MASS WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS

MASS: - it is defined as the amount of matter contained in a body. The standard units are
kilograms (kg). The mass of an object does not change with place, i.e. it remains constant
anywhere in space.

WEIGHT: - The weight of an object is the force that pulls an object towards the centre of
the earth. The weight is given by relation.
W = mg
Where m is the mass of the object
g is the gravitational field and its value is 10N/kg.
The weight of an object changes as the gravitational field changes, therefore weight of a
body is not constant everywhere.
Mass (kg) Weight (earth: g= Weight (moon: g= Weight ( Jupiter
10N/kg) 2N/kg) g=20N/kg)
1 10 2 20
2 20 2 40
4 40 8 80
10 100 20 200

CENTRE OF MASS OR CENTRE OF GRAVITTY

A body behaves as if the whole weight were concentrated at one point. This point is
called the centre of mass or centre of gravity. By definition the centre of mass of the
body is defined as the point of application of result of Force. The centre of mass of a
regular shaped body is at its geometrical centre.

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Centre of gravity using plumb line
The centre of mass of an irregular object can be found by a method called the plumb-line
method.
Consider a plane lamina below, with an irregular shape.

EXPERIMENT

AIM: To find the center of mass of an irregular object.

Steps to be followed:

-Make three holes close to the edge of the lamina at well-spaced intervals.
-A stout pin is put in one of the holes and held firmly by a clamp.
_ The card will come to rest with its c.g. vertically below the point of support.
_A considerable mass is hung on a cotton string whose other end is attached to the stout
pin.
_Mark the route of the string on the card with a pencil,
_Repeat the same procedure with the other holes.
The point where all the three lines intersect is the center of gravity or center of mass of
the object.

STABILITY OF AN OBJECT
When a body is tilted, it will not topple over as long as the c.g lies within its base.
NB. The condition for toppling is that the c.g. should lie outside the base

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STABLE, UNSTABLE AND NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be an a stable equilibrium if when tilted through a fairly large angle the
vertical line through the c.g will still fall inside the base area of the object. In such a case
the object will not topple
over.

Unstable equilibrium.
A body which easily topples over when slightly tilted is said to be in unstable
equilibrium. A typical example is a cone resting on its apex.

Neutral equilibrium
An object is said to be in a neutral equilibrium if when rolled or moved to a new position,
the vertical line through the center of mass still continue to pass through exactly the same

3
point in a base.

TOPPLING OVER
The stability of an object can increased by
(a) Increasing the area of the base of an object
(b) Lowering the c.g of an object
Objects with a small base area are likely to topple over since the line passing through the
c.g can easily move off the base of the object when it is tilted. An object with a lower c.g
is very stable because the line passing through the c.g cannot easily move off the base
when the object is disturbed.

Height of the c.g and stability

Consider two objects of the same base area but with c.g at different heights h1 and h2.

4
If the two objects are displaced by a similar force, object (d) will topple over, as the line
through the c.g will fall outside the base. Object © will return to its original position after
being displaced.
Conclusion: the higher the c.g the lower the stability and vice-versa.

INERTIA
This is an inbuilt property of matter, which makes objects to resist a change of state of
motion or rest. An object at rest will resist being moved and that which is in motion will
resist being stopped. Inertia increases with mass i.e objects with large masses have large
inertia and those with small masses have small inertia.

ILLUSTRATION
If an object is placed on a moving trolley and the trolley is suddenly stopped the object
will lurch forward because it “wants” to continue moving.

If the trolley initially at rest is suddenly moved, the object will move backwards

DENSITY
It is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.
Density = mass/volume (ρ=M/V)
The SI units are kg/m3
It can also be measured in g/cm3

Density of solids:

(i) Regular shapes=> These are solids with definite shapes e.g. cuboids
-Their mass can be determined using a balance

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 -The volume can be determined by calculations using an appropriate formula for a
particular shape after measuring the necessary lengths.
Shape Formula
Sphere 4/3r2
Cuboids L*w*h
Cylinder r2h
Cone 1/3r2h
Pyramid 1/3*l*w*h
Cube S3

Exercise
1. Calculate the density of a bob with a diameter of 140mm and a mass of 60g.

