1.

CONCEPTS OF SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES

Smart Grid Definition: Smart grid is integration of an electric power system, communication network,
advanced Sensing, metering, measurement infrastructure, complete decision support and human
interfaces software and hardware to monitor, control and manage the creation, distribution, storage and
consumption of energy.
A Smart Grid is an electricity Network based on Digital Technology that is used to supply electricity to
consumers via Two-Way Digital Communication. This system allows for monitoring, analysis, control
and communication within the supply chain to help improve efficiency, reduce the energy consumption
and cost and maximize the transparency and reliability of the energy supply chain.
The term “Smart Grid” was coined by Andres E. Carvallo on April 24, 2007 at an IDC energy conference
in Chicago.

Need of smart grid:

• Presently the Indian Electricity System faces a number of challenges such as:
• Shortage of power
• Power Theft
• Poor access to electricity in Rural areas
• Huge losses in the Grid
• Inefficient Power Consumption
• Poor reliability
To overcome these problems; smart grid is needed.

Advantages of Smart Grid:

• Improved Reliability
• Higher asset utilization
• Better integration of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and renewable energy
• Reduced operating costs for utilities
• Increased efficiency and conservation
• Lower greenhouse gas (GHG) and other emissions
Disadvantages:

• Continuous and stable network communication should be established.

• Network communication can be affected during a certain situation such as heavy rain,
stormy wind, snow, and such. It becomes a big challenge for smart grid technology.
• Privacy problem because the power meter is integrated to the internet, hence it is prone to
hacking.
Application of Smart Grid:

• The areas of application of smart grids include:

 smart meters integration
 demand management
 smart integration of generated energy
 administration of storage and renewable resources, using systems that continuously
provide and use data from an energy network

Benefits of Smart Grid:

● Self-Healing: A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine problems and quickly
recovers if they occur, minimizing downtime and financial loss.

● Resists Attack: A smart grid has security built in from the ground up.

● Motivates and Includes the Consumer: A smart grid gives all consumers industrial,
commercial, and residential-visibility in to real-time pricing, and affords them the opportunity
to choose the volume of consumption and price that best suits their needs.

● Reduction in AT & C losses(Aggregate Technical and Commercial Losses ( AT & C Losses) is

nothing but the. sum total of technical loss, commercial losses and shortage due to non-
realisation of total billed amount)

● Reduction in CO2 Emission

● Enabling Energy Audit

● Reduction in Cost Billing

● Remote Load Control

● Shifting of Peak requirement to non-peak time [Peak Shaving]

● Integration of Renewable Energy

 ● Clean Energy Development.

● Provides Power Quality

● Optimizes Assets and Operates Efficiently

● Safety, Reliable and Efficient

● Improved National Security

● Improved Environmental Conditions

● Improved Economic Growth

Challenges of Smart Grid:

• Policy and regulation

• Ageing and outdated Infrastructure
• Lack of integrated communication platform
• High Capital and operating costs
• Big Data Handling
• Compatibility of older equipment
• Lack of standards for interoperability
• Smart Grid Cybersecurity
• Lack of Smart consumers

Differences between Conventional & Smart Grid:

Smart Grid Drivers:

● Smart grid drivers are the forces that emphasize on requirements of the smart grid for
addressing the issues faced by the power sectors.

● The major smart grid drivers are empowering customers, economic competitiveness,
increased electricity demand, and global warming.

 Increasing demand: Information and communications technology, Measurement and control

Demand response, Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)
 High Aggregate Technical & Non-Technical, Losses:18%-62%
 Ageing Assets: Transformers, Feeders etc.,
 Grid to carry more power: Need for, Reliability and greater Security
 Billing and collections: Profitability of distribution companies
 Energy mix: Need for Renewable Energy [Hydro Power, Solar Thermal Energy, Wind, Biomass,
and Biogas] to reduce carbon footprint
 Integration of Renewable Energy: With the increasing penetration of renewable energy
sources like solar and wind power, smart grids are essential for managing their intermittency
and variability. They enable better forecasting, real-time monitoring, and control to maintain
grid stability.
 Grid Reliability and Resilience: Smart grids enhance the reliability and resilience of electricity
supply by quickly identifying and isolating faults, minimizing downtime, and enabling faster
restoration after disruptions.
 Energy Efficiency: They facilitate demand response programs and real-time pricing,
encouraging consumers to shift their energy use to off-peak times when electricity is cheaper
and the grid load is lower, thereby reducing overall energy consumption.
 Enhanced Grid Security: Smart grids employ advanced cybersecurity measures to protect
against threats, ensuring the secure operation of critical infrastructure and maintaining data
privacy for consumers.
 Electric Vehicles (EVs) Integration: The rise of electric vehicles presents both challenges and
opportunities for the grid. Smart grids support EV charging management, ensuring that
charging occurs efficiently without overloading local transformers or causing grid instability.
 Consumer Empowerment: Through smart meters and home energy management systems,
consumers gain real-time information about their energy usage and costs. This empowers
them to make informed decisions, manage their energy consumption, and potentially save
money.
 Policy and Regulatory Support: Government policies and regulations play a crucial role in
promoting smart grid investments and deployment. Incentives, mandates, and standards can
accelerate adoption and ensure interoperability among different grid components.
Concept of Resilient:

● The capability of a strained body to recover its size and shape after deformation caused
especially by compressive stress

● An ability to recover from or adjust easily to misfortune or change

● Resilience is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered.

● In other words, it is the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored. It is
represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the Stress‐Strain diagram

● A resilient electric grid begins with

➢ a system that is designed and built to withstand high winds, powerful storms,

➢ Cybersecurity threats and

➢ other disruptions that could result in outages

Concept of Self-Healing Grid:

Self-Healing:

A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine problems and quickly recovers if they
occur, minimizing downtime and financial loss.

● The Self-Healing Grid is a system comprised of sensors, automated controls, and advanced
software that utilizes real-time distribution data to detect and isolate faults and to
reconfigure the distribution network to minimize the customers impacted.
 ● One of the main goals of a Self-Healing Grid is to improve system reliability.

● This can be accomplished by reconfiguring the switches and reclosers installed on the
distribution feeder to quickly isolate the faulted section of the feeder and re-establish service
to as many customers as possible from alternate sources/feeders.

International policies in Smart Grid:

Smart grids policies For UK

● To modernize and reduce the carbon footprint of electric grids, one major initiative of the
United Kingdom is to encourage energy efficiency through smart-meter deployment.

● The British government expects full penetration of smart meters by 2020, with a total
financial investment of £8.6 billion ($13.5 billion) and total benefits of £14.6 billion ($22.9
billion) over the next 20 years

Smart grids policies For USA

● The Energy Policy Act of 2005 is the first federal law that specifically promotes the
development of smart meters. It directs utility regulators to consider time-based pricing and
other forms of demand response for their states.

● The 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) lays out a national policy for the Smart
Grid in the U.S.
● The Act assigned NIST the primary responsibility to coordinate development of standards for
the Smart Grid
● NIST is also supporting future FERC and State PUC rulemaking to adopt Smart Grid standards

● The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a major standards developing
federal agency, is directed to develop a smart-grid interoperability framework that provides
protocols and standards for smart-grid technologies.

● EISA established a federal smart-grid investment matching grant program to reimburse 20% of
qualifying smart-grid investments.
 2. Smart Grid Technologies

Technology Drivers:
To satisfy the multiple requirements of the Smart Grid, the following technology drivers must be
developed and implemented:
1. Information and communications technologies.
2. Control and automation technologies which includes sensing and measurement.
3. Power electronics and energy storage technologies.
4. Demand-Side Management (DSM).

Information and Communications Technologies:

1. Communication technologies that will operate in two ways which is able to provide connectivity
between different elements in the power system and loads.
2. Broad constructions for plug-and-play of home devices and electric vehicles and micro-
generation.
3. Communications systems with important software and hardware to warn customers with
accurate information. They also help customers to trade in energy markets and enable customers
to provide DSM (Demand-Side Management).
4. Software to make sure and maintain the security information and standards to give scalability
and interoperability of information and communication systems.

