied with a variable control voltage
which is displaced by -- 90 out of phase from the reference voltage.
The major differences between the normal induction motor and an AC servo motor are
The rotor winding of an ac servo motor has high resistance (R) compared to its inductive reactance (X) so
 that its X / R ratio is very low.
For a normal induction motor, X / R ratio is high so that the maximum torque is obtained in
normal operating region which is around 5% of slip.
The torque speed characteristics of a normal induction motor and an ac servo motor are shown in
fig

The Torque speed characteristic of a normal induction motor is highly nonlinear and
has a positive slope for some portion of the curve.
This is not desirable for control applications. as the positive slope makes the systems unstable.
The torque speed characteristic of an ac servo motor is fairly linear and has negative slope
throughout.
The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type for an ac servo motor. The
diameter is small compared to the length of the rotor which reduces inertia of the moving
parts.
Thus it has good accelerating characteristic and good dynamic response.

The supplies to the two windings of ac servo motor are not balanced as in the case of a
normal induction motor.
The control voltage varies both in magnitude and phase with respect to the constant
reference vulture applied to the reference winding.
The direction of rotation of the motor depends on the phase (± 90°) of the control voltage with
respect to the reference voltage.
 The torque varies approximately linearly with respect to speed and also controls voltage. The
torque speed characteristics can be linearised at the operating point and the transfer function of
the motor can be obtained.

DC Servo Motor
A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. It is usually a DC motor of low power
rating.
 DC servo motors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and therefore they have a faster
dynamic response.
DC motors are constructed using rare earth permanent magnets which have high residual flux
density and high coercively.
As no field winding is used, the field copper losses am zero and hence, the overall
efficiency of the motor is high.

The speed torque characteristic of this motor is flat over a wide range, as the armature reaction is
negligible.
Moreover speed in directly proportional to the armature voltage for a given torque. Armature of a
DC servo motor is specially designed to have low inertia.
In some application DC servo motors are used with magnetic flux produced by field windings.
The speed of PMDC motors can be controlled by applying variable armature voltage. These are
called armature voltage controlled DC servo motors.
Wound field DC motors can be controlled by either controlling the armature voltage or
controlling rho field current. Let us now consider modelling of these two types or DC servo
motors.
(a) Armature controlled DC servo motor
The physical model of an armature controlled DC servo motor is given in

The armature winding has a resistance R a and inductance La.

The field is produced either by a permanent magnet or the field winding is separately excited and
supplied with constant voltage so that the field current If is a constant.
When the armature is supplied with a DC voltage of e a volts, the armature rotates and produces a
back e.m.f eb.
The armature current ia depends on the difference of eb and en. The armature has a permanent of
inertia J, frictional coefficient B0
The angular displacement of the motor is 8.

The torque produced by the motor is given by

Where K T is the motor torque constant.

The back emf is proportional to the speed of the motor and hence

The differential equation representing the electrical system is given by

 Taking Laplace transform of equation from above equation

The mathematical model of the mechanical system is given by

Taking Laplace transform

Solving for
(s),we get

The block diagram representation of the armature controlled DC servo motor is developed in
Steps

Combining these blocks we have

Usually the inductance of the armature winding is small and hence neglected

Where
Field Controlled Dc Servo Motor
The field servo motor

The electrical circuit is modeled as

Motor gain constant

Motor time constant

Field time constant

Where

The block diagram is as shown as

 MODULE – II
BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION AND TIME
RESPONSE ANALYSIS
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module II:
Students will be able to:
Knowledge Level
CO No Course Outcomes (Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
CO 4 Apply block diagram reduction technique and Mason’s gain formula to Apply
represent system’s transfer function.
CO 5 Make use of different standard test input signals for the performance Apply
analysis of second order systems and steady state errors
CO 6 Interpret the feedback characteristics of linear control systems for Overall Understand
gain, Sensitivity, Stability and Noise.

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module II:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module II:

Course Program Outcomes (POs)

Outcomes(COs
) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO 4 √ √

CO 5 √ √

CO 6 √ √
Block diagram
A pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of
signals.
Basic elements of a block diagram
Blocks
Transfer functions of elements inside the blocks
Summing points
Take off points Arrow
Block diagram
A control system may consist of a number of components. A block diagram of a system is a pictorial
representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
The elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.

Block
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The
functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to the
block that produces the output.

Summing point
Although blocks are used to identify many types of mathematical operations, operations of
addition and subtraction are represented by a circle, called a summing point. As shown in Figure a
summing point may have one or several inputs. Each input has its own appropriate plus or minus sign.
A summing point has only one output and is equal to the algebraic sum of the inputs.

A takeoff point is used to allow a signal to be used by more than one block or summing point.
The transfer function is given inside the block
• The input in this case is E(s)
• The output in this case is C(s)
C(s) = G(s) E(s)
Functional block – each element of the practical system represented by block with its T.F.
Branches – lines showing the connection between the blocks
Arrow – associated with each branch to indicate the direction of flow of signal
Closed loop system
Summing point – comparing the different signals
Take off point – point from which signal is taken for feed back
Advantages of Block Diagram Representation
Very simple to construct block diagram for a complicated system Function
of individual element can be visualized
Individual & Overall performance can be studied Over all
transfer function can be calculated easily.
Disadvantages of Block Diagram Representation
 No information about the physical construction
 Source of energy is not shown
Simple or Canonical form of closed loop system

R(s) – Laplace of reference input r(t) C(s)

– Laplace of controlled output c(t) E(s) –
Laplace of error signal e(t)
B(s) – Laplace of feed back signal b(t)
G(s) – Forward path transfer function H(s)
– Feed back path transfer function

Block diagram reduction technique

Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by control engineers to
describe all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition and
interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used, together with transfer functions, to represent the cause-
and-effect relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined as the relationship between
an input signal and an output signal to a device.
Block diagram rules
Cascaded blocks

Moving a summer beyond the block

Moving a summer ahead of block

Moving a pick-off ahead of block

Moving a pick-off behind a block

Eliminating a feedback loop

Cascaded Subsystems

Parallel Subsystems

Feedback Control System

Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reduction problems

Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series Step 2: Reduce the blocks
connected in parallel
Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops
Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards left Step 5:
Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained
Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System
Problem 1

Obtain the Transfer function of the given block diagram

Combine G1, G2 which are in series

Combine G3, G4 which are in Parallel

Reduce minor feedback loop of G1, G2 and H1

Transfer function
2. Obtain the transfer function for the system shown in the fig

Solution

3. Obtain the transfer function C/R for the block diagram shown in the fig

Solution
The take-off point is shifted after the block G2
Reducing the cascade block and parallel block

Replacing the internal feedback loop

Equivalent block diagram

Transfer function
Signal Flow Graph Representation
Signal Flow Graph Representation of a system obtained from the equations, which shows the
flow of the signal

Signal flow graph

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations.
By taking Laplace transfer, the time domain differential equations governing a control system can be
transferred to a set of algebraic equation in s-domain. A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which
nodes are connected by directed branches. It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to
another and gives the relationships among the signals.