IRREGULAR SOLIDS
THESE are solids without a definite shape, e.g. stone.
-The mass of such volumes can be determined by using various balances.
-the volume is found by water displacement method. In this method the object is
immersed and it displaces the equal volume of water to its volume.
Demonstration ; finding volume of a stone
-Pour some water into a measuring cylinder and measure the volume as V1.
-Tie the stone with a thread and lower it into the water until it is fully immersed.
- Measure the new volume V2.

Final Volume = final volume –initial volume

=V2 - V1
For a large stone a displacement-can may be used.
Steps to be followed
-Fill the displacement can with water such that the water level is on the edge of the side
arm (spout) i.e. just over-flowing.
-A measuring cylinder is placed below the spout so that water over-flows into it.
-The stone is then lowered into the displacement can until fully immersed.
-The displaced water drips into the measuring cylinder and its volume equals the volume
of the stone.

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Examples
1. A stone of mass 100g is lowered into a measuring cylinder containing 50cm3 of
water. The water level rises to 70cm3. Calculate the density of the stone.
Volume of stone = V2 –V1
= 70 – 50
=20cm3

D=M/V
= 100g/20cm3
=5g/cm3

2. A metal bob of mass 50g and density 2g/cm3 is lowered into a measuring cylinder
with water and the level rises to 125cm3. What is the initial volume?

D=M/V
=>V = M/D
=50/2
=25cm3
V1 = V2 – volume of the stone
=125 - 25
100cm3.

DENSITY OF LIQUIDS AND GASES

Demonstration: Finding density of oil

- Get a beaker and measure its mass (M1).
- Pour some oil in the beaker and measure its mass (M2)
- Mass of oil = M2-M1.
- Pour the oil in the measuring cylinder and measure its volume.
- Calculate the density using relation D=M/V

FINDING THE DENSITY OF AIR.

-When using a flask, put it on the balance to determine the mass of air and flask
-Remove the air from the flask by using a vacuum pump and measure the mass of the
flask M2.
Mass of air = M1-M2
-Pouring some water in the flask and measuring its volume can determine the volume
of air. The volume of air = volume of water.

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 -Using the relation D=M/V

Example
200ml of paraffin is mixed with 300ml of water. If 160g of paraffin is used and the
density of water is 1g/cm3, calculate:
(i) The density of paraffin
(ii) The mass of water used
(iii) The density of the mixture

(i) D=M/V (density of paraffin

=160/200
=0.8g/cm3

(ii) M=D*V (mass of water)

=1.0*300
=300g

(iii) Density of the mixture

Volume of water + paraffin = 200+300 =500cm3.
Mass of water + paraffin = 300 + 160 = 460g

D=M/V
=460/500
=0.92g/cm3.

Exercise
1. Why does a piece of wood float and a piece of lead sink in
water?
2. A wooden block with a volume of 16cm3 has a hole of volume
1cm3 drilled in it. The hole is filled with lead. Will the block
sink or float in water?
-Density of lead is 11g/cm3.
-Density of wood =0.5g/cm3.
-Density of water =1.0g/cm3.

MOTION
Distance (S): length between two points in space

Displacement(S ) Distance moved in a specified direction. Displacement is a vector,

i.e. it is defined by magnitude as well as direction e.g. 10km west or 3m down.
Speed (V): the distance covered per unit time.

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Velocity(V): The distance covered per unit time in a specified direction. Velocity is also
a vector quantity e.g. 6m/s due north. Velocity can also be defined as displacement per
unit time.
Average speed = (total distance covered) /time taken
Vav=S/t………………. (1)
Example:
A cyclist covers 120m in 30s. Calculate the average speed in (i) m/s. (ii) km/h
(i) Vav= S/t =120/30
= 4m/s
(ii) 4m/s = 4*(0.001km)/1/3600h)
= 4*3600/1000
=14.4km/h

Average speed can be calculated using the formula

Vav =(u + v)/2 …………(2)

Where u= initial velocity
V= final velocity
Example.
A car starts from rest and reaches a speed of 10m/s in 5 seconds. Calculate the
(i) Average velocity
(ii) Distance covered

(i) Vav= (u +v)/2

=(0 + 10)/2
=5m/s

(ii) S= Vav*t
=5m/s*5s
= 25m

ACCELERATION (a): this is the change of velocity per unit time.