Control and Automation Technologies which Includes Sensing and Measurement:

1. Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED) to build advanced protection devices, measurements, fault
data and event records for the power system.
2. Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) and Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control
(WAMPAC) to enhance the power system security
3.Smart appliances, communication, controls and monitors help to increase safety, comfort,
convenience, and energy savings.
4.Smart meters, communication, displays and relevant software will give access to customers to
exercise correct choice and control over electricity and gas usage. They will provide consumers
with accurate bills. They will operate faster.

Power Electronics and Energy Storage Technologies:

1. High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) to
make possible long distance transmission with the integration of renewable energy sources.
2. Various power electronic interfaces and advanced IED supporting devices will offer efficient
integration of renewable energy sources and energy storage devices.
3.Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC), series capacitors, and other FACTS devices will offer
excellent control over power flows in the AC grid.
4.Interfacing power electronic devices and integrated communication systems will result in better
performance by controlling renewable energy sources, consumer loads and energy storage.
Demand-Side Management (DSM):
● Demand-Side Management (DSM) is the modification of consumer demand for energy
through different methods like financial incentives and behavioral change by means of
education.
● Usually, the aim of demand-side management is to motivate the consumer to utilize lesser
energy during peak hours, or to move the time of energy use to off-peak times such as
nighttime and weekends.
● DSM is widely recognized as an important tool for managing electric demand and reducing
the need for new power generation.
Benefits of Using DSM

Smart Substations:
● An electrical substation is the central point of an electric power generation, transmission,
and distribution system where the voltage is transformed from high to low or reverse using
transformers.
● Electric power flows through several substations between generating plants and consumer
load points.
● There are different kinds of substations, such as transmission substations, sub-transmission
substations, and distribution substations.
The general functions of a substation include the following:
1. Transformation of voltage level
2. Transmission and distribution power lines connecting point
3. Configuration of switchyard for electrical transmission and distribution system
4. Monitoring point for the control center
5. Protection of power lines and other apparatus
6. Reliable communication with other substations and regional control centers
Smart Substation Layout:
● The idea of smart substation is nothing but to build an absolute intelligent substation where
all devices will work and collaborate in a systematic way to achieve excellent outcome.
● Excellent controllability and increased automation is made possible by Intelligent
Electronic Devices (IED).
● It empowers remote using and managing of system devices using remote control
commands.
● Some of the features of smart substation are reliability, economy, simple operation,
intelligent control and low environmental impact.
● When the installed number of IEDs increases in substations, it will become easy to integrate
the protection, control, and data acquisition functionality.
● The past information which is extracted from RTU will be available now for the present
operations from the IEDs.
● A substation server communicates with all the IEDs at the substation. When all the
information is collected by substation server form IEDs, it will communicate back to the
master substation.
● The IEDs at the substation invokes many different communications protocols. The
substation server should have the ability to communicate via these protocols, as well as the
master station’s communications protocol

Features of Smart Substation:

The following are considered as features of smart substation :
1. Gathering information about power flows and stabilizing it in the medium and low voltage
networks.
2. Incorporating intelligent devices for all kind of operations.
3. Ensuring whether all control and protection devices have been networked properly.
4. Maintaining the voltage levels of all networks efficiently.
5. Minimizing power shortages and identifying power theft.
6. Reducing power quality problems such as harmonics, sudden voltage drops and flicker.
7. Ensuring the formation of micro grids and increasing their autonomous operation.

Substation Automation (SA):

● Most of the substations are rated 220 KV and above in India with ageing more than 40
years.
● It requires multiple stages of building in order to realize a substation for distribution
purposes.
● The maintenance and operation of substation cost is usually higher. The electric utility
substation is very strategic to operations and business.
● The design of primary equipment plays a vital role in substation automation. It must be
environmental friendly and have low operation and maintenance cost.
● Substation Automation (SA) assures to give more efficient way of delivering and
consuming power.
● In essence, substation automation is a data communication network allied with power grid.
● The grid operators will collect and analyze the data about power generation, transmission
and distribution in real time application

Configuration of Substation Automation:

1. The station level function :

● This includes the substation computer, the human-machine interface (HMI) and the
gateway to control center which informs the status of station equipment.
 ● The message specification network acts as a communication link between SCADA,
control center and IEDs at bay level and station level. In order to achieve high
reliability, excess networks are used in this state level function

2. The bay level function :

● This comprises of all the controllers and intelligent electronic devices as shown in the Fig.
● The main function of these devices is to provide protection for different utilities. Also they
carry out a real time evaluation of the distribution network.
● The IEDs will fully operate in pace with the internet protocol (IP).
● The phasor measurement unit (PMU) will take care of the measurement of synchronous
phasor. In wide area power system monitoring and control, PMUs are mostly used.
● The inter operation between various IEDs is achieved by GOOSE networks.
● Generic Object Oriented Substation Events (GOOSE) is a controlled model mechanism or
network in which any format of data (status, value) is grouped into a data set and
transmitted within a time period of 4 milliseconds.

3. The process level function:

● In this level of operation optical voltage and current sensors are used instead of
conventional transformers.
● It comprises of switchgear control and monitoring, current transformers (CTs), potential
transformers (PTs) and sensors.
● The merging unit (MU) will consist of all these utilities. Analog signal are received from
CTs and PTs which will be converted into optical signals by merging unit.
● These signals are transferred to protection and control devices via optical fibres
● The protection and control unit receives the converted signal through process bus. The
tripping and reclosing commands issued by protection and control unit will be converted
into analog signals

Feeder Automation (FA):

● Feeder automation normally involves installation of sectionalizing devices, and switches,
along the feeder.
● When there is a problem or crisis in the feeder, data will be fed back to the substation or
control center for analysis.
● Once the problem is identified, an expert can remotely activate the switch to segregate the
segment causing the trouble and reroute service to sections on either side of the problem,
or this process may be done automatically
● Many other services related to power quality are incorporated by automating the feeder,
like voltage improvement to manage load and capacitor placement and reactive power
control to reduce losses.
 ●

Feeder Automation Functions:

The following are the chief functions of feeder automation :
1. Fault identification, faulty part isolation and service restoration
2. Network reconfiguration
3. Load management / demand response
4. Active and reactive power control
5. Power factor control
6. Short-term load forecasting
7. Three-phase unbalanced power flow
8. Interface to Customer Information Systems (CIS)
9. Interface to Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
10. Trouble call management and interface to Outage Management Systems (OMS)

Energy Management System (EMS):

● The energy management system is a very important function necessary to
increase energy efficiency and to provide the excellent coordination between
multiple energy sources.
● It also plays a very important role in smoothening the problems related to
power quality, grid failure, and plugged integration of hybrid vehicle.
 ● Thus, the objective of EMS is to provide stable, reliable, secure, and optimal
power to consumers efficiently and economically
EMS should have the following:
1. Monitoring and controlling of complete system including the parameters of
the power system with its interconnections is absolutely necessary.
2. Capturing the real-time analog and digital data from the field quickly.
3. Measured data must be validated properly.
4. The capability to run the necessary EMS software functions to supervise
the key system performance indicators.
5. Control commands should be sent to the field devices and other associated
systems whenever the need arises.
6. The capability to display the relevant measured and computed data to assist
the operator to make quick and appropriate decisions.
7. Operating the system within safe limits by tracking the instantaneous load-
generation balance and ensuring system security.
8. Ability to take preventive action with the awareness of potential risks.
9. The ability to start restoration after an emergency in the system or a state
change

Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU):

● The PMU is also known as a synchro phasor.