Basic Elements of a Signal flow graph

Node - a point representing a signal or variable.
Branch – unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.
Path – a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one node to another
node.
Loop – a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node and along the path no node is met
twice.
Non touching loops – two loops are said to be non touching if they do not have a common node.
Mason’s gain formula
The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of signal flow graph is given by
the net gain between the input and the output nodes is known as overall gain of the system. Mason’s gain

rule for the determination of the overall system gain is given below.
Where M= gain between Xin and Xout
Xout =output node variable
Xin= input node variable
N = total number of forward paths Pk=
path gain of the kth forward path
∆=1-(sum of loop gains of all individual loop) + (sum of gain product of all possible combinations of two
non touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible combination of three non touching loops)
Problem
 TIME RESPONSE

Introduction
After deriving a mathematical model of a system, the system performance analysis can be done in
various methods.
In analyzing and designing control systems, a basis of comparison of performance of various control
systems should be made. This basis may be set up by specifying particular test input signals and by
comparing the responses of various systems to these signals.
The system stability, system accuracy and complete evaluation are always based on the time response
analysis and the corresponding results.
Next important step after a mathematical model of a system is obtained. To
analyze the system‗s performance.
Normally use the standard input signals to identify the characteristics of system‗s
response Step function
Ramp function
Impulse function
Parabolic function
Sinusoidal function
2.10 Time response analysis
It is an equation or a plot that describes the behavior of a system and contains much information
about it with respect to time response specification as overshooting, settling time, peak time, rise time and
steady state error. Time response is formed by the transient response and the steady state response.
Time response = Transient response + Steady state response
Transient time response (Natural response) describes the behavior of the system in its first short time
until arrives the steady state value and this response will be our study focus. If the input is step function
then the output or the response is called step time response and if the input is ramp, the response is called
ramp time response ... etc.
Classification of Time Response
Transient response

Steady state response

y(t) = yt(t) + yss(t)

Transient Response
The transient response is defined as the part of the time response that goes to zero as time
becomes very large. Thus yt(t) has the property
Lim yt(t) = 0 t
 -->∞
The time required to achieve the final value is called transient period. The transient response may
be exponential or oscillatory in nature. Output response consists of the sum of forced response (form the
input) and natural response (from the nature of the system).The transient response is the change in output
response from the beginning of the response to the

final state of the response and the steady state response is the output response as time is approaching
infinity (or no more changes at the output).

Steady State Response

The steady state response is the part of the total response that remains after the transient has died
out. For a position control system, the steady state response when compared to with the desired reference
position gives an indication of the final accuracy of the system. If the steady state response of the output
does not agree with the desired reference exactly, the system is said to have steady state error.
2.3 Typical Input Signals
Impulse Signal Step
Signal
Ramp Signal
Parabolic Signal
Time Response Analysis & Design
Two types of inputs can be applied to a control system.
Command Input or Reference Input yr(t).
Disturbance Input w(t) (External disturbances w(t) are typically uncontrolled variations in the load on a
control system).
In systems controlling mechanical motions, load disturbances may represent forces.
In voltage regulating systems, variations in electrical load area major source of disturbances.
Test Signals

Input r(t) R(s)

Step Input A A/s2
Ramp Input At A/
s
2 3
Parabolic Input At / 2 A/s
Impulse Input δ(t) 1
Transfer Function
One of the types of Modeling a system
Using first principle, differential equation is obtained
Laplace Transform is applied to the equation assuming zero initial conditions
Ratio of LT (output) to LT (input) is expressed as a ratio of polynomial in s in the transfer
function.
Order of a system
The Order of a system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the system
Alternatively, order can be obtained from the transfer function

In the transfer function, the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial gives
the order of the system.
Dynamic Order of Systems
Order of the system is the order of the differential equation that governs the dynamic behavior
Working interpretation: Number of the dynamic elements / capacitances or holdup
elements between a manipulated variable and a controlled variable
Higher order system responses are usually very difficult to resolve from one another The
response generally becomes sluggish as the order increases.
System Response
First-order system time response
First Order System
Y s / R(s) = K / (1+ K+sT) = K / (1+sT)

Step Response of First Order System

Evolution of the transient response is determined by the pole of the transfer function at s=-1/t
where t is the time constant
Also, the step response can be found:

Impulse response K / (1+sT) Exponential

Step response (K/S) – (K / (S+(1/T))) Step, exponential
2
Ramp response (K/S )-(KT / S)- (KT / (S+1/T)) Ramp, step, exponential
Second-order systems
LTI second-order system

Second-Order Systems
Second order system responses
Over damped response:
Poles: Two real at
-ζ1 - -ζ2
Natural response: Two exponentials with time constants equal to the reciprocal of the pole
location
- -ζ2
C( t)= k1 e + k2 e
ζ1
Poles: Two complex at

Underdamped response:
-ζ1±jWd

Natural response: Damped sinusoid with an exponential envelope whose time constant is equal to the
reciprocal of the pole‗s radian frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of oscillation, is equal to
the imaginary part of the poles

Un damped Response:
Poles: Two imaginary at
±jW1

Natural response: Undamped sinusoid with radian frequency equal to the imaginary part of the
poles
C(t) = Acos(w1t-φ)

Critically damped responses:

Poles: Two real at
Natural response: One term is an exponential whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole
location. Another term product of time and an exponential with time constant equal to the reciprocal of
the pole location.
Second- order step response
Complex poles

Steady State Error

Consider a unity feedback system Transfer
function between e(t) and r(t)

Output Feedback Control Systems

Feedback only the output signal

– Easy access
– Obtainable in practice

PID Controllers

Proportional controllers
– pure gain or attenuation
Integral controllers
– integrate error