SI unit is m/s2.

a= (v-u)/t …………… (3)

This equation can be written as
V=u + at ………………. (4)
Examples:
1. A car starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 10m/s in 2s.calculate its acceleration.
a = (v-u)/t
= (10-0)/2
= 5m/s2.

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2. A car starts from an initial velocity of 3m/s and accelerates at 2m/s2 for 5s. Calculate
the final velocity.
V = u +at
= 3 + 2*5
=13m/s
Deceleration (Retardation) : This is the decrease in speed per unit time. Deceleration is
negative acceleration.

Example:
An aero plane moving at 250m/s suddenly stops in 50s. Calculate the retardation.

a = (v-u)/t
= (0-250)/50
=-5m/s2.

From equation 1 Vav = (u+v)/2

Also from equation 2 Vav = S/t
Combining equations1 & 2 we have that

S/t = (u + v)/2 -------(5)

 S = (ut+ vt )/2-----------(6)
 But v =u +at substituting for v we have
S = [ut + (u + at)t]/2
=[ut +ut +at2]/2
=[2ut + at2]/2
=ut + at2/2
Therefore S =ut +at2/2 -----------(7)

We know that v = u + at
On squaring both sides of the equation we get
v2 = (u + at)2
=(u +at)(u + at)
=u2 +2aut +a2t2
= u2 + 2a(ut + at2/2) But S = ut +at2/2
2 2
Therefore v = u +2aS ……….. (8)
SUMMARY

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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V = u +at
Vav = (u+v)/2
S = ut + at2/2
V2 = u2 +2aS

DISTANT – TIME GRAPHS

Distant-time graphs show the distance covered with respect to time.

In a v-t graph the gradient gives the velocity of an object

Example1:
The graph below shows the distance covered by an athlete and the corresponding time.
Distance (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (t) 0 5 10 15 20 25

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The slope of the graph is found as

Slope = (change in y)/ (change in x)

=∆y/∆x
= (Y2-Y1)/(X2-X1)
= (100-40)/ (25-10)
=60/15
=4m/s

Example 2:
A car starts from rest and covers a distance of 10m in 4s, it stops for 2s and then
continues moving at the same speed for another 2s
(i) Plot the distance –time graph for the motion.
(ii) Calculate the speed of the car during the first 4s (use the graph)
(iii) What is the total distance covered by the car?

Gradient = (Y2-Y1)/(X2-X1)
= (10-0)/ (4-0)
= 10/4
=2.5m/s
The speed of the car =2.5m/s

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(iii) Distance covered by the car in the second phase of the journey
S= vav*t
= 2.5*2
=5m

Total distance covered =10m+5m= 15m

The diagram below shows a s-t graph of a girl. Study it carefully and answer the
questions that follow.

(i) How far did she travel?

(ii) How long did she travel?
(iii) What was her average speed?
(iv) How many stops did she make?
(v) How long did she stop for altogether?

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 VELOCITY-TIME (v-t) GRAPHS
These are the graphs that show us how speed changes with
time.

The area under a graph for a v-t graph represents the distance covered.
Example:
A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a speed of 15m/s in 5s. It
then moves at that speed for 4s
(i) Plot the v-t graph to illustrate the motion
(ii) Using the graph find the acceleration and the total distance covered

(i)

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a = (v-u)/t
= (15-0)/5
=3m/s2
Distance covered is equal to the area under the graph.

Area = ½(a+b)*h (area of a trapezium)

=1/2(4+9)*15
= 97.5m
This is the distance covered by the car.

Example 2:
A car traveling at 5m/s accelerates uniformly for 2s to a velocity of 10m/s. It then moves
at that velocity for another 3s before accelerating at 2m/s2 for 5s.it then moves with a
constant velocity for 3s before decelerating to rest in 2s.
(i) Plot the v-t graph to illustrate the motion of the car.
(ii) Calculate the acceleration of the car during the first 2s.
(iii) Calculate the maximum velocity of the car.
(iv) Calculate the deceleration of the car.
(v) Calculate the total distance covered
(vi) Calculate the average speed.

(ii) a= (v-u)/t

15
 = (10-5)/2
= 2.5 m/s2.

(iii) V = u +at
= 10+ 2* 5
= 20m/s

(iv) a=( v-u)/t

= (0- 20)2
=-10m/s2. The deceleration = 10m/s2.

(v) Distance covered = area under the curve.