● A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is a device used in electrical power
systems to measure the magnitude and phase angle of electrical quantities,
typically voltage and current, in real-time.
● PMUs are crucial for monitoring and managing the stability and reliability of
power grids.
● The diagrammatic representation of PMU is shown in the Fig.
● The power system signals are obtained from voltage and current sensors.
These signals are sampled by the PMU and converted into phasors.
● These phasors are complex number representations of the sampled signals.
They are generally used in the design, control and protection of power systems
for bulk power transmission.
● Modern-day PMUs have excellent accuracy and capable of measuring a
bigger set of phasors in a substation.
 ● Many of the PMUs output will have binary modules for transmitting binary
signals. These binary signals are nothing but trip signals to open a circuit
breaker

Wide Area Monitoring Protection and Control (WAMPAC):

● Wide Area Monitoring and Protection Control (WAMPC) refers to a system

that uses real-time data and advanced analytics to monitor and control the
electricity grid across a large geographic area. WAMPC systems utilize
phasor measurement units (PMUs) and other sensors to provide a
comprehensive view of the grid's state, enabling utilities to:
1. Detect and respond to grid disturbances in real-time
2. Predict and prevent blackouts and grid instability
3. Optimize grid performance and efficiency
4. Enhance reliability and resilience
5. Improve situational awareness and decision-making.
● The typical layout of WAMPAC with many PDCs (Phasor Data Concentrator)
is shown in the Fig
 ● The key feature of wide area monitoring, protection and control system is
nothing but time synchronized measurements.
● Their locations are completely scattered and over spread in an electric power
grid. WAMPAC systems are configured upon the synchronized sampling of
power system currents and voltage signals as shown in Fig
● A common timing signal which originates from GPS synchronizes them with
the power grid.
● The sampled signals are converted into phasor or vector representations of the
grid’s voltage and current measurements at fundamental frequency.
● Bus voltage and current phasor indicate the state of an electric power grid in
real time. All the processed information’s are finally given to TSO
(Transmission System Operator) as input for necessary action.
Advantages of WAMPAC:
1. Reliability, stability and security is maintained against large disturbances.
2. Large numbers of intermittent generating sources like solar, wind, etc., are
managed properly.
3. Power quality is maintained to better level.
4. Transmission efficiency is increased.
Main works carried out by WAMPAC:
1. Monitoring of voltage phase angle difference
2. Monitoring of thermal limits of the line
3. Voltage stability monitoring
4. Monitoring of power system damping
5. When predefined critical levels are exceeded enabling intelligent alarming
6. Online monitoring of system loading
Distribution Systems:
● The distribution system is the last stage in the transmission of power to end
users. Primary feeders at this voltage level meet the power need of small
industrial customers.
● Secondary distribution feeders meet the power need of commercial and
residential customers.
● Fig. shows the distribution automation schemes for distribution systems.
● At the distribution level, intelligent supporting methodologies will be
monitoring closely distributional level activities.
● It is usual that the automation function has been well equipped with self-
learning capability.
● This energizes the automation function to carry out fault detection, voltage
optimization, load transfer, restoration and feeder reconfiguration, real-time
pricing, and automatic billing.
● The chief goal of smart distribution solutions is to minimize energy losses,
bring down power disruptions, and optimize the use of distributed smart grid
components.
● This includes alternative energy sources, and Plug in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEV) charging infrastructure.
Distribution System Topology:

● When critical outages are considered, the option of distribution system

topologies are the first line of defense in power system.
● Distribution system can be categorized as follows :
1. Secondary-selective ‘Main-Tie-Main’ topology
2. Main-Tie-Main topology
3. Ring bus topology
4. Primary loop topology
5. Composite primary loop/secondary selective topology

Secondary-Selective ‘Main-Tie-Main’ Topology:

● The most widely used arrangement of Secondary-selective ‘Main-Tie-Main’

topology is shown in the Fig.
● In this topology there are two buses, each will meet approximately fifty
percent of the load, but are designed to carry the entire load.
● This means that each transformer, secondary main circuit breaker, and bus is
designed to carry the full load

Main-Tie-Main Topology:
● In this topology single power source carries the total load. Other sources will
act as standby sources and operate only the main source fails.
Ring Bus Topology:

● Ring bus topology is also widely used in distribution systems.

● It is highly flexible in supplying multiple loads by ring bus arrangement and
multiple buses as shown in the Fig
● For medium voltage level distribution it is often used. Usually it is in a closed
loop arrangement.

Primary Loop Topology:

● In this topology load interrupting switches are used for switching on the loop.
● It is more economical and justifiable than ring distribution system.
● Usually the loop is operated under open loop way but will be able to supply
all loads.
Composite Primary Loop / Secondary Selective Topology:

● Composite topologies offer excellent flexibility and highest level of

reliability.
● A typical depiction of this topology is shown in the Fig. 2.10.6.
● Depending upon the configuration, cost, and service quality distribution
system may be radial or ring, mesh or the combination of both.
Outage Management System (OMS):

● Conventional outage happens because of bad weather and heat, excavations,

defects in the power station, power lines damages and defects in the
distribution system.
● Other reasons for outage may include a short circuit in the line, the
overloading of electricity mains, equipment failures, or vehicles hitting utility
poles.
● The solution to manage power outages effectively depend upon implementing
outage management system (OMS) or upgrading the existing system
● Recent computer-based OMS makes use of connectivity models and graphical
user interfaces.
● This includes operations like trouble call handling, outage analysis and
prediction, working crew management, and reliability reporting.
● The distribution system connectivity helps operators with the outage
management system which will result in detection of nested outages and
inclusion of partial restoration of the system.
● Outage management was initially carried out by receiving calls from the
customers and did not have a connectivity model of the system.
● This will include the connection points of all customers. In the past, use of
paper maps and manual data recording were very common to estimate the
location of outages.
● With the invention of modern OMS, system connectivity information is
usually stored in the GIS (Geographic Information System).
OMS Benefits:
1. Outage duration is reduced due to faster restoration based upon outage location
predictions.
2. Reduced outage duration minimizes due to prioritizing of outage clearing.
3. Customer satisfaction is improved due to increase in awareness of outage
restoration progress to the customers.
4. Media relations are improved by providing accurate outage and restoration
information.
5. Number of complaints is reduced due to ability to prioritize restoration of
emergency facilities and other critical customers.
6. Frequent occurring of outage is reduced due to efficient outage management.

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV):

● One of the serious challenges this world is facing is environmental concern

regarding the consumption of fossil fuels.
● Consequently, consumption of more renewable resources and promotion of a
clean transport system such as the use of Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(PHEVs) has become the forefront of the new energy policies
● The results indicate that under the fixed rate and time of use in the current
grid, the extra load of the PHEV increases the consumption profile and also
generates new critical points.
● So, excess standby capacity becomes mandatory to satisfy the peak demand
even for a short period of time.
● Alternatively, when the consumers do not pay the price depending on the true
cost of supply, then those who utilize less in peak hours will subsidize the
ones who utilize more
● When analyzed with respect to technical issues, PHEVs load can be shifted to
the late evening and the hours of minimum demand
Merits of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle:
● The fuel consumption is reduced from 30% to 60%, reduces fuel consumption.
● Due to the application of battery and charging abilities of PHEV, greenhouse
gases produced by the vehicle are minimized.
● Since battery is largely used for the movement of the vehicle, fuel
consumption cost is reduced.
● Even though initial cost of buying is relatively higher, in the long run
compared to regular cars PHEV is economical.
 ● PHEV has several energy generators and motors which are smaller in size
and lesser in weight. Therefore this reduces fuel consumption without
interfering with the performance of the vehicle.

HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) Systems:

● HVDC transmission system heavily makes use of power electronics systems

to control power flow within or between networks.
● Thyristors are used as the controlling devices in the modern HVDC systems.
● It is impossible to realize smart grid without the HVDC system.
● It is considered to be such an essential component of the smart grid
Types of HVDC Systems
There are mainly three types of HVDC systems used for transmission purposes.
They are as following:
1. Monopolar link
2. Bipolar link
3. Homopolar link

Monopolar Link:

● As depicted in the Fig, the Monopolar system will have only one conductor
with ground as return conductor.
● Usually the conductor will have negative polarity and it is very suitable for
submarine systems.