Derivative controllers
– differentiate error
Proportional Controller
U = Kp e

Controller input is error (reference output)

Controller output is control signal
P controller involves only a proportional gain (or attenuation)

Integral Controller
Integral of error with a constant gain
Increase system type by 1
Infinity steady-state gain
Eliminate steady-state error for a unit step input

Integral Controller

Derivative Control

Differentiation of error with a constant gain

Reduce overshoot and oscillation
Do not affect steady-state response
Sensitive to noise
Controller Structure
Single controller
P controller, I controller, D controller
 Combination of controllers
PI controller, PD controller
PID controller

Controller Performance
P controller PI
controller PD
Controller PID
Controller

Design of PID Controllers

Based on the knowledge of P, I and D
– trial and error
– manual tuning
– simulation

Design of PID Controllers

 Time response measurements are particularly simple.
 A step input to a system is simply a suddenly applied input - often just a constant voltage
applied through a switch.
The system output is usually a voltage, or a voltage output from a transducer measuring the output.
A voltage output can usually be captured in a file using a C program or a Visual Basic program.
You can use responses in the time domain to help you determine the transfer function of a system.
First we will examine a simple situation. Here is the step response of a system. This is an example
of really "clean" data, better than you might have from measurements. The input to the system is a
step of height 0.4. The goal is to determine the transfer function of the system.

Impulse Response of A First Order System

The impulse response of a system is an important response. The impulse response is the response to
a unit impulse.
The unit impulse has a Laplace transform of unity (1).That gives the unit impulse a unique stature.
If a system has a unit impulse input, the output transform is G(s), where G(s) is the transfer
function of the system. The unit impulse response is therefore the inverse transform of G(s), i.e.
g(t), the time function you get by inverse transforming G(s). If you haven't begun to study Laplace
transforms yet, you can just file these last statements away until you begin to learn about Laplace
transforms. Still there is an important fact buried in all of this.
 Knowing that the impulse response is the inverse transform of the transfer function of a system can
be useful in identifying systems (getting system parameters from measured responses).
In this section we will examine the shapes/forms of several impulse responses. We will start with
simple first order systems, and give you links to modules that discuss other, higher order responses.
A general first order system satisfies a differential equation with this general form

If the input, u(t), is a unit impulse, then for a short instant around t = 0 the input is infinite. Let us
assume that the state, x(t), is initially zero, i.e. x(0) = 0. We will integrate both sides of the differential
equation from a small time, , before t = 0, to a small time, after t = 0. We are just taking advantage of
one of the properties of the unit impulse.

The right hand side of the equation is just Gdc since the impulse is assumed to be a unit impulse -
one with unit area. Thus, we have:

We can also note that x(0) = 0, so the second integral on the right hand side is zero. In other words,
what the impulse does is it produces a calculable change in the state, x(t), and this change occurs in a
negligibly short time (the duration of the impulse) after t = 0 That leads us to a simple strategy for getting
the impulse response. Calculate the new initial condition after the impulse passes. Solve the differential
equation - with zero input - starting from the newly calculated initial condition.

Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

The performance of a system is usually evaluated in terms of the following qualities. .
How fast it is able to respond to the input. How
fast it is reaching the desired output
What is the error between the desired output and the actual output, once the transients die down and
steady slate is achieved.
Does it oscillate around the desired value, and
Is the output continuously increasing with time or is it bounded.
The last aspect is concerned with the stability of the system and we would require the system to be
stable. This aspect will be considered later. The first four questions will be answered in terms of
time domain specifications of the system based on its response to a unit step input.
These are the specifications to be given for the design of a controller for a given system.

We have obtained the response of a type 1 second order system to a unit step input. The
step
Response of a typical under damped second order system is plotted in Fig.
It is observed that, for an under damped system, there are two complex conjugate poles.
Usually, even if a system is of higher order, the two complex conjugate poles nearest to the
j - axis (called dominant poles) are considered and the system is approximated by a second order
system. Thus, in designing any system, certain design specifications are given based on the typical
under damped step response shown as Fig.
The design specifications are
Delay time Td: It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the steady state value for the
first time.
Rise time Tr : It is the time required for the response to mach 100% of the steady state value for
under damped systems. However, for over damped systems, it is taken as the time required for the response
to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady state value.
Peak time Tp : It is the time required for the response to reach the maximum or Peak value of
the response.
Peak overshoot Mp : It is defined as the difference between the peak value of the response and
the steady state value. Iris usually expressed in percent of the steady state value. If the time for the peak is p
t , percent peak overshoot is given by,
 MODULE-III
Concept of Stability and Root Locus Technique
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module III:
Students will be able to:
CO Course Outcomes Blooms
taxonomy
CO 7 Illustrate the time domain analysis to predict transient response Understand
specifications of the system for system stability
CO 8 Make use of the closed loop performance and stability using root locus Apply
technique.

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module III:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences
PO 3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module III:

Course Program Outcomes (POs)

Outcomes(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO 7 √ √ √

CO 8 √ √ √
EC- 6405
Stability
A system is stable if any bounded input produces a bounded output for all bounded initial conditions.

Basic concept of stability

Stability of the system and roots of characteristic equations

Characteristic Equation
Consider an nth-order system whose the characteristic equation (which is also the denominator of the
transfer function) is
a(S) = Sn+a1 Sn-1+ a2 Sn-2+……+ an-1 S1+ a0 S0

Routh Hurwitz Criterion

Goal: Determining whether the system is stable or unstable from a characteristic equation in
polynomial form without actually solving for the roots Routh’s stability criterion is useful for determining
the ranges of coefficients of polynomials for stability, especially when the coefficients are in symbolic
(non numerical) form.
To find K mar & ω

A necessary condition for Routh’s Stability

Page 56 of 116
A necessary condition for stability of the system is that all of the roots of its characteristic
equation have negative real parts, which in turn requires that all the coefficients be positive.
A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the polynomial
characteristic equation are positive & none of the co-efficient vanishes.
Routh’s formulation requires the computation
Page 57 of 116of a triangular array that is a function of the
SCE
 coefficients of the polynomial characteristic equation.
A system is stable if and only if all the elements ofthe first column of the Routh array are positive
Method for determining the Routh array
Consider the characteristic equation
a(S) =1X Sn+a1 Sn-1+ a2 Sn-2+……+ an-1 S1+ a0 S0

Routh array method

Then add subsequent rows to complete the Routh array
Compute elements for the 3rd row:

Given the characteristic equation,

Is the system described by this characteristic equation stable?