= A +B +C + D
A= ½bh B = l*w C = ½(a+b)*h D = l*w
= 20*3
= ½*2*5 = 10*3 =1/2(10+20)*5 = 60m
=5m = 30m =45m

E = 1/2bh
=1/2*2*20
=20m

D = 5+30+45+60+20
= 160m

Average speed = total distance covered /time taken

=S/t
= 160/15
=10.7m/s

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

Objects are always pulled towards the center of the earth by a force known as the force of
gravity. The acceleration by which these objects move towards the centre of the earth is
called the acceleration due to gravity (usually denoted by a g) and its value is 9.81m/s2.
For simplicity reasons it is usually taken as 10m/s2.
g is positive when an object falls but negative when an object moves upwards.
The same equations of motion can be used but a is replaced by g and S by h (for height)
giving:

1. g=(v-u)/t
2. h= ut+1/2gt2
3. h =(v2-u2)/2g

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Exercise

1. A stone is thrown upwards vertically with an initial velocity of 30m/s from the top of
the tower of height 20m.
(i) find the time taken to reach the maximum height
(ii) the total time which elapses before it reaches the ground

Motion of a free falling body

When a body falls freely in air, it will experience an opposing force due to air resistance.
This is some kind of friction. This air resistance increases as the speed of the body
increases until such a time when the air resistance is equivalent to the weight of the body.
When that condition has been attained, the body will then continue to move at a constant
speed. This speed is known as the terminal velocity.

This can be summarized in the v-t graph below.

MOTION OF A BODY FALLING IN A LIQUID

Bodies moving through fluids experience a retarding force known as the fluid friction.

Unlike bodies falling in a vacuum which accelerates constantly at 10m/s2, small spheres
dropped into a fluid tend to acquire terminal velocity. The sphere experiences an upwards
force F which depends on the radius and velocity

There are two other forces acting on the sphere

(a) Force of gravity W, acting downwards
(b) The up thrust force U, of the liquid

If a small metal sphere is allowed to fall through the liquid it first accelerates, as the
velocity increases friction also increases. The forces W and U have the resultant force of
magnitude (W-U) downwards. As the body moves downwards and the value of F
increases, F eventually becomes equal to W-U and the total resultant force on the sphere
is zero.

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 HOOKE’S LAW

Hooke’s law states that for an elastic object the force applied is directly proportional to
the extension provided the elastic object is within its elastic limit. If the elastic object is
stretched beyond its elastic limit, it is distorted permanently and can never return to its
normal shape and size when the force applied is removed. This is shown in the graph
below.
GRAPH OF FORCE AGAINST EXTENSION

Within the limit of proportionality the force applied (F) is directly proportional to the
extension (e). i.e.
Fα e
=> F =ke where k is a constant of proportionality called the spring constant

Within the limit of proportionality, the gradient of the graph gives the spring constant
i.e. k = ΔF/ Δe
The SI units is N/m other units are N/cm and N/m

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Exercise
Copy and complete the table below and then plot the graph. Show the limit of
proportionality. Also determine the spring constant

Force(N) Length (cm) Extension (cm)

F=mg
0 2.9
1 3.5
2 4.1
3 4.7
4 5.9
5 6.5
6 7.1
7 7.7
8 7.8
9 7.8
10 7.8

EXTENSION = LENGTH MEASURED –ORIGINAL LENGTH

NB: PLOT THE GRAPH OF STRETHING FORCE AGAINST EXTENSION

EXAMPLE
A 2N force stretches a spring of original length 10cm to 15cm. Calculate the
(i) Extension
(ii) Spring constant
ANS (i) e = final length – initial length
= 15 – 10
= 5cm or 0.05m

(iii) k = F/ e
F = 2N
e = 5cm OR e = 0.05m ( SI units)
k =F/e =2/5 =0.4N/cm OR K= F/e = 2/0.05 = 40N/m
SPRINGS IN SERIES

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If springs are arranged in series, the total extension is given by the sum of the individual
extensions.

SPRINGS IN PARALLEL

If the springs are arranged in parallel, then the total extension is given by calculating the
extension for one spring and then divides it by the number of springs

Example1
(i) A spring gives an extension of 5cm if a 2N force is applied to it. What will the
extension be if two such springs are arranged in series?
Ans:
Total ext = ext for one spring x number of springs
=5x2
= 10 cm
(iii) Calculate the extension if two such springs are arranged in parallel

Ans:
Total ext = ext for one spring / number of springs
= 5cm /2
= 2.5 cm

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

ENERGY is defined as the capacity to do work. The SI unit of energy is joules (J).

