Wireless Communication Systems – Module 1

Question Bank: Model Answers (5■mark & 10■mark)

Prescribed Textbook: Aditya K. Jagannatham, Principles of Modern Wireless Communication Systems – Theory and Practice,
McGraw Hill, 2017.

Section A: 5■Mark Questions – Model Answers

1) Explain the wireless communication environment with a neat diagram. (5
marks)
Wireless links operate over unguided channels where electromagnetic waves propagate via multiple mechanisms:
reflection from large surfaces, scattering from small irregularities, and diffraction around edges. As a result, at the
receiver several time■shifted, phase■shifted and amplitude■scaled replicas of the transmitted waveform arrive.

Key impairments: (i) path loss—deterministic power decay with distance; (ii) shadowing—slow variations caused by
obstructions (log■normal statistics); and (iii) small■scale fading—rapid fluctuations due to multipath interference
(e.g., Rayleigh/Rician).

A typical diagram shows a base station, buildings producing reflected and diffracted paths, and a mobile receiver
collecting multiple rays with different delays and phases. These phenomena motivate channel models based on
impulse responses and statistical fading distributions.

2) Derive the system model for a narrowband wireless channel. (5 marks)

In a multipath channel the time■varying baseband impulse response is h(t,τ)=∑_i a_i(t) δ(τ−τ_i(t)). For a transmitted
signal s(t), the received signal is r(t)=∫ h(t,τ) s(t−τ) dτ + n(t).

If the channel is narrowband (signal bandwidth B_s ■ coherence bandwidth B_c), all spectral components
experience approximately the same fading. Then h(t,τ)≈h(t) δ(τ), yielding r(t)=h(t) s(t)+n(t). Here h(t)=α(t)e^{jϕ(t)} is
a complex Gaussian process capturing amplitude and phase rotation, and n(t) is AWGN. This is the flat■fading
baseband model used for symbol■by■symbol detection and diversity analysis.

3) Discuss the Rayleigh fading channel model and its probability density
function. (5 marks)
In non■line■of■sight (NLOS) rich■scattering environments, the in■phase and quadrature components of the
complex gain h(t)=X(t)+jY(t) are i.i.d. zero■mean Gaussian random variables. The envelope R=|h| follows a
Rayleigh distribution with PDF p_R(r)= (r/σ^2) exp(−r^2/(2σ^2)), r≥0. The instantaneous power G=R^2 is
exponentially distributed with mean 2σ^2.

Rayleigh fading captures rapid signal strength variations over distances of a few wavelengths and is widely adopted
for urban mobile channels without a dominant LOS path.

4) Derive the expression for mean excess delay and RMS delay spread. (5
marks)
Let the power delay profile (PDP) be P(τ), normalized such that ∫ P(τ) dτ = P_tot. The mean excess delay is
\overline{τ} = (1/P_tot) ∫ τ P(τ) dτ. The second moment is \overline{τ^2} = (1/P_tot) ∫ τ^2 P(τ) dτ.

The RMS delay spread is σ_τ = sqrt( \overline{τ^2} − (\overline{τ})^2 ). In discrete form with paths i having power P_i
and delays τ_i: \overline{τ} = (∑ P_i τ_i)/(∑ P_i), σ_τ = sqrt( (∑ P_i τ_i^2)/(∑ P_i) − \overline{τ}^2 ). These
parameters quantify time dispersion and predict frequency selectivity.
5) Explain the concept of coherence bandwidth. (5 marks)
Coherence bandwidth B_c is the frequency interval over which the channel’s frequency response is highly
correlated. It relates inversely to the RMS delay spread σ_τ because larger time dispersion produces finer spectral
ripples.

Common engineering rules: B_c ≈ 1/(5 σ_τ) (conservative) or B_c ≈ 1/(50 σ_τ) (strict). If the signal bandwidth B_s ■
B_c, the channel is flat■fading; otherwise it is frequency■selective and requires equalization or multicarrier
techniques.

6) Discuss the relation between ISI and coherence bandwidth. (5 marks)

Inter■symbol interference (ISI) occurs when multipath components of one symbol spill into the next. Large σ_τ
implies small B_c; if the symbol rate 1/T_s is high such that B_s≈1/T_s ≥ B_c, different frequency components
experience different fading and the channel becomes frequency■selective—creating ISI.

Mitigation strategies: increase T_s (use lower symbol rate or spread spectrum), employ guard intervals/cyclic
prefixes (OFDM), or apply equalizers/RAKE receivers to combine multipath components.

7) Derive the formula for Doppler shift in wireless channels. (5 marks)

For a carrier of frequency f_c and relative velocity v between transmitter and receiver along angle θ with respect to
the arriving wave, the observed frequency shift is f_d = (v/λ) cosθ = (v/c) f_c cosθ, where λ is the wavelength and c
the speed of light.