Answer:
All the coefficients are positive and nonzero
Therefore, the system satisfies the necessary condition for stability
We should determine whether any of the coefficients of the first column of the Routh array are
Negative

The elements of the 1st column are not all positive. Then the system is unstable

Special cases of Routh’s criteria:

Case 1: All the elements of a row in a RA are zero

Form Auxiliary equation by using the co-efficient of the row which is just above the row of
zeros.
Find derivative of the A.E.
Replace the row of zeros by the co-efficient of dA(s)/ds
 Complete the array in terms of these coefficients. analyze
for any sign change, if so, unstable
no sign change, find the nature of roots of AE non-
repeated imaginary roots - marginally stable
repeated imaginary roots – unstable

Case 2:
First element of any of the rows of RA is
Zero and the same remaining row contains atleast one non-zero element Substitute a
small positive no. ‗ε‘ in place of zero and complete the array. Examine the sign change
by taking Lt ε = 0

Root Locus Technique

Introduced by W. R. Evans in 1948
Graphical method, in which movement of poles in the s-plane is sketched when some parameter
is varied The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when open loop gain K is
varied from 0 to ∞ are called root loci
Direct Root Locus = 0 < k < ∞ Inverse
Root Locus = - ∞ < k < 0

Root Locus Technique

Introduced by W. R. Evans in 1948

Graphical method, in which movement of poles in the s-plane is sketched when some
parameter is varied The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when open loop gain
K is varied from 0 to ∞ are called root loci
Direct Root Locus = 0 < k < ∞

Inverse Root Locus = - ∞ < k < 0

Root Locus Analysis:
The roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation define the system characteristic responses
Their location in the complex s-plane lead to prediction of the characteristics of the time domain
responses in terms of:
damping ratio ζ,

natural frequency, wn- damping constant ζ, first-order modes

Consider how these roots change as the loop gain is varied from 0 to∞

Basics of Root Locus:

 Symmetrical about real axis
 RL branch starts from OL poles and terminates at
OL zeroes No. of RL branches = No. of poles of

SCE
 OLTF
 Centroid is common intersection point of all the asymptotes on the real axis Asymptotes
are straight lines which are parallel to RL going to ∞ and meet the RL at ∞ No. of
asymptotes = No. of branches going to ∞
 At Break Away point , the RL breaks from real axis to enter into the complex plane
At BI point, the RL enters the real axis from the complex plane

Constructing Root Locus:

Locate the OL poles & zeros in the plot Find
the branches on the real axis
Find angle of asymptotes & centroid Φa=
±180º(2q+1) / (n-m)
ζa = (Σpoles - Σzeroes) / (n-m)
Find BA and BI points
Find Angle Of departure (AOD) and Angle Of Arrival (AOA)
AOD = 180º- (sum of angles of vectors to the complex pole from all other poles) + (Sum of angles
of vectors to the complex pole from all zero)
AOA = 180º- (sum of angles of vectors to the complex zero from all other zeros) + (sum of angles
of vectors to the complex zero from poles)
Find the point of intersection of RL with the imaginary axis.
Application of the Root Locus Procedure
Step 1: Write the characteristic equation as
1+ F(s)= 0
Step 2: Rewrite preceding equation into the form of poles and zeros as follows

Step 3: Step 7:

Step 4:

Step 5:

Step 6:
 EC- 6405

If open-loop system has n-m zeros at infinity, there will be n-m branches of the root locus
Loca approaching the n-m zeros at infinity
te the
poles The root locus on the real axis lies in a section of the real axis to the left of an odd number of real
and poles and zeros
zeros
with The number of separate loci is equal to the number of open-loop poles
speci
fic The root loci must be continuous and symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real axis
symb
ols, The loci proceed to zeros at infinity along asymptotes centered at centroid and with angles
the
root
locus
begi
ns at
the Step 8: The actual point at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is readily evaluated by
open using Routh‘s criterion
-loop Step 9: Determine the breakaway point d (usually on the real axis)
poles
and
ends Step 10: Plot the root locus that satisfy the phase criterion
at the
open
loop Step 11:
zeros Determine the parameter value K1 at a specific root using the magnitude criterion
as K
incre
ases
from
0 to
infini
ty

Page 60 of 116
SCE
 MODULE IV
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module IV:
Students will be able to:
CO Course Outcomes Blooms
taxonomy
CO 9 Estimate the stability of a first and second order systems using frequency Understand
domain concept

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module IV:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences
PO 3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module IV:

Course Program Outcomes (POs)

Outcomes(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO 9 √ √ √
Frequency Response

The frequency response of a system is a frequency dependent function which expresses how a
sinusoidal signal of a given frequency on the system input is transferred through the system. Time-
varying signals at least periodical signals —which excite systems, as the reference (set point) signal or a
disturbance in a control system or measurement signals which are inputs signals to signal filters, can be
regarded as consisting of a sum of frequency components. Each frequency component is a sinusoidal
signal having certain amplitude and a certain frequency. (The Fourier series expansion or the Fourier
transform can be used to express these frequency components quantitatively.) The frequency response
expresses how each of these frequency components is transferred through the system. Some components
may be amplified, others may be attenuated, and there will be some phase lag through the system.
The frequency response is an important tool for analysis and design of signal filters (as low pass
filters and high pass filters), and for analysis, and to some extent, design, of control systems. Both signal
filtering and control systems applications are described (briefly) later in this UNIT. The definition of the
frequency response — which will be given in the next section — applies only to linear models, but this
linear model may very well be the local linear model about some operating point of a non-linear model.
The frequency response can found experimentally or from a transfer function model. It can be presented
graphically or as a mathematical function.
Bode plot
• Plots of the magnitude and phase characteristics are used to fully describe the frequency
response
• A Bode plot is a (semilog) plot of the transfer function magnitude and phase angle as a
function of frequency.
The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB)
db = 20 log 10 A

BODE PLOT PROCEDURE:

There are 4 basic forms in an open-loop transfer function G(jω)H(jω)
Gain Factor K
(jω)±p factor: pole and zero at origin
(1+jωT)±q factor
Quadratic factor
2 2
1+j2ζ(W / Wn)-(W / Wn )