TYPES OF ENERGY
Electrical energy: This is the energy generated by an electron flowing through a
conductor.
Heat energy: This energy can be transferred form one body to another owing to
Geothermal energy
Biomass
Strictly speaking all the above energy sources except biomass are perpetual.
Perpetual energy sources are those that cannot get finished.

Examples of non-renewable sources are;

-fossil fuels
Nuclear fuels the temperature difference between the two bodies. The main source
of heat energy is the sun.
Chemical Energy: this energy is stored in chemicals in food and fuels. This
energy can be released during the process of combustion.

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 Nuclear energy can be generated from the nucleus of a radioactive substance
.This energy can be used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy from a weak
radioactive substance can be used to operate a heart pacemaker.
Thermonuclear Energy: This can be obtained by fusion of hydrogen atom to
form larger ones. When the hydrogen atoms fuse the mass difference can be
emitted in the form of radiation (heat energy)

Solar Energy: This is the energy generated by the sun. It is in the form of heat or
light energy

Geothermal Energy: This is the heat energy from the belly of the earth. It can be
used for warming and heating water

Wind Energy: This is the energy generated by wind. It can be used to run
windmills

Tidal energy: This is the wave energy generated by movement of seas caused by
the attraction exerted upon the seas by the moon and to a lesser extent by the sun.

Energy sources can be divided into two types, namely renewable and non-
renewable sources.

Renewable sources are those that can be recycled and used again. Examples are :
Solar energy
Wind energy
Wave energy
Tidal and hydroelectric energy
Non-renewable sources of energy are those that can never be recycled and used
again. Once these energy sources have been used the residue can never be useful
again. Examples of such energy sources are;
- fossil fuels
- fire wood
- nuclear energy

Economic ,Environmental and social issues

Sun: - the light from the sun is used by plants to synthesis their own food.
-solar energy can also be absorbed by the solar panels to heat the water
-solar ovens are also used for cooking

Environmental and economic impact (solar energy)

- If too much heat energy is produced it can scotch the plants

- The ultra-violet rays from the sun can cause serious illness
- Cheap source of energy

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 -Non-pollutant

COAL (i)Economic impacts

-Source of employment
-Source of electricity
-Source of income (revenue)
(iv) Environmental impact
- Burning coal with causes harmful gases which pollute the environment
- It causes the greenhouse effect
- It leads to CFC’s (Chlorofluorocarbons) which destroy the ozone layer

Wind energy
The wind transfer the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy by rotation
of the generator

Environmental impact
- Non pollutant

Firewood

Environmental impact

- The use of fire wood may cause deforestation hence soil erosion
- Firewood causes carbon-monoxide which pollutes the air
- Trees act as wind breakers so if removed soil erosion may easily result

NATURAL GAS:

The plants trap some of the solar energy incident on the earth surface as they grow. We
use some of this biomass when be eat plants or burn the wood.
Rotting plants can produce a gas called methane, which is the same as natural gas.

Advantages of renewable sources

-They keep the environment clean

-Can create employment during their recycling process

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 Advantages of non-renewable sources

Environmental impact
- It is non poisonous and has no scent

KINETIC ENERGY (Ke)

This is the energy which an object posses by virtue of its motion. All moving objects
do have kinetic energy.
Mathematically k.e can be given by relation;

Ke = ½ mv2

N.B always convert mass and velocity to SI units

Example
(1) calculate the kinetic energy of a 200g stone thrown with a
constant velocity of 25m/s
Solution

m = 200g = 0.2kg
v = 25m/s

Ke = ½ mv2
=½*0.2*252
= 62.5J

Gravitational Potential Energy (G.P.E):- This is the energy that a body posses by virtue of
its position from the surface of the earth. When a body is lifted through some height it
gains G.P.E.
Mathematically G.P.E = mgh
Where m ≡ Mass of the object in kg
g ≡ gravitational field (m/s2 or N/kg)
h ≡ height as measured from a given reference point in metres

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Example
A 400g mass is raised through a height of 20m. Calculate the value of the
gravitational potential energy

m = 0.4kg
h = 20m
g = 10m/s2

G.P.E = mgh
=0.4*20*10
=80J

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be destroyed nor
created but can only be converted from one form to another

DEMONSTRATION OF PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

A 2kg ball is held at a height of 3m from the ground. Calculate Pe, Ke and Te at points A,
B, C and D which are at heights 3m, 2m, 1m and 0m respectively. (N.B Te is the total
energy)

At point A
Pe =mgh
m =2kg
h = 3m
Pe = 2*10*3
= 60J

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V= 0 therefore kinetic energy = 0 J.