Bipolar Link:
● As shown in the Fig, the bipolar link will have two conductors.
 ● One is positive and the other one is negative. The ground point is maintained
at mid potential.
● Both poles will operate with equal currents under normal operation. Under
faulty condition, one DC link may be used along with ground return to meet
half of the rated load

Homopolar Link:

● As shown in the Fig. 2.8.10, two conductors having the same polarity can be
operated with ground return.
● In the face of fault in one conductor, the whole converter can be connected to
working pole and half the rated power can be transmitted.
● When continuous ground currents are unavoidable, homopolar system is
highly preferred.
Fault Detection, Isolation and Service Restoration:

● Fault Detection Identification and Restoration (FDIR) is one of the important

technologies whose aim is to identify the fault occurrence, record the
occurrence, and determine the fault location. Finally it helps in the restoration
process.
● It is an integration of advanced DMS and OMS systems, as well as a close
combination of feeder level assets with the DMS.
● FDIR systems will also use automated switching like reclosers, sectionalizers
and switches.
● This will help to reduce the number of customers affected by a fault. The
FDIR system is tightly connected with the DMS so that measured values from
the shunt capacitors, reclosers, and sectionalizers are available to find the
location of the fault
● Generally, two technology components are needed to provide FDIR
capabilities. These are software algorithms and field devices.
● Field devices have sensors and switches. The sensors search for issues on the
network, while switches are utilized to control the power flow in the network.
● Algorithms are the mathematical tools that guide the switching operations
when isolating equipment on the network. Switching operations proposed by
software algorithms must be applied by an automatic system or human
operator.

Facts devices (Flexible AC Transmission System devices):

Facts devices (Flexible AC Transmission System devices) are crucial components in smart grids,
enhancing the efficiency, reliability, and flexibility of electrical power transmission. These FACTS
devices play a critical role in modernizing power grids, enabling efficient and reliable operation
while accommodating the integration of renewable energy sources and addressing grid challenges
such as voltage stability, power flow control, and congestion management.
Here are some key FACTS devices used in smart grids:
1. Static VAR Compensator (SVC):
Function: SVCs are used to regulate voltage and improve power factor by dynamically
generating or absorbing reactive power.
Benefits: Enhances grid stability, reduces voltage fluctuations, and supports the integration of
renewable energy sources.
Most commonly used SVC scheme are as follows.

1. Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)

2. Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)
3. Self Reactor (SR)
4. Thyristor controlled reactor – Fixed capacitor (TCR-FC)
5. Thyristor-switched capacitor – Thyristor controlled reactor (TSC-TCR)

2. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM):

Function: Similar to SVCs, STATCOMs also regulate voltage and improve power factor but use
power electronics and a synchronous machine to inject reactive power.
Benefits: Offers faster response times and more precise control compared to SVCs, making it
suitable for dynamic grid conditions.

3. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):

 Function: UPFC combines series and shunt compensation capabilities to independently control
active and reactive power flows on transmission lines.
Benefits: Improves power flow control, enhances grid stability, and allows for better utilization
of transmission assets.

4. Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

Function: TCSCs are used to regulate line impedance by controlling capacitive reactance in
series with the transmission line using thyristor switches.
Benefits: Increases power transfer capability, improves system stability, and reduces line losses.

5. Thyristor-Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer (TCPST):

Function: TCPSTs adjust the phase angle of power flow on transmission lines using phase-
shifting transformers controlled by thyristors.
Benefits: Enables active power flow control, facilitates power flow balancing between different
transmission corridors, and enhances grid reliability.
 6.Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
Function: Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a type of FACTS device used in electrical
power systems to control and enhance power transmission capabilities, particularly in smart grids

Benefits: The precise control offered by SSSCs contributes to grid reliability by managing power flows
more efficiently, reducing losses, and enhancing overall system performance.
 3. Evolution of Metering Systems

• The first improvements on metering systems executed with the support of AMR
(Automatic Meter Reading), where one way communication between meters to reader has
been implemented.
• The most widely used electricity meter is known as electromechanical accumulation meter,
which measures the consumption.
• The measurement is created as a record of consumption based on time intervals. Since
accumulation meters cannot be operated or controlled remotely.
• Due to this billing was performed manually. Hence, the billing periods were too long as
months. But in recent years, with advancement in technology, there are possibilities of
generating data for billing and meter readings in short intervals.
• To support this, advanced electricity meters called interval meters have been deployed for
hourly recording of consumption data.
• In early 2000, the next development in metering system has been achieved with smart
metering systems. Such system with the supports information and communication
technology, energy consumption data can be measured, collected, analyzed and managed.
• The improvements in AMI systems have initialized the two way communication for
various applicants namely residential and industrial sector. This AMI (Advanced Metering
Infrastructure) system only acts as a fundamental component of smart metering.
Smart Metering System:
• Smart metering is a single interfacing technology, where the customer and system operator
are integrated with an intelligent control and management system.
• The Fig. 3.4.1, illustrates the smart metering technology. Apart from intelligent integration,
smart meter supports estimation, decision-making and data management technologies also.
• Thus, the smart metering is a technology which connects grid, consumer loads, generation
and transmission network, and asset management through intelligent integration via Home
Area Network (HAN) and Wide Area Networks (WANs).
• Comparison of conventional metering and smart metering systems architectures are shown
in Fig, states that in conventional metering information flows in a single direction and all
processes are performed manually, while on the other end, bidirectional communication
dependency of smart metering operations is observed.
• In this communication is established between customer and operating / monitoring center
for data transmission.
• A communicational channel established has paved a path for interaction between gateways
and database

Functionalities of Smart Meters:

When compared with conventional meters, the smart meters support various functionalities as
listed below:
1. Provides instant and accurate consumption data
2. Communicates with remote monitoring center
3. Provides data base for analyzing and assessment of power quality
4. Processes control commands received from monitoring and control station
5. Performs scheduled operations
6. Interacts with interfacing devices and home energy management system (HEMS)
7. Detect and prevent power losses
8. Tamper detection and energy theft interventions
Types of Smart Meters:
• Based on the type of LAN (Local Area Network), categorization of smart
meter system technologies has been defined.
• Radio Frequency (RF) and Power Line Carrier (PLC)
• There are few factors that influence the meter selection. The following are
smart meter selection factors
1. Infrastructure
2. Legacy equipment
3. Functionality
4. Technical requirements
• The data transmission in RF smart meter measurements is performed by
wireless radio.
This creates a connection between meters to a collection point.
• For processing the data at central location, various methods are deployed for
data transmission to the utility data systems.
• The transmitted data is used for utility billing and outage management in a
smart grid.
• RF smart meters are classified into two more types based on the technologies
used.
• Mesh technology based RF smart meter communicates with each node to form
a LAN cloud. Through this data can be collected by data collector.
• Point to Point technology based smart meter is another type of RF smart meter.
In this system, a direct communication to a data collector can be enabled.
• In a PLC type smart meter, the measurements and data communication is
enabled across the utility power lines from the meter to a collection point. The
data is then delivered to the utility data systems for processing at a central
location

Smart Metering Infrastructure:

• In a smart metering architecture, the core system for data management is

Metering Data Management System (MDMS).
• The Fig, shows the servers perform various operation namely Customer
Information System (CIS), Outage Management System (OMS),
Geographical Information System (GIS), and DMS.
• The role of data concentrators is to couple the customer premises and smart
meters with MDMS

• Metering Data Management System (MDMS):

In a distribution network level, MDMS acts as a data acquisition system from
smart metering. At this level, the data collected are processed, evaluated, and
stored for performing actual status analysis of distribution network
• Outage Management System:
The power quality parameters of grid are monitored by OMS. The detection
of any fault or disturbance situations in a grid is reported to MDMS
immediately
• Geographical Information System (GIS)
A better decision making process is supported by GIS, where the geographical
data of smart meters and customer premises are collected. A common platform
to store, to analyze and todisplay geographical information on asset
management and under or over loaded substations is executed by GIS service.
 • Customer Information System (CIS)
The CIS is essential to make sure customer services for generating reliable
billing services. The data from GIS is provided to CIS. This data assists the
billing operation. During consumption rate detection and billing operation, the
GIS data provides information including geographical location.