Gain margin and Phase margin

Gain margin:
The gain margin is the number of dB that is below 0 dB at the phase crossover frequency (ø=-
180º). It can also be increased before the closed loop system becomes unstable
Term Corner Frequency Slope db /dec Change in slope
20/jW ----- -20
1/ (1+4jW) WC1=1/4 = 0.25 -20 -20-20=-40
1/(1+j3w) wc2=1/3=0.33 -20 -40-20=-60

Phase margin:
The phase margin is the number of degrees the phase of that is above -180º at the gain
crossover frequency

Gain margin and Phase margin

Bode Plot – Example
For the following T.F draw the Bode plot and obtain Gain cross over frequency (wgc) , Phase cross
over frequency , Gain Margin and Phase Margin. G(s) = 20 / [s (1+3s) (1+4s)]

Solution:
The sinusoidal T.F of G(s) is obtained by replacing s by jw in the given T.F G(jw)
= 20 / [jw (1+j3w) (1+j4w)]
Corner frequencies:
wc1= 1/4 = 0.25 rad /sec ;
wc2 = 1/3 = 0.33 rad /sec
Choose a lower corner frequency and a higher Corner frequency wl=
0.025 rad/sec ;
wh = 3.3 rad / sec
Calculation of Gain (A) (MAGNITUDE PLOT) A
@ wl ; A= 20 log [ 20 / 0.025 ] = 58 .06 dB
A @ wc1 ; A = [Slope from wl to wc1 x log (wc1 / wl ] + Gain (A)@wl
= - 20 log [ 0.25 / 0.025 ] + 58.06
= 38.06 dB
A @ wc2 ; A = [Slope from wc1 to wc2 x log (wc2 / wc1 ] + Gain (A)@ wc1
= - 40 log [ 0.33 / 0.25 ] + 38
= 33 dB
A @ wh ; A = [Slope from wc2 to wh x log (wh / wc2 ] + Gain (A) @ wc2
= - 60 log [ 3.3 / 0.33 ] +
33 =-27 dB
Calculation of Phase angle for different values of frequencies [PHASE PLOT]
O -1 -1
Ø = -90 - tan 3w – tan
4w When
Frequency in rad / sec Phase angles in Degree
0
w=0 Ø= -90
0
w = 0.025 Ø= -99
0
w = 0.25 Ø= -172
w = 0.33 Ø= -
188
0
w =3.3 Ø= -259
0
w =∞ Ø= -270
 Calculations of Gain cross over frequency
The frequency at which the dB magnitude is Zero
wgc = 1.1 rad / sec

Calculations of Phase cross over frequency The

frequency at which the Phase of the system is - 180o wpc =
0.3 rad / sec
Gain Margin
The gain margin in dB is given by the negative of dB magnitude of G(jw) at phase cross over
frequency
GM = - { 20 log [G( jwpc )] = - { 32 } = -32 dB

Phase Margin
0 0 o 0
Ґ = 180 + Øgc= 180 + (- 2400 ) = -60

Conclusion
For this system GM and PM are negative in values. Therefore the system is unstable in nature.
Polar plot

To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to
infinity, there are four key points that usually need to be known:
(1) the start of plot where ω = 0,
(2) the end of plot where ω = ∞,
(3) where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0, and
(4) where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e., Re(G(jω)) = 0.

BASICS OF POLAR PLOT:

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω) Vs the
phase of G(jω) on polar co-ordinates as ω is varied from 0 to ∞. (ie) |G(jω)| Vs angle G(jω) as ω
→ 0 to ∞.
Polar graph sheet has concentric circles and radial lines.
Concentric circles represents the magnitude.
Radial lines represents the phase angles.
In polar sheet
0
+ve phase angle is measured in ACW from 0 -
0
ve phase angle is measured in CW from 0

PROCEDURE
Express the given expression of OLTF in (1+sT) form.
Substitute s = jω in the expression for G(s)H(s) and get G(jω)H(jω). Get the
expressions for | G(jω)H(jω)| & angle G(jω)H(jω).
Tabulate various values of magnitude and phase angles for different values of ω ranging from 0
to ∞.
Usually the choice of frequencies will be the corner frequency and around corner
frequencies.
Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles.
Fix all the points in the polar graph sheet and join the points by a smooth curve. Write
the frequency corresponding to each of the point of the plot.

MINIMUM PHASE SYSTEMS:

Systems with all poles & zeros in the Left half of the s-plane – Minimum Phase
Systems.
For Minimum Phase Systems with only poles
Type No. determines at what quadrant the polar plot starts.
Order determines at what quadrant the polar plot ends.
Type No. → No. of poles lying at the origin
Order → Max power of‗s‘ in the denominator polynomial of the transfer
function. GAIN MARGIN
Gain Margin is defined as ―the factor by which the system gain can be increased to drive the
system to the verge of instability‖.
For stable systems,
ωgc< ωpc
Magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc < 1
GM = in positive dB
More positive the GM, more stable is the system.
For marginally stable systems,
ωgc = ωpc
magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc = 1
GM = 0 dB
For Unstable systems,
ωgc> ωpc
magnitude of G(j )H(j ) at ω=ωpc > 1
GM = in negative dB
Gain is to be reduced to make the system stable

Note:
If the gain is high, the GM is low and the system‘s step response shows high overshoots and long
settling time.
On the contrary, very low gains give high GM and PM, but also causes higher ess, higher values of
rise time and settling time and in general give sluggish response.
Thus we should keep the gain as high as possible to reduce ess and obtain acceptable response
speed and yet maintain adequate GM & PM.
An adequate GM of 2 i.e. (6 dB) and a PM of 30 is generally considered good enough as a thumb
rule.