The maximum Doppler shift occurs for |cosθ|=1: f_{d,max} = (v/c) f_c. This determines the Doppler spread of the
channel’s spectrum and the rate of fading.

8) Explain the impact of Doppler fading on wireless communication. (5

marks)
Temporal variation due to motion produces Doppler spread, which broadens the signal spectrum after passing
through the channel. Effects include rapid amplitude/phase fluctuations, inter■carrier interference in OFDM when
subcarrier spacing is small, and loss of channel tracking accuracy.

Countermeasures: pilot■aided channel estimation with faster tracking, increased subcarrier spacing or shorter
symbol duration (for OFDM), time/frequency interleaving with error■correcting codes, and diversity schemes (e.g.,
MRC).

9) Define coherence time and derive its relation with Doppler spread. (5
marks)
Coherence time T_c characterizes the time duration over which the channel response is approximately invariant. It
is inversely related to the Doppler spread B_D. Empirical relations include T_c ≈ 1/(2π f_{d,rms}) or the simpler
engineering approximation T_c ≈ 1/f_{d,max}.

Interpretation: if symbol duration T_s ■ T_c, the channel is quasi■static during a symbol (slow fading). If T_s ■ T_c,
the channel varies within a symbol (fast fading), complicating coherent detection.

10) Compare slow fading and fast fading channels with examples. (5 marks)
Slow fading: T_c ■ T_s or f_{d,max} T_s ■ 1. Channel is roughly constant over many symbols (e.g., pedestrian
users at low carrier frequencies). Design emphasis is on diversity/coding across blocks.

Fast fading: T_c ■ T_s or f_{d,max} T_s ■ 1. Channel varies within a symbol (e.g., high■speed trains at mmWave).
Requires rapid channel tracking, differential/noncoherent schemes, or waveform choices tolerant to time selectivity.
Section B: 10■Mark Questions – Model Answers
1) With neat diagrams, explain the wireless communication environment and
impairments. (10 marks)
Environment: A transmitter radiates waves that undergo reflection (specular from buildings), diffraction (around
corners/edges), and scattering (from small objects). Superposition at the receiver yields multipath components with
different amplitudes, phases and delays.

Large■scale effects: Path loss follows power■law decay: P_r(d) ∝ d^{−n}, with n≈2 (free space) to 3–4+ in urban
areas. Shadowing is modeled as log■normal variability about the mean path loss due to obstacles; it varies over
tens of meters.

Small■scale fading: Rapid fluctuations over a few wavelengths. Without LOS, the envelope is Rayleigh; with
dominant LOS, Rician with K■factor. Time selectivity arises from Doppler; frequency selectivity from delay spread.

System consequences: Link budgets must include fade margins; waveforms/equalizers must handle ISI; diversity
(spatial/time/frequency), coding, interleaving and power control combat fading. A diagram should depict multipath
rays and zone of shadow behind an obstruction.

2) Derive and explain the system model for narrowband signals with fading.
(10 marks)
Starting from the linear time■variant model r(t)=∫ h(t,τ) s(t−τ) dτ + n(t), assume narrowband (B_s ■ B_c) so the
channel is approximately frequency■flat. Then h(t,τ)≈h(t)δ(τ) ⇒ r(t)=h(t)s(t)+n(t).

Sampling at symbol epochs gives y[k]=h[k] x[k] + w[k], where h[k] is a complex Gaussian process with E{h[k]}=0
(Rayleigh) or non■zero mean (Rician). Conditioned on h[k], the channel is AWGN; unconditioned, the SNR is
random. This model underpins coherent detection with pilot■based estimation, or noncoherent/differential schemes
when phase tracking is difficult.

3) Explain the Rayleigh fading wireless channel. Derive its amplitude and
power distributions. (10 marks)
Let h=X+jY with X,Y ~ ■(0,σ^2) i.i.d. Then the envelope R=√(X^2+Y^2) has PDF p_R(r)=(r/σ^2)exp(−r^2/(2σ^2)),
r≥0. The CDF is 1−exp(−r^2/(2σ^2)).

Instantaneous power G=R^2 has exponential PDF p_G(g)=(1/Ω)exp(−g/Ω), g≥0 with mean Ω=E{G}=2σ^2. These
results follow from transformation of variables and Jacobian r for polar coordinates. Rayleigh fading fits NLOS
microcells/macrocells with rich scattering.

4) Derive expressions for average delay spread and RMS delay spread.
Explain their significance. (10 marks)
Given PDP P(τ), define normalized moments: \overline{τ}=(1/P_tot)∫τP(τ)dτ, \overline{τ^2}=(1/P_tot)∫τ^2P(τ)dτ.
RMS delay spread σ_τ=√(\overline{τ^2}−\overline{τ}^2).