Total energy (Te) =Pe +Ke

=60 + 0
=60J

At point B
Pe=mgh
m =2kg
g = 10N/kg
Pe = 2*10*2
=40J

Ke = ½ mv2
But V2=U2 +2*g*s
U=0
S= 1m

So v2 =02 +2*10*1
=20(m/s) 2
So ke=0.5*2*20
=20J
Te=Ke + Pe
=20+40
=60J

At point C Pe =mgh
=2*10*1
=20J

V2 =U2 + 2*g*s
=02 +2*10*2
=40(m/s) 2

Te=Pe + Ke
=20 +40
=60J

At point D Pe=0 since h =0m

V2 =U2 +2*g*s
=02 +2*10*3
=60(m/s)2

Ke = ½ mv2
=½*2*60

25
 = 60J
Te = Pe + Ke
= 0 + 60 = 60J
Form the above illustration we can see that energy only changes from one form to
another but the total energy of the system remains constant. So to conclude this we say
total energy of a system always remains constant but can only be changed from one form
to another.

ENERGY CONVERSIONS

Initial form of energy Final form of energy Device

Sound Electrical Microphone
Electrical Sound Speakers
Solar Chemical Plants
Solar Electrical Solar cells
Solar Heat Solar heater
Kinetic(wind) Gravitational P. energy Windmill

Homework

Give five other energy conversions and also the converting devices. These should include
hydroelectric power stations, fossil fuel power stations and their diagrams

WORK

In physics, work is said to be done if force (F) acting on a body is able to move it through
some distance (S) in the direction of application of force.
Mathematically, work done can be calculated by relation
W = F.S
Where F ≡ force applied and S ≡distance traveled

Example
1. A body is pushed with a constant force of 6N across a horizontal surface for a
distance of 4m. Calculate the work done

W = F.S
= 6*4
=24J

26
 2. How much work is needed to move a 2kg body through a height of 6m.

Solution.
Minimum force required = weight of the object
But weight =mg
=2kg*10N/kg
=20N

But W = F.S
=20N*6m
=120J

NB: WORK DONE =ENERGY LOST

A MAN WHO SPENDS 100J OF ENERGY IN PUSHING AN OBJECT FROM ONE PLACE
TO ANOTHER DOES 100J OF WORK

EFFICIENCY

An engine or a machine does useful work with some of the energy supplied to it, but the
rest is wasted as thermal energy or some other form of energy. The efficiency of a
machine can be calculated as follows:

Efficiency = (useful work done)/(energy input)

OR
Efficiency = (useful energy output)/(energy input)
The equation above can be rewritten as
Work done = efficiency x energy input

Exercise

1. An engine does 1500J of useful work with each 5000J of energy supplied to it

(a) What is its efficiency?

(b) What happens to the rest of the engine supplied to it?

2. An electric motor supplied with 2500J of electrical energy raises a 20kg body
through a height of 10m. Assuming g=10N/kg, calculate
(i) the useful work done by the motor
(ii) the efficiency of the motor

27
POWER

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. The SI units are watts. 1w =1J/s i.e a body
which does 1J of work every second has a power of 1watt.

Power = (work done)/(time taken)

P=W/t
NB: The time should always be in seconds

Example
1. A man does 200J of work every 20s.Calculate his power.

Solution
P=W/t
W=200J
t =20s
P = 200J/20s
= 10J/s
=10w

2. Calculate the power of a pump that can lift 200kg of water through a vertical
height of 6m in 10s.

3. A boy whose mass is 40kg finds that he can run up a flight of 45 steps, each 1
6cm high, in 5.2s. (Assume g=10N/kg). Calculate his power.