0
At w=w pc , angle of G(jw )H(jw ) = -180
Let magnitude of G(jw)H(jw ) at w = wpc be taken a B
If the gain of the system is increased by factor 1/B, then the magnitude of G(jw)H(j w) at w =
wpc becomes B(1/B) = 1 and hence the G(jw)H(jw) locus pass through -1+j0 point driving the
system to the verge of instability.
GM is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of the OLTF evaluated at the phase cross over
frequency.
GM in dB = 20 log (1/B) = - 20 log B
PHASE MARGIN
Phase Margin is defined as ― the additional phase lag that can be introduced before the system
becomes unstable‖.
‗A‘ be the point of intersection of G(j )H(j ) plot and a unit circle centered at the origin.
Draw a line connecting the points ‗O‘ & ‗A‘ and measure the phase angle between the line
OA and
+ve real axis.
This angle is the phase angle of the system at the gain cross over frequency.
Angle of G(jwgc)H(jw gc) =φ gc
If an additional phase lag of φ PM is introduced at this frequency, then the phase angle G(jwgc)H(jw gc)
will become 180 and the point ‗A‗ coincides with (-1+j0) driving the system to the verge of instability.
This additional phase lag is known as the Phase Margin.
0
γ= 180 + angle of G(jwgc)H(jw gc)
0
γ= 180 + φ gc
[Since φ gc is measured in CW direction, it is taken as negative]
For a stable system, the phase margin is positive.
A Phase margin close to zero corresponds to highly oscillatory system.
 A polar plot may be constructed from experimental data or from a system transfer
function
If the values of w are marked along the contour, a polar plot has the same information as a
bode plot.
Usually, the shape of a polar plot is of most interest.

Frequency domain specifications

The resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of jM(jw)j.
The resonant frequency !r is the frequency at which the peak resonance Mr occurs. The
bandwidth BW is the frequency at which(jw) drops to 70:7% (3 dB) of its zero- frequency
value.

Mr indicates the relative stability of a stable closed loop system. A

large Mr corresponds to larger maximum overshoot of the step
response. Desirable value: 1.1 to 1.5
BW gives an indication of the transient response properties of a control system. A
large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time. BW and rise time tr are inversely
proportional.
BW also indicates the noise-filtering characteristics and robustness of the system. Increasing wn
increases BW.
BW and Mr are proportional to each other.
.
Nyquist Stability Criteria:
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a method for determining whether a linear system is stable or not
by examining the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation of the system. In fact, the method
determines only if there are roots that lie outside of the left half plane; it does not actually compute the
roots. Consider the characteristic equation.
To determine whether this system is stable or not, check the following conditions

1. Two necessary but not sufficient conditions that all the roots have negative real parts are a)
All the polynomial coefficients must have the same sign.
b) All the polynomial coefficients must be nonzero.
2. If condition (1) is satisfied, then compute the Routh-Hurwitz array as follows
where the ai‘S are the polynomial coefficients, and the coefficients in the rest of the table are
computed using the following pattern

3. The necessary condition that all roots have negative real parts is that all the elements of the
first column of the array have the same sign. The number of changes of sign equals the
number of roots with positive real parts.
4. Special Case 1: The first element of a row is zero, but some other elements in that row are
nonzero. In this case, simply replace the zero elements by " ", complete the table development, and
then interpret the results assuming that " " is a small number of the same sign as the element above
it. The results must be interpreted in the limit as ε to 0.
5. Special Case 2: All the elements of a particular row are zero. In this case, some of the roots of the
polynomial are located symmetrically about the origin of the s-plane, e.g., a pair of purely imaginary
roots. The zero rows will always occur in a row associated with an odd power of s.
The row just above the zero rows holds the coefficients of the auxiliary polynomial. The roots of the
auxiliary polynomial are the symmetrically placed roots. Be careful to remember that the coefficients
in the array skip powers of s from one coefficient to the next.
Let P = no. of poles of q(s)-plane lying on Right Half of s-plane and encircled by s-plane
contour.
Let Z = no. of zeros of q(s)-plane lying on Right Half of s-plane and encircled by s-plane
contour.
For the CL system to be stable, the no. of zeros of q(s) which are the CL poles that lie in the right half of s-
plane should be zero. That is Z = 0, which gives N = -P.
Therefore, for a stable system the no. of ACW encirclements of the origin in the q(s)-plane by the
contour Cq must be equal to P.

Nyquist modified stability criteria

We know that q(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)
Therefore G(s)H(s) = [1+G(s)H(s)] – 1
The contour Cq, which has obtained due to mapping of Nyquist contour from s-plane to q(s)-
plane (ie)[1+G(s)H(s)] -plane, will encircle about the origin.
The contour CGH, which has obtained due to mapping of Nyquist contour from s-plane to
G(s)H(s) -plane, will encircle about the point (-1+j0).
Therefore encircling the origin in the q(s)-plane is equivalent to encircling the point -1+j0 in the
G(s)H(s)-plane.
Problem
Sketch the Nyquist stability plot for a feedback system with the following open-loop transfer
function

Section de maps as the complex image of the polar plot as before

Relative stability
The main disadvantage of a Bode plot is that we have to draw and consider two different curves
at a time, namely, magnitude plot and phase plot. Information contained in these two plots can be
combined into one named polar plot. The polar plot is for a frequency range of 0<w<α . while the Nyquist
plot is in the frequency range of - α<w<α. The information on the negative frequency is redundant
because the magnitude and real part of G( jw) an are even functions. In this section. We consider how to
evaluate the system performance in terms of relative stability using a Nyquist plot. The open-loop system
represented by this plot will become unstable beyond a certain value. As shown in the Nyquist plot of
Fig. the intercept of magnitude 'a on the negative real axis corresponds lost phase shift of - 180° and - 1
represents the amount of increase in gain that can be tolerated before closed-loop system tends toward
instability. As 'a' approaches (-1+ j0) point the relative stability is reduced; the gain and phase margins
are represented as follows in the Nyquist plot.

Gain margin
As system gain is increased by a factor 1/a, the open loop magnitude of G ( jw)H( jw) will
increase by a factor a( 1/a) = 1 and the system would be driven to instability. Thus, the gain margin is the
reciprocal of the gain at the frequency at which the phase angle of the Nyquist plot
is - 180 . The gain rnargin, usually measured in dB, is a positive quantity given by
GM = -20log a dB

Phase Margin фm
Importance of the phase margin has already in the content of Bode. Phase margin is defined as the
change in open-loop phase shift required al unity gain to make a closed loop system unstable. A closed-
loop system will be unstable if the Nyquist plot encircles -1 +j0 point. Therefore, the angle required to
make this system marginally stable in a closed loop is the phase margin .In order to measure this angle,
we draw a circle with a radius of 1, and find the point of intersection of the Nyquist plot with this circle,
and measure the phase shift needed for this point to be at an angle of 1800. If may be appreciated that the
system having plot of Fig with larger PM is more stable than the one with plot of Fig.
 MODULE V
STATE VARIABLE ANALYSIS AND
COMPENSATORS
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module V:
Students will be able to:
CO Blooms
Course Outcomes
taxonomy
CO 10 Classify the types of compensators in time domain and frequency Understand
domains specifications for increases the steady state accuracy of the
system.
CO 11 Express linear system equations in state-variable form for the analysis of Understand
system’s dynamic behavior

Program Outcomes Mapped To Module V:

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences

Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s) For Module V:

Course Program Outcomes (POs)

Outcomes(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO 10 √

CO 11 √ √
State space analysis is an excellent method for the design and analysis of control systems. The conventional and old
method for the design and analysis of control systems is the transfer function method. The transfer function method
for design and analysis had many drawbacks.
Advantages of state variable analysis.
It can be applied to non linear system.