Communication Architecture in Smart Metering Infrastructure:

• The communication interface and ICT technologies are the significant
component of smart metering architecture.
• The communication established in the entire smart meter architecture through
HAN (Home Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network) networks.
• These networks connect the customer premises with MDMS
• Various services such as remote control, monitoring, multimedia systems,
surveillance cameras and energy management applications are operated by
HAN infrastructure.
• By using NAN (Neighborhood Area Network) and WAN infrastructures, the
internal residential networks are associated with utility grid
• As the data size of residential smart meter is lower than 100 KB/day, data
concentrators are required to support the massive data transmission between
NAN and WAN connection nodes. Thus, the data management is managed
through concentrator devices.
Hardware of Smart Meter:

• Metering Unit: Includes components for measurement (electricity, gas,

water), sensors (CTs, VTs), and processing (ADCs).
• Communication Module: Contains RF, cellular, or PLC modules for
communication with utility systems.
• Data Processing: Microcontroller manages operations, memory stores data,
and RTC provides timestamps.
• Display & UI: LCD display for consumer information, buttons for navigation.
• Power Supply: Battery backup, power management.
• Security Features: Encryption, tamper detection for data security.
• External Interfaces: Optical port for local data retrieval, HAN interfaces for
home device
Advanced Metering Infrastructure:
• The present system of energy metering as well as billing in India uses
electromechanical and somewhere digital energy meter. It consumes more
time and labour
• One of the prime reasons is the traditional billing system which is very
inaccurate, slow, costly, and lack in flexibility as well as reliability.
• Today accuracy in electricity billing is highly recommended. The ‘Smart
energy meter’ gives real power consumption as well as accurate billing. It
provides real time monitoring of utility of electricity.
• AMI (Advanced Metering Infrastructure) is the collective term to describe the
whole infrastructure from smart meter to two-way communication network to
control centre equipment and all the applications that enable the gathering and
transfer of energy usage information in near real-time.
• AMI makes a two-way communication with customers possible and is the
backbone of smart grid.

Building blocks of AMI:

• AMI is comprised of various hardware and software components, all of which

play a role in measuring energy consumption and transmitting information
about energy, water and gas usage to utility companies and customers.
• The technological components include:
1. Smart meters
2. Wide-area communications infrastructure
3. Home (local) area networks (HAN’s)
4. Meter Data Management Systems (MDMS)
5. Operational gateways

Smart meters
• Smart meters have the capacity to collect information about energy, water,
and gas usage at various intervals and transmitting the data through fixed
communication networks to utility, as well as receiving information like
pricing signals from utility and conveying it to consumer.
Home Area Networks (HANs)
• A Home Area Network (HAN) interfaces with a consumer portal to link smart
meters to controllable electrical devices
Meter Data Management System (MDMS)
• A MDMS is a database with analytical tools that enable interaction with other
information systems. One of the functions of MDMS is to perform validation,
editing and estimation on the AMI data to ensure that despite disruptions in
the communications network or at customer premises, the data flowing to the
systems described above is complete and accurate.

Challenges of AMI:
Benefits of AMI:

• Security benefits - AMI technology enables enhanced monitoring of

system resources, which mitigates system intrusion and cyber-attacks

AMI Protocols and Standards:

• For any system, the establishment of regulation is highly important to enable

interoperability. This is done by defining the protocols and standards for a
system.
• The ability of two or more components or systems to exchange information
and use the information exchanged is defined as interoperability of a system.
• The exchange of data and its usage is defined by Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). IEEE, International Electro technical
Commission (IEC), America National Standards Institute (ANSI), National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) are few standard development
organizations.
 • Apart from these standard development organizations, there are many types
of interoperability standards available. The following are standards developed
for application specific, namely
1. Multimedia related standards for wire line communication and cellular
communications.
2. Data transmission standards such as internet standards, Internet Protocol (IP),
Transmission Control protocol (TCP), Usage based Dynamic Pricing (UDP)
and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) standards.
3. Application related standards as IEC 61850, IEC 61968 and ANSI C.12
• The standards of communication and interoperability for smart grid was
developed by the leading standard development organization called IEC.
• The featured communication standards that are developed by IEC TC57 for
electric power networks include standards for interoperability layers, domains
and zones.
• Generation, transmission, distribution, DER and customer premises are
domains.
• The process, field, station, operation, enterprise, and market are zones. The
standards developed by IED TC57 are classified according to zones and
communication layers have been listed below.
1. For improved mapping, service models, and object models in the field zone
IEC 61850 is used. IEC 61850 is associated with substation automation,
integration of RES and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
communications.
2. At control centers for transmission and distribution, abstract modeling,
application and data based integration are implemented using IEC 61970.
3. In Common Information Model (CIM) and AMI back office interface, IEC
61968 are involved.
4. IEC protocols focuses on management operations of network and authorized
access control. IEC 62351 provide the support and security services for
managing the operation of network.

Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED):

• A continuous monitoring and control of power system operation is highly

demanded for ensuring reliable and uninterrupted power supply. The
measured data from different locations of power system are communicated to
 Central Control Room (CCR) for further processing through Remote Terminal
Unit (RTU).
• In the electric power industry, circuit breakers, transformers and capacitor
banks are operated by microprocessor based controllers. Such controllers are
called as Intelligent Electronic Devices.
• It receives data from sensors and power equipment for executing the control
commands on the power system. In order to maintain a desired voltage level,
sensors are involved. The sensed signals are used for tripping of circuit
breakers based on the voltage, current, or frequency deviation.
• An IED consists of three major blocks namely, signal processing unit,
microprocessor and communication interface.
• Since IEDs are microprocessor based devices that has the ability to exchange
data and control signals with other devices like IED or SCADA.
• The exchange of data takes place through a communications link. Apart from
protection, IEDs has the ability to perform monitoring, control and data
acquisition in a powers system.
• IED technology can help utilities improve reliability, operational efficiencies
of a power system.
• This is because the implementation of IEDs provides both operational and
nonoperational information that are required by various users in a grid.
 4. Power Quality Management in Smart Grid
• A term that is used for assessing the quality of electric power is known as power quality
(PQ).
• It is involved maintaining better quality of power at different levels of power system
namely generation, transmission and distribution and utilization of AC power.
• Thus, power quality can be defined as the grid’s capability to provide or supply clean and
stable power in a system.
• In a power system, it is vital to maintain a pure sinusoidal wave form within specified
voltage and frequency tolerances.
• But in today’s electrical networks, the ideal conditions are frequently deviated due to
increase intervention of non-linear loads.
• At utilization level, deviation of electric power supply systems is much severe. This is due
to the intrusion of flashover, equipment failure and faults

Effects of power quality problems:

POWER QUALITY MONITORING:
• Power quality monitoring is a crucial aspect of modern life, ensuring that electrical
systems are operating effectively and efficiently.
• From homes to businesses to entire cities, power quality monitoring plays a vital role in
keeping our world running smoothly.
• Power quality monitoring refers to the process of measuring, analyzing, and managing
electrical parameters to ensure that the electricity supplied to a system or equipment is
within acceptable limits.
• This includes monitoring voltage, current, frequency, and waveform distortion.
• Effective power quality monitoring is important because poor power quality can cause
equipment damage, production downtime, and safety hazards.
• It can also result in increased energy consumption and higher electricity bills. By
monitoring power quality, potential issues can be identified and addressed before they
cause significant problems.
Issues with Power Quality Monitoring:
• One common issue with power quality monitoring is voltage sags. These are brief drops
in voltage that can cause equipment to malfunction or shut down completely.
 • Voltage sags can be caused by a variety of factors, including lightning strikes, power
outages, and equipment failures.
• They can be particularly problematic for sensitive equipment like computers and medical
devices.
• Another issue is harmonic distortion. This occurs when non-linear loads like variable
speed drives and electronic ballasts introduce distortions into the electrical system.
• Harmonic distortion can cause overheating, equipment failure, and even fires. It can also
lead to poor power factor, which can result in increased energy costs.
Benefits of PQ Monitoring:
• Basic PQ monitoring system can be considered as a tool for ensuring the availability of
power to the customers. The following are benefits of PQ monitoring
1. Mitigation of PQ problems
2. Scheduling preventive and predictive maintenance
3. Ensuring the performance of equipment
4. Assessing the sensitivity of equipment to PQ disturbances
5. Identifying the power quality events and problem
6. Reducing the power losses in the process and distribution system
7. Upgrading and modernizing of data to be analyzed.