4. A cable car is pulled up a slope by a constant force of 5000N at a constant

speed of 6m/s. it take 4minutes to complete the journey?
(i). How much work is done in getting the car to the top of the slope
(ii) How much work would be done if the speed were 12m/s (force
remaining the same)?
(iii) How does the power developed compare in (i) and (ii)?

5. A car runs at a steady speed of 30m/s. if the total frictional force on the car is
700N, what useful power output does the engine deliver to the driving wheels?
(Show your working)
ANS: 21KW

PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area

Pressure = force/area
P=F/A

The SI unit is Pascal (Pa)

1Pa=1N/m2

28
Example
1. Kepler weighs 750N. The area under his foot in contact with the floor is 50cm2.
Calculate the pressure that he exerts on the floor with both feet

Area = 50cm2= 0.0050m2. 50cm2=50(10-2m)2

=0.0050m2
Total area = 2*0.0050m2
=0.010m2.
P=F/A
=750N/0.010m2
=75 000Pa
=75kPa

2. A concrete paving slab has a weight of 1400N and dimensions 1m x 80cm x

50mm. What pressure does it exert when
(i) It is laid flat on the bed of sand?
(ii) It is laid on its side on the bed of sand

3. Explain why a sharp knife cuts meat more easily than a blunt knife.

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

Pressure exerted by liquids has the following properties:

1. Pressure in liquids increases with depth. If a plastic bottle is filled with water, a
jet of water will emerge from each hole as shown below

Pressure at any point in a liquid is equal and acts in all directions

29
PRESSURE DEPENDS ON THE DENSITY

Suppose water is poured into a U shaped shape until it is about one third of the way up
each side. Then oil is poured carefully down on one side to form a column on top of the
water. The oil level is higher than the water level because oil is less dense than water.

PRESSURE OF A LIQUID COLUMN

How much pressure does a liquid column exert? The pressure exerted by a liquid is due
to the weight of the liquid column above that point.

Volume of liquid in the column= cross-sectional area A x height h

Mass of liquid = Volume x density ρ = A * h *ρ
Weight = mass* g = A*h* ρ*g

Pressure =(weight of liquid)/(area of cross-section A)

30
 =A*h* ρ*g/A = ρgh

P = ρgh

Example
Calculate the pressure due to seawater on the floor of the seawater on the floor of
the seabed at a depth of 200m. The density of the seawater is 1050kg/m3. Assume
g=10N/kg.
Solution –Consider a column of water of height 200m above the seabed
P = ρgh
ρ = 1050kg/m3. h =200m

P = 1050*10* 200
=2.10 x106Pa
Exercise
1. Define pressure and state its SI units.

2. The base of a rectangular vessel measures 10cm by 18cm. Water is poured to a

depth of 4cm. What is the pressure on the base? What is the upthrust (force) on
the base? Assume density of the liquid is 1000kg/m3

3. A television tube has a flat rectangular end of size 0.40cm by 0.30cm. Calculate
the upthrust on this end by the atmospheric pressure, if the atmospheric pressure
is 1.01x105N/m2.

4. Calculate the pressure exerted at the point of a drawing pin if pushed against a
board with a force of 20N, assuming area of the point to be 0.1mm2. Give answer
in Pa.
PRESSURE TRANSMISSION
Liquids are incompressible, i.e. their volume cannot be reduced by application of
pressure. Therefore if the pressure is applied to a liquid at one point, it will be transmitted
throughout the liquid. Pascal’s principle of pressure transmission states that pressure
applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted to every part of the liquid, whatever
shape of the liquid.
This can be demonstrated using the glass vessel below.

31
When a force is applied to the piston, the pressure exerted on the water is transmitted
equally throughout the water so that the water issues from each hole with equal force.

APPLICATION OF PRESSURE TRANSMISSION

Transmission of pressure is made use of in hydraulic machines where a small force

applied at one point is made to exert much larger force at some other point. Consider a
hydraulic lift below.

From the Pascal’s principle of pressure transmission:

F1/A1 = F2/A2 --- (1)

 F2 = F1(A2/A1) --- (2)
This implies that the resultant force output F2 is F1 magnified by factor A1/A2.

Example

32
Consider a hydraulic lifter above used for lifting cars. How much force is required to
lift a car of mass 900kg? The cross-sectional area A1 is 0.01m2 and A2 is 9m2.