It can be applied to tile invariant systems.

It can be applied to multiple input multiple output systems.

Its gives idea about the internal state of the system.

State Variable Analysis and Design

State: The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables called state variables such that the knowledge of
these variables at time t=to (Initial condition), together with the knowledge of input for ≥𝑡0 , completely determines
the behaviour of the system for any time 𝑡≥𝑡0 .
State vector: If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behaviour of a given system, then these n state
variables can be considered the n components of a vector X. Such a vector is called a state vector.
State space: The n-dimensional space whose co-ordinate axes consists of the x1 axis, x2 axis,.... xn axis, where
x1,x2……Xn are state variables.
State Model
Lets consider a multi input & multi output system is having

Then the state model is given by state & output equation

 (Block diagram of the linear, continuous time control system represented in state space)

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION OF NTH ORDER SYSTEMS OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION IN

WHICH FORCING FUNCTION DOES NOT INVOLVE DERIVATIVE TERM
Consider following nth order LTI system relating the output y(t) to the input u(t).

Phase variables: The phase variables are defined as those particular state variables which are obtained from one of the
system variables & its (n-1) derivatives. Often the variables used is the system output & the remaining state variables
are then derivatives of the output. Let us define the state variables as
From the above equations we can write

Writing the above state equation in vector matrix form

Output equation can be written as

State Space to Transfer Function

Consider the state space system:
Now, take the Laplace Transform (with zero initial conditions since we are finding a transfer function):

We want to solve for the ratio of Y(s) to U(s), so we need so remove Q(s) from the output equation. We start by
solving the state equation for Q(s)

The matrix Φ(s) is called the state transition matrix. Now we put this into the output equation

Now we can solve for the transfer function:

Note that although there are many state space representations of a given system, all of those representations will result
in the same transfer function (i.e., the transfer function of a system is unique; the state space representation is not).

Transfer Function to State Space

Recall that state space models of systems are not unique; a system has many state space representations. Therefore we
will develop a few methods for creating state space models of systems. Before we look at procedures for converting
from a transfer function to a state space model of a system, let's first examine going from a differential equation to
state space. We'll do this first with a simple system, then move to a more complex system that will demonstrate the
usefulness of a standard technique. First we start with an example demonstrating a simple way of converting from a
single differential equation to state space, followed by a conversion from transfer function to state space.
Example: Differential Equation to State Space (simple)
Consider the differential equation with no derivatives on the right hand side. We'll use a third order equation, thought
it generalizes to nth order in the obvious way.
For such systems (no derivatives of the input) we can choose as our n state variables the variable y and its first n-1
derivatives (in this case the first two derivatives)

Taking the derivatives we can develop our state space model

Note: For an nth order system the matrices generalize in the obvious way (A has ones above the main diagonal and the
differential equation constants for the last row, B is all zeros with b0 in the bottom row, C is zero except for the
leftmost element which is one, and D is zero)

Repeat Starting from Transfer Function

Consider the transfer function with a constant numerator (note: this is the same system as in the preceding example).
We'll use a third order equation, thought it generalizes to nth order in the obvious way.

For such systems (no derivatives of the input) we can choose as our n state variables the variable y and its first n-1
derivatives (in this case the first two derivatives)

Taking the derivatives we can develop our state space model (which is exactly the same as when we started from the
differential equation).
Note: For an nth order system the matrices generalize in the obvious way (A has ones above the main diagonal and the
coefficients of the denominator polynomial for the last row, B is all zeros with b0 (the numerator coefficient) in the
bottom row, C is zero except for the leftmost element which is one, and D is zero) If we try this method on a slightly
more complicated system, we find that it initially fails (though we can succeed with a little cleverness).
Example: Differential Equation to State Space (harder)
Consider the differential equation with a single derivative on the right hand side.

We can try the same method as before:

The method has failed because there is a derivative of the input on the right hand, and that is not allowed in a state
space model. Fortunately we can solve our problem by revising our choice of state variables.

Now when we take the derivatives we get:

The second and third equations are not correct, because ÿ is not one of the state variables. However we can make use
of the fact:

The second state variable equation then becomes

In the third state variable equation we have successfully removed the derivative of the input from the right side of the
third equation, and we can get rid of the ÿ term using the same substitution we used for the second state variable.

The process described in the previous example can be generalized to systems with higher order input derivatives but
unfortunately gets increasingly difficult as the order of the derivative increases. When the order of derivatives is equal
on both sides, the process becomes much more difficult (and the variable "D" is no longer equal to zero). Clearly more
straightforward techniques are necessary. Two are outlined below, one generates a state space method known as the
"controllable canonical form" and the other generates the "observable canonical form (the meaning of these terms
derives from Control Theory but is not important to us).
Controllable Canonical Form (CCF)
Probably the most straightforward method for converting from the transfer function of a system to a state space model
is to generate a model in "controllable canonical form." This term comes from Control Theory but its exact meaning is
not important to us. To see how this method of generating a state space model works, consider the third order
differential transfer function:

We start by multiplying by Z(s)/Z(s) and then solving for Y(s) and U(s) in terms of Z(s). We also convert back to a
differential equation.