Types of power quality monitoring:

• There are two main types of power quality monitoring: portable and permanent solutions.
• Portable monitoring involves using handheld devices that can be easily moved from one
location to another.
• These devices are often used for short-term monitoring of power quality issues and are
ideal for troubleshooting purposes.
• On the other hand, permanent monitoring solutions are installed at a specific location
and continuously monitor power quality over an extended period of time.
• These solutions provide more detailed information about power quality issues and can
help businesses identify long-term trends and patterns.
Types of Power Quality Issues:
• Voltage sags and swells: These are sudden drops or increases in voltage that can cause
equipment to malfunction or shut down.
• Harmonic distortion: This occurs when the frequency of the electrical signal is distorted,
leading to equipment malfunction and overheating.
• Interruptions: These are brief losses of power that can lead to equipment damage or data
loss.
• Transients: These are sudden changes in voltage or current that can damage equipment
or cause malfunctions.
 • Unbalance: This occurs when the three phases of an AC power system are not equal,
leading to equipment overheating and possible failure.
Web-Based Power Quality Measurement:
• Power quality has traditionally been measured using a variety of methods, including
oscilloscopes, power analyzers, and spectrum analyzers.
• While these methods can provide valuable information about the quality of electrical
power, they have several limitations that make them less than ideal for real-time
monitoring and analysis.
• One of the biggest challenges of traditional power quality measurement is the need for
specialized equipment and trained personnel to operate it.
• This can be expensive and time-consuming, and may not always be practical for certain
applications
• To address these challenges, there is a growing need for more efficient and accurate
methods of power quality measurement.
• Web-based power quality measurement offers a promising solution, providing real-time
monitoring and analysis capabilities that are accessible from anywhere with an internet
connection.
• Web-based power quality measurement is a cutting-edge method that allows for real-
time monitoring and remote access.
• It works by using sensors to collect data on various aspects of power quality, such as
voltage fluctuations, harmonics, and interruptions.
• This data is then transmitted to a web-based platform where it can be analyzed and
visualized in real-time.
• The benefits of this method are numerous, including the ability to quickly identify and
address power quality issues, reduce downtime and maintenance costs, and improve
overall system performance.
• Web-based measurement is often more cost-effective than traditional methods, as it
eliminates the need for expensive hardware and on-site personnel.

Power Quality Audit:

• The Power Quality Audit (PQA), is a service offered by the technical support centre that
checks the reliability, efficiency and safety of an organization's electrical system.
It verifies the following aspects:
• The continuity of the power supply: i.e., that the power in the network is available on a
regular basis and is able to ensure the efficient operation of the equipment.
• The quality of the voltage: i.e., that there are no low or high frequency disturbances in
the network capable of damaging the system components.
 • The PQA uses network analysers, instruments specially designed to detect faults and
deteriorations and record parameters and information that may be of use in locating the
causes of disturbances.
• The data is collected and analysed by engineers, who can hen diagnose the problems and
suggest the most appropriate solutions

Power Quality Audit Process:

 The systematic process is carried out under three different phases namely, planning, site
audit and analysis and reporting

The following are the various steps carried out in pre audit phase.
 Pre-audit information based on walkthrough of facility and discussion with plant
personnel
 Study of past trend and direct site readings is also undertaken
 While in second phase of audit, the direct inspection of site is done. Site audit includes
site visit, and real time data collection.
 The gathering of data reveals the exact condition of the system. Based on these data,
various analyses are done and audit documentation is prepared.
 In report preparation phase, the documentation provides recommendations depending
upon the client requirement as per mentioned standards(IEEE,IEC,ANSI,BIS,CSA)

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC):

• The smart grid technology has deployed several sensitive electronic circuits in it for
accomplishing maximum benefit in the utility.
• The increased incorporation of such electronic circuits has implications with respect to
Electromagnetic Compatibility.
 • The objective EMC is defined as the satisfactory function of electrical and electronic
equipment with respect to electromagnetic disturbances.
• Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of an equipment or system to function
satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable
electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.
• Electromagnetic compatibility, or EMC, refers to the ability of electronic devices to
operate without interfering with each other.
• In the context of smart grids, it is important to ensure that all devices can communicate
with each other without causing disruptions or failures in the system.
• Any interference or disruption can have serious consequences, such as power outages or
equipment failure. By ensuring EMC, smart grid systems can operate more efficiently and
reliably.
• With so many different types of devices operating on the same frequency bands, it can
be difficult to ensure that they all work together without causing interference. This can
lead to disruptions in service, reduced efficiency, and even safety issues.
Solutions for Electromagnetic Compatibility in Smart Grids:
• One of the main solutions for achieving electromagnetic compatibility in smart grids is
through the use of shielding.
• This involves enclosing sensitive components in a conductive material that blocks
electromagnetic interference from other devices. Shielding can be done at both the
device and system level
• Another solution for achieving electromagnetic compatibility is through the use of
filtering.
• Filters are designed to remove unwanted signals from the power supply or
communication lines, which can cause interference with other devices.
• Different types of filters are available, including low-pass, high-pass, and band-stop filters,
each with their own specific applications.
• Proper grounding techniques are also essential for achieving electromagnetic
compatibility in smart grids.
• Grounding helps to reduce the risk of electrical shocks, and also provides a path for
unwanted electrical currents to flow safely away from sensitive equipment.
• Grounding can be done using a variety of techniques, including earth rods, ground plates,
and grounding grids
• The benefits of achieving electromagnetic compatibility are significant, including
improved reliability, increased efficiency, and reduced costs

Power Quality Conditioner:

• A power quality conditioner is a device deployed for improving the quality of power that
is being delivered to electrical load or equipment. It is also known as a line conditioner or
power line conditioner.
 • The role of a power quality conditioner are listed below:
1. Deliver voltage and current of the proper level
2. To enable load equipment to function properly
3. Ensure efficient power transfer between utility grid and micro grid
4. Isolate utility grid from disturbances
5. Integration with energy storage system
• A drastic increase in usage of nonlinear loads in modern power distribution system has
been noticed in recent days.
• Voltage sag, swell, harmonics, very short interruptions, long interruptions, voltage spike,
noise, voltage unbalance are the consequences of power quality issues.
• With the advancement in technologies, various Custom Power devices were used for
power quality mitigation. DSTATCOM and UPQC are the two custom power devices
reported for the effective mitigation of voltage sag / swell.

Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM):

• DSTATCOM is a custom power device based on a voltage Source Converter (VSC) shunt
connected to the distribution networks.
• A DSTATCOM is normally used to precisely regulate system voltage, improve voltage
profile, reduce voltage harmonics and for load compensation.
• D-STATCOM can also mitigate voltage dips and can compensate both magnitude and
phase angle by injecting reactive or reactive power to the point of connection with the
grid.
• The VSC connected in shunt with the ac system provides a multifunctional topology which
can be used for up to three quite distinct purposes: voltage regulation and compensation
of reactive power, correction of power factor, and elimination of current harmonics.
Unified Power Quality conditioner (UPQC):

• Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) combines the Shunt Active Power Filter with
the Series Active Power Filter, sharing the same DC Link, in order to compensate both
voltages and currents, so that the load voltages become sinusoidal and at nominal value
• UPQC can compensate both voltage related problems such as voltage harmonics, voltage
sags/swells, voltage flicker as well as current related problems like reactive power
compensation, power factor correction, current harmonics and load unbalance
compensation.

Power Quality Indices:

• There are various terminologies used for describing power quality indices under harmonic
distortion:
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
• A widely used index to reveal issues related to power quality in transmission and
distribution systems.
• THD considers the impact of each and every harmonic component in a system.
• The ratio of the sum of powers of all harmonic components to fundamental frequency of
power is known as total harmonic distortion. This measure the harmonics present in all
signals
Total Demand Distortion
• Usually a weak source with a large demand current relative to their rated current will
have a tendency to show greater waveform distortion.
• The total demand distortion is based on the demand current, IL, over the monitoring
period.