ANSWER

W= mg
m = 900kg
g = 10N/kg
W = 900* 10
= 9000N

F1 =?
F2 =9000N
A1 = 0.01m2
A2 = 9m2
But F1/A1 = F2/A2
F1 = F2(A1/A2)
= 9000 * (0.01/9)
= 10N
THE 10N FORCE WILL THEN BE MAGNIFIED BY FACTOR (A2/A1) WHICH IS (9/0.01) = 900
TO GIVE THE 9000N THAT IS REQUIRED TO LIFT THE CAR

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The earth is enveloped by a large mass of air called the atmosphere. Owing to its
weight the atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth’s surface. The standard value of
the atmospheric pressure is about 101 000N/m2 =101kPa

33
The atmospheric pressure decreases as the altitude increases.

THE MAGDEBURG SPHERES

These are the metal half spheres which can easily separate if there is air inside
because the inside and the outside pressure is equal.
When the pressure inside is evacuated, they cannot be easily separated because the
inside pressure is lower than the outside pressure

CRUSHING CAN EXPERIMENT

Boiling water in a small can can show the effect of the magnitude of the force due to
the atmospheric pressure. As the water boils the steam drives out the air. An airtight
stopper is placed and some cold water poured over the can. The can will collapse.
This is because the pressure inside the can is lower than the pressure outside the can.

34
 MEASURING PRESSURE

There are several instruments that are used to measure pressure. The ones used to
measure atmospheric pressure are called barometers
e.g. mercury barometer, Fortin barometer, Aneroid barometer

Gas and liquid pressure can be measured using other instruments:

e.g. U-tube manometer

MERCURY BAROMETER
This is a large instrument that consists of a long glass tube sealed at the top and open
at the lower end. The lower end is inserted into a bowl of mercury whose surface is
exposed to air. Mercury is suitable because it is the heaviest liquid known. The
pressure decreases with increasing altitude because as one ascends there is less air
above. The pressure of air on the mercury in the container supports a column of
mercury about 760mm high.
The upper part of the tube consists of a vacuum called the TORRICELLI VACUUM, WHICH
contains little mercury vapour (This is not a true vacuum)

When air above the mercury in the bottle is pumped out, the mercury column falls.

THE U-TUBE MANOMETER

The diagram below shows a U-tube manometer

35
 It is the instrument used to measure the pressure of a gas. The manometer consists of
a tube containing water. When both arms are open to the atmosphere the same
atmospheric pressure is exerted on the water surfaces and the two surfaces must be at
the same horizontal level. To measure the pressure of a gas the side a is connected to
a gas tap by a length of rubber tubing. When the tap is turned on the gas exerts
pressure on the surface A which causes level B to rise until the pressure at C is
equivalent to the pressure of the gas. The height is called the head of the liquid or
water in the manometer. For higher pressure mercury (density 13.6g/cm3) is used.

Exercise

What would be the height of a water barometer if the atmospheric pressure is 1.0x105Pa?
Assume g =10N/kg density of water (ρ) = 1000kg/m3.

P = ρgh
 h= P/ρg
=1.0x105Pa/(1000x10)
=10m

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND WEATHER

Changes in atmospheric pressure can be used to predict the coming weather. A large
number of readings of atmospheric pressure are made over the surrounding area. The
readings are taken and then recorded in a weather map. Lines are drawn on this map
linking places of equal atmospheric pressure. These lines are called ISOBARS.

36
Cyclones

When isobars enclose a region of low pressure, the system is called a depression or
cyclone. Cyclones are characterized by low pressure at the centre and the isobars are very
close to each other This causes air from elsewhere (a region of higher pressure) to rush
in. an example of a cyclone is a tornado.

37
Anticyclone

An anticyclone is region of high pressure which is characterized by oval or circular

shaped isobars. The highest pressure is at the centre.
If they enclose a region of high pressure, the system is called an anticyclone. When
isobars are close together in a map, atmospheric pressure changes rapidly over a short
distance. Consequently they are high winds (bad weather) as air moves rapidly from a
high pressure to a low-pressure region.
When isobars are widely spaced, the wind velocity is usually light and variable. This is
usually associated with good or calm weather.

THERMAL PHYSICS
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

This theory is based on three postulates

- Matter is made up of particles/molecules
- The particles are in continuous vibrations
- There are some forces of attraction between the particles (inter-molecular forces)