We can now choose z and its first two derivatives as our state variables

Now we just need to form the output

From these results we can easily form the state space model:

In this case, the order of the numerator of the transfer function was less than that of the denominator. If they are equal,
the process is somewhat more complex. A result that works in all cases is given below; the details are here. For a
general nth order transfer function:
the controllable canonical state space model form is

Observable Canonical Form (OCF)

Another commonly used state variable form is the "observable canonical form." This term comes from Control Theory
but its exact meaning is not important to us. To understand how this method works consider a third order system with
transfer function:

We can convert this to a differential equation and solve for the highest order derivative of y:

Now we integrate twice (the reason for this will be apparent soon), and collect terms according to order of the integral:

Choose the output as our first state variable

Looking at the right hand side of the differential equation we note that y=q1 and we call the two integral terms q2:

Now let's examine q2 and its derivative

Again we note that y=q1 and we call the integral terms q3:

Our state space model now becomes

In this case, the order of the numerator of the transfer function was less than that of the denominator. If they are equal,
the process is somewhat more complex.
Concept of Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
The roots of characteristic equation that we have described above are known as eigen values of matrix A. Now there
are some properties related to eigen values and these properties are written below-
1. Any square matrix A and its transpose AT have the same eigen values.
2. Sum of eigen values of any matrix A is equal to the trace of the matrix A.
3. Product of the eigen values of any matrix A is equal to the determinant of the matrix A.
4. If we multiply a scalar quantity to matrix A then the eigen values are also get multiplied by the same value of
scalar.
5. If we inverse the given matrix A then its eigen values are also get inverses.
6. If all the elements of the matrix are real then the eigen values corresponding to that matrix are either real or exists in
complex conjugate pair.
Eigen Vectors
Any non zero vector 𝑚𝑖 that satisfies the matrix equation 𝜆𝑖𝐼−𝐴 𝑚𝑖=0 is called the eigen vector of A associated with
the eigen value 𝜆𝑖,. Where𝜆𝑖, i = 1, 2, 3, ……..n denotes the ith eigen values of A.
This eigen vector may be obtained by taking cofactors of matrix 𝜆𝑖𝐼−𝐴 along any row & transposing that row of
cofactors.
Diagonalization
The above transformed state model is in canonical state model. The transformation described above is called similarity
transformation. If the system matrix A is in companion form & if all its n eigen values are distinct, then modal matrix
will be special matrix called the Vander Monde matrix.

State Transition Matrix and Zero State Response

We are here interested in deriving the expressions for the state transition matrix and zero state response. Again taking
the state equations that we have derived above and taking their Laplace transformation we have,

Now on rewriting the above equation we have

Now let us discuss some of the properties of the state transition matrix.

Computation of STN using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem:

The Cayley–hamilton theorem states that every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation. This
theorem provides a simple procedure for evaluating the functions of a matrix. To determine the matrix polynomial
CONCEPTS OF CONTROLLABILITY & OBSERVABILITY
State Controllability A system is said to be completely state controllable if it is possible to transfer the system state
from any initial state X(to) to any desired state X(t) in specified finite time by a control vector u(t). Kalman‟s test
Consider nth order multi input LTI system with m dimensional control vector

COMPENSATOR DESIGN
Every control system which has been designed for a specific application should meet certain performance
specification. There are always some constraints which are imposed on the control system design in addition to the
performance specification. The choice of a plant is not only dependent on the performance specification but also on
the size , weight & cost. Although the designer of the control system is free to choose a new plant, it is generally not
advised due to the cost & other constraints. Under this circumstances it is possible to introduce some kind of
corrective sub-systems in order to force the chosen plant to meet the given specification. We refer to these sub-
systems as compensator whose job is to compensate for the deficiency in the performance of the plant.
REALIZATION OF BASIC COMPENSATORS
Compensation can be accomplished in several ways. Series or Cascade compensation Compensator can be inserted in
the forward path as shown in fig below. The transfer function of compensator is denoted as Gc(s), whereas that of the
original process of the plant is denoted by G(s).

Feedback compensation

Combined Cascade & feedback compensation

Compensator can be electrical, mechanical, pneumatic or hydrolic type of device. Mostly electrical networks are used
as compensator in most of the control system. The very simplest of these are Lead, lag & lead-lag networks. Lead
Compensator
Lead compensator are used to improve the transient response of a system.
Fig: S-Plane representation of Lead Compensator

Bode plot for Lead Compensator

Lag Compensator
Lag compensator are used to improve the steady state response of a system.
Fig: S-Plane representation of Lag Compensator
Cascade compensation in Time domain
Cascade compensation in time domain is conveniently carried out by the root locus technique. In this method of
compensation, the original design specification on dynamic response are converted into 𝜁 & 𝑤𝑛 of a pair of desired
complex conjugate closed loop pole based on the assumption the system would be dominated by these two complex
pole therefore its dynamic behavior can be approximated by that of a second order system. A compensator is now
designed so that the least damped complex pole of the resulting transfer function correspond to the desired dominant
pole & all other closed loop poles are located very close to the open loop zeros or relatively far away from the jw axis.
This ensures that the poles other than the dominant poles make negligible contribution to the system dynamics.

Lead Compensation
Fig: Angle contribution of Lead compensator
Though the above method of locating the lead compensator pole-zero yields the largest value of 𝛼, it does not
guarantee the dominance of the desired closed loop poles in the compensated root-locus. The dominance condition
must be checked before completing the design. With compensator pole-zero so located the system gain at Sd is
computed to determine the error constant. If the value of the error constant so obtained is unsatisfactory the above
procedure is repeated after readjusting the compensator pole-zero location while keeping the angle contribution fixed
as 𝜙.

Lag Compensation
Consider a unit feedback system with forward path transfer function

At certain value of K, this system has satisfactory transient response i.e its root locus plot passes through(closed to)
the desired closed loop poles location Sd .
It is required to improve the system error constant to a specified value 𝐾𝑒𝑐 without damaging its transient response.
This requires that after compensation the root locus should continue to pass through Sd while the error constant at Sd
is raised to 𝐾𝑒𝑐. To accomplish this consider adding a lag compensator pole-zero pair with zero the left of the pole. If
this pole-zero pair is located closed to each other it will contribute a negligible angle at Sd such that Sd continues to
lie on the root locus of the compensated system.
 Fig:Locating the Lag Compensator Pole-zero

From the above fig. that apart from being close to each other the pole-zero pair close to origin, the reason which will
become obvious from discussion below. The gain of the uncompensated system at Sd is given by
For the effect of the small lag angle 𝜆 is to give the closed loop pole Sd with specified 𝜁 but slightly lower . This can
be anticipated & counteracted by taking the 𝑤𝑛 of Sd to be somewhat larger than the specified value.
Procedure of Lead Compensation
Step1: Determine the value of loop gain K to satisfy the specified error constant.
Step2: For this value of K draw the bode plot & determine the phase margin 𝜙 for the system.

Prepared by HOD,ECE
L.Babitha,Asst professor