Telephone Influence Factor TIF

• It is measure of audio circuit interference produced by harmonics in electric power
systems.
• Such indices can influence the level of sensitivity of human ear to noise under different
frequencies.
5. High Performance Computing for Smart Grid Applications

Communications in the Smart Grid:

• In a smart grid the communication infrastructure plays a vital role.

• The analogue of smart grid can be compared with human nervous system for better
understanding.
• In a human body, the overall control is executed by brain. Similarly, all the entities of smart
grid system are controlled by communication infrastructure

Key features of communication technologies:

• The following are the key features of communication technologies :

Reliability
• To ensure smooth operation for 24 / 7, the term reliability is highly demanded. In order to
prevent blackouts and overload condition, it has become essential to meet out the reliability
requirements of communication architecture.
Security
• In a smart grid, the information flows bidirectionally, where customer privacy must be
ensured. The information related to billing and energy consumption by consumers can be
attacked by hacking. Hence, deploying a secured environment has become mandatory in a
smart grid.
Scalability
• Due to technological advancements, millions of devices and appliances are expected to add
in the smart grid. This makes the grid to expand vertically and horizontally. In such
expansion, the communication infrastructure is expected to last for decades.
Quality of Service
• It is decided by the minimum bit rate, low error rate and latency limits. The service quality is
vital for various applications in a smart grid.
Interoperability
• For global interoperability between different communication technologies, a standardized
solution is highly important
Low Cost
• In any system, cost effectiveness is considered a crucial parameter, because infrastructure
creation and maintenance should not incur high capital

Local Area Network (LAN):

• A local area network is a data communication network, typically a packet communication

network, limited within the specific network.
• A local area network generally provides high bandwidth communication over inexpensive
transmission media.
• The information flow is between smart meters and sensors. For this data exchange LAN
technology is used
• PLC which used existing power cable and Zigbee can be ideal communication technologies
for LAN in the smart grid.
• Wi-Fi provide high data rate but it consumes more electric power than other. Bluetooth is
limited for implementing HAN because of its limited capability
LAN topologies:

• Bus topology: Linear LAN architecture in which transmission from network station
propagates the length of the medium and is received by all other stations connected to it.
• Ring bus topology: A series of devices connected to one another by unidirectional
transmission links to form a single closed loop.
• Star topology: The end points on a network are connected to a common central hub or
switch by dedicated links.
• Tree topology: Identical to the bus topology except that branches with multiple nodes are
also possible.
LAN -Categories of data transmission;

• Unicast transmission: A single data packet is sent from a source node to a destination
(address) on the network
• Multicast transmission: A single data packet is copied and sent to a specific subset of nodes
on the network; the source node addresses the packet by using the multicast addresses
• Broadcast transmission: A single data packet is copied and sent to all nodes on the network;
the source node addresses the packet by using the broadcast address.

Home Area Network (HAN):

• Home Area Network (HAN) is a network in a user’s home where all the laptops, computers,
smartphones and other smart appliances and digital devices are connected into a network.
• This facilitates communication among the digital devices within a home which are connected
to the Home network. Home Area Network may be wired or wireless.
• Mostly wireless network is used for HAN. One centralized device is there for the function
of Network Address Translation (NAT).
• This Home Area Network enables communication and sharing of resources between the
smart devices over a network connection.
Benefits of Home Area Network:

• Home Area Network empowers the consumers and allows the smart grid infrastructure to
benefit the home owners directly.
• HAN allows the Smart Grid applications to communicate intelligently by providing
centralized access to multiple appliances and devices.
• Utilities can effectively manage grid load by automatically controlling high energy consuming
systems with HAN and Smart Grid infrastructure.
• Home Area Networks provide energy monitoring, controlling and energy consumption
information about the appliances and devices and hence support energy usage optimization
by allowing the consumers to receive price alerts from the utility.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

• The WAN connects several subsystem and smart meters with control center which is far
from subsystem and customer side network.
• For example several meter data collectors, mobile meter readers, and substation
automation devices might send information to the utility offices over a WAN.
• The dedicated copper or fiber optic cable support reliable and secure communication
however it is very costly to deploy new cable for long distance.
• Cellular communication like as WiMAX, 3G and LTE is also considered for WAN in the smart
grid since the same can support wide area communication between control center and
subsystems
• To be fully effective, the utility‘s WAN will need to span its entire distribution footprint,
including all substations, and interface with both distributed power generation and storage
facilities such as capacitor banks, transformers, and re- closers.
• The utility‘s WAN will also provide the two‐way network needed for substation
communication, distribution automation (DA), and power quality monitoring
• It also supports aggregation and backhaul for the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)
and any demand response / demand‐side management applications.
• Each application running on the utility‘s WAN has its own set of requirements.

Broadband over Power line (BPL):

• Broadband over power line (BPL) is a technology that allows data to be transmitted over
utility power lines.
• BPL is also sometimes called Internet over power line (IPL), power line communication (PLC)
or power line telecommunication (PLT).
 • The technology uses medium wave, short wave and low-band VHF frequencies and operates
at speeds similar to those of digital subscriber line (DSL)
• Initially it was hoped that BPL would allow electric companies to provide high- speed access
to the Internet across what providers call "the last mile”.
• In this scenario, the service provider would deliver phone, television and Internet services
over fiber or copper-based long haul networks all the way to the neighborhood or curb and
then power lines would bring the signals into the subscriber's home.
• The BPL subscriber would install a modem that plugs into an ordinary wall outlet and pay a
subscription fee similar to those paid for other types of Internet service.
• No phone, cable service or satellite connection would be required.

IP based Protocols:

 The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one
computer to another on the Internet.
 Each computer known as a host on the Internet has at least one IP address that uniquely
identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.
 When you send or receive data (for example, an e-mail note or a Web page), the message
gets divided into little chunks called packets. Each of these packets contains both the
sender's Internet address and the receiver's address.
 Any packet is sent first to a gateway computer that understands a small part of the Internet.
The gateway computer reads the destination address and forwards the packet to an
adjacent gateway that in turn reads the destination address and so forth across the Internet
until one gateway recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within its immediate
neighborhood or domain.
 That gateway then forwards the packet directly to the computer whose address is specified.
Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary, be
sent by a different route across the Internet.
 Packets can arrive in a different order than the order they were sent in. The Internet
Protocol just delivers them. It's up to another protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) to put them back in the right order
 The reason the packets do get put in the right order is because of TCP, the connection-
oriented protocol that keeps track of the packet sequence in a message
 The most widely used version of IP today is Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). However, IP
Version 6 (IPv6) is also beginning to be supported. IPv6 provides for much longer addresses
and therefore for the possibility of many more Internet users.

Basics of Web Service:

 A web service is any piece of software that makes itself available over the internet and uses
a standardized XML messaging system.
 XML is used to encode all communications to a web service. Web services are XML-based
information exchange systems that use the Internet for direct application-to- application
interaction.
 These systems can include programs, objects, messages, or documents. Web services are
self-contained, modular, distributed, dynamic applications that can be described, published,
located, or invoked over the network to create products, processes, and supply chains.
 These applications can be local, distributed, or web-based. Web services are built on top of
open standards such as TCP/IP, HTTP, Java, HTML, and XML.
 A web service is a collection of open protocols and standards used for exchanging data
between applications or systems.
  Software applications written in various programming languages and running on various
platforms can use web services to exchange data over computer networks like the Internet
in a manner similar to inter-process communication on a single computer.
 To summarize, a complete web service is, therefore, any service that: Is available over the
Internet or private (intranet) networks Uses a standardized XML messaging system

Need of Cloud Computing:

 Cloud Computing is the term referring to the delivery of hosted services over the internet.
Cloud computing is a model for delivering information technology services in which
resources are retrieved from the internet through Web based tools and applications rather
than a direct connection to the server
 Any smart grid infrastructure should support real-time, two-way communication between
utilities and consumers, and should allow software systems at both the producer and
consumer ends to control and manage the power usage.
 Cloud computing is an emerging technology advocated for enabling reliable and on-demand
access to different computing sources that can be quickly provisioned and released in a cost-
effective way to the service providers.
 Using cloud infrastructure, a customer can gain access to their applications anytime, and
from anywhere, through a connected device to the network.
 In order to balance the real-time demand and supply curves, rapid integration and
analyzation of information that streams from multiple smart meters simultaneously is
required that necessitates the scalable software platform.
 Cloud platforms are well suited to support huge data and computationally- intensive,
always-on applications. Cloud platforms serve as essential components due to the various
benefits they offer.
 Cloud acts elastically to avoid costly capital investment by the utility during the peak hours.
 Customers can be benefited from the real-time information by sharing the real-time energy
usage and pricing information.
 some data can be shared with a third party by using cloud services, after meeting the data
privacy policies for developing intelligent applications to customize consumer needs.
 To manage large amounts of data, cloud computing is the best way for smart grids due to its
scalable, economical, and flexible characteristics

Importance of Cloud Computing:

 A smart grid is conceptualized as a combination of electrical network and communication

infrastructure. With the implementation of bidirectional communication and power flows, a
smart grid is capable of delivering electricity more efficiently and reliably than the traditional
power grid.
 A smart grid consists of a power network with intelligent‘entities that can operate,
communicate, and interact autonomously, in order to efficiently deliver electricity to the
customers.
 Any smart grid infrastructure should support real-time, two-way communication between
utilities and consumers, and should allow software systems at both the producer and
consumer ends to control and manage the power usage.
 Cloud computing is an emerging technology advocated for enabling reliable and on-demand
access to different computing sources that can be quickly provisioned and released in a cost-
effective way to the service providers.
 Using cloud infrastructure, a customer can gain access to their applications anytime, and
from anywhere, through a connected device to the network.
  Flexible resources and services shared in network, parallel processing and omnipresent
access are some features of Cloud Computing that are desirable for Smart Grid applications.

Cyber Security for Smart Grid:

 Smart Grid has transformed the electric system into a two-ways a) flow of electricity b)
information.
 The information technology (IT) and telecommunications infrastructures have become
critical to the energy sector.
 Therefore, the management and protection of systems and components of these
infrastructures must also be addressed by an increasingly diverse energy sector.
 To achieve this security system should be so designed which comprises of the following.
1. Requirements of the system
2. Plans that could be formulated and implemented.
3. Risks involved in maintaining the security systems and smart methods to eradicate the risks.
4. Strategy to be evolved.
5. Study and analyze for future improvement.

Cyber Security Requirements

 To address cyber threats, security measures in smart grid are classified into following five (5)
categories:
1. Availability: - Availability means information network are available for use by the
appropriate parties in the manner intended. Availability of system is ensured by monitoring
the ICT network at device level, communication level and at control centre end.
2. Authorization: Authorization is a security service that ensures that a party may only perform
the actions that they're allowed to perform
3. Integrity: - Integrity assures that data/information cannot be altered in an unauthorized or
malicious manner. Strong Point to point communication schemes are used to prevent
spoofing and injection of false data.
4. Confidentiality:-means data/information is being protected from being disclosed to third
party. Confidentiality of data and information is achieved by providing role based access at
both data & information level and device level.
5. Authentication: - Authentication provides assurance that a party in data communication is
who or what they claim to be.

Smart Grid Security Objectives:

 The NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Smart Grid interoperability panel
has given a comprehensive guideline for smart grid cyber security. Availability, integrity and
confidentiality are the three levels of objectives in a smart grid.
1. Availability: In a smart grid, reliable access of information and its timely availability have to
be ensured for smooth operation of grid. Disruption of information access can occur due loss
of information availability. This can create impact on power delivery of the system.
2. Integrity: Integrity deals with safe guarding against improper information modification or
destruction. In order to ensure information authenticity, integrity is required. A loss of
integrity may lead to unauthorized modification or destruction of information. Such
unauthorized directions can further induce incorrect decision regarding power management.
 3. Confidentiality: To protect personal privacy and proprietary information, confidentiality is
needed. It is a process of preserving authorized restriction on information access. In order to
prevent unauthorized disclosure of information to public or individuals, the confidentiality is
required.

Network Security Threats in the Smart Grid:

 A malicious cyber attacks via communication networks creates disruption of the smart grid.
 The network security threats can be defined by type of attacks made on the communication
network.
 Attack classification in communication networks are categorized as selfish attacks on
security, selfish misbehaving users and cruel users.
 The communication protocols are violated and make an attempt to access the network
resources. Such selfish misbehaving user attack can create performance degradation in the
system.
 It is very clearly stated that both selfish and cruel users pose challenging security problems
to communication networks.
 In such situation, high level of attention is paid towards cruel users when compared to self
behavior attack.
 This is because cruel users may attack r create disrupt in the millions of electronic computing
devices are used for monitoring and control purposes.
 Cruel attack may at times hack data services such as file downloading and sharing. Thus,
malicious attacks may induce severe damage to power supplies and widespread power
outage.
 So based on smart grid security objective such as availability, integrity and confidentiality the
attacks can be categorized.
1. Attacks targeting availability is known as Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks. This attack,
introduces delay, block or corrupt the communication in smart grid.
2. Attacks targeting integrity intentionally modify or disrupt data exchange in smart grid.
3. Attacks targeting confidentiality aim to acquire unauthorized information from network
resources in smart grid.

Denial-of-Service Attacks:

 Availability of data on time is the primary security goal of smart grid operations.
 When there is a lag in data availability, then the system performance gets degraded. In
worst case, operations of electronics devices are impaired.
 In a smart grid, DoS executes attacks at different levels of communication layers.

1. Physical Layer

 In wireless communication, channel jamming is one of the most efficient ways to launch
physical-layer DoS attacks.
 When intruders only need to connect to communication channels rather than authenticated
networks, it is very easy for them to launch DoS attacks at the physical layer.
 LANs are widely used in smart grid, where wireless jamming becomes the primary physical-
layer attack.
 2. MAC Layer

 Intentionally attacker can modify its MAC parameters. A reliable point to-point
communication is done by MAC layer.
 Such intrusion creates better opportunities in accessing the network at the cost of
performance degradation.
 Thus, attacks at MAC layer is considered to be a weak version of DoS attack. Spoofing is
considered to the most harmful threat in smart grid. This is due to possibility of attack at
MAC layers.

3. Network and Transport Layers

 In a network and transport layer, to degrade the end-to-end communication

performance attacks takes place.
 Distributed traffic flooding and worm propagation attacks on the Internet are few
examples for attacks leading to performance degradation in smart grid.

4. Application Layer

 The main focus of lower layer attacks is on transmission bandwidth in communication

channels, computers or routers.
 DoS attacks on application-layer intend to exhaust resources of a computer, such as CPU
or I/O bandwidth. Thus, CPU suffers from limited computing resources.

Types of PLC:

 PLC can be categorized into two groups namely Narrowband Power line Communication
(NB-PLC) and Broadband Power line Communication (BB-PLC).
 The operation frequency band of NB-PLC is 3 - 500 kHz and it is suited for wide-area access
applications of smart grid. NB-PLC offer low cost and high reliability.
 While,BB-PLC is operated in a high-frequency band such as 2 - 100 MHz. This is preferred in-
home broadband applications such as VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), Video Game, and
Internet

BB-PLC Technologies:

 Home Plug AV2 is the latest BB-PLC technology that offers a peak rate of more than 1 Gbps.
 This is attained by using advanced signal processing technologies such as Multiple Input
Multiple Output (MIMO) and pre-coding.
 But these technologies introduce increase in system complexity, power consumption, and
capital cost.

NB-PLC Technologies:

 To meet the requirements of long-range and outside-the-home applications

 NB-PLC technologies are deployed. It provides low complexity, low power consumption, and
high reliability.