Significance: σ_τ quantifies the effective multipath spread that determines coherence bandwidth B_c. If signal
bandwidth exceeds B_c, the channel is frequency■selective causing ISI; equalization, OFDM with cyclic prefix, or
spread spectrum is required.

5) Explain coherence bandwidth. Derive its relation with RMS delay spread
and discuss flat vs frequency■selective fading. (10 marks)
The frequency correlation function is the Fourier transform of the PDP’s auto■correlation; larger σ_τ implies
narrower correlation in frequency. Practical rules relate B_c inversely to σ_τ: B_c≈1/(5σ_τ) for 50% correlation, and
B_c≈1/(50σ_τ) for 90% correlation (stringent).

If B_s ■ B_c, the channel gain is nearly constant over the signal band (flat fading) and equalization is unnecessary.
If B_s ≥ B_c, frequency■selective fading occurs, producing ISI across symbol intervals; multicarrier OFDM or
time■domain equalizers are employed.

6) Explain the relation between ISI, coherence bandwidth, and delay spread
with equations and diagrams. (10 marks)
ISI severity is governed by the ratio of symbol duration T_s to multipath spread. With RMS delay spread σ_τ, a
conservative threshold is T_s ■ 10σ_τ to avoid ISI. Equivalently, because B_c≈1/(5σ_τ), if B_s≈1/T_s ≥ B_c the
channel is frequency■selective and ISI arises.

A diagram would show an input pulse and its spread output (channel’s impulse response) overlapping into the next
symbol. Guard intervals (cyclic prefix) exceeding expected delay spread prevent overlap in OFDM systems.

7) Derive the expression for Doppler shift. Discuss its impact on mobile
communication. (10 marks)
For relative radial velocity v_r=v cosθ between source and observer, the received frequency is f_r = f_c (1 ± v_r/c).
The shift is f_d=f_r−f_c=(v/c) f_c cosθ. The maximum |f_d| occurs when |cosθ|=1, yielding f_{d,max}=(v/c)f_c.

Impact: Doppler spread B_D≈2 f_{d,max} determines the channel’s temporal coherence. Large B_D causes
inter■carrier interference in OFDM and rapid channel variation that degrades coherent detection. Remedies include
adaptive pilot density, increased subcarrier spacing, diversity, and robust coding/interleaving.

8) Define coherence time. Derive its relation with Doppler spread. Discuss
slow vs fast fading channels. (10 marks)
Coherence time T_c is the time interval over which the auto■correlation of the channel exceeds a chosen threshold.
For Clarke’s/Jakes’ spectrum, T_c is inversely related to Doppler spread; approximate forms include T_c≈1/(2π
f_{d,rms}) or T_c≈1/f_{d,max}.

Slow fading: T_c ■ T_s (channel constant over many symbols) enabling coherent combining and interleaving gains.
Fast fading: T_c ■ T_s (channel varies within a symbol) leading to time■selective distortion; differentially coherent
or noncoherent schemes may be preferred when tracking is costly.

9) Write short notes on (a) Power Delay Profile (PDP), (b) Doppler fading. (10
marks)
(a) PDP: The PDP P(τ)=E{|h(t,τ)|^2} describes average received power versus excess delay. From P(τ) we
compute mean excess delay and RMS delay spread, predicting coherence bandwidth and ISI risk. Empirically
obtained via channel sounding.

(b) Doppler fading: Temporal channel variation due to motion produces spectral broadening characterized by the
Doppler power spectrum (e.g., Jakes’ U■shape). The Doppler spread sets limits on pilot spacing, tracking loop
bandwidth, and acceptable OFDM subcarrier spacing.

10) Summarize the wireless channel modelling process including multipath,

delay spread, Doppler spread, coherence bandwidth, and coherence time.
(10 marks)
Model the channel as a linear time■variant filter with impulse response h(t,τ). Measure/assume a PDP to obtain σ_τ
and hence B_c≈1/(k σ_τ). Evaluate motion to estimate f_{d,max}=(v/c)f_c, giving Doppler spread B_D and
coherence time T_c≈1/(k' f_d).

If B_s ■ B_c and T_s ■ T_c → flat, slow fading; simple equalization and coherent detection suffice. If B_s ≥ B_c or
T_s ≥ T_c → frequency■ or time■selective fading; use multicarrier/CP, equalization, diversity, coding and adaptive
pilot designs accordingly.

Note: Answers are aligned with Module 1 topics mapped to Textbook 1 (Sections 3.1–3.4, 4.1–4.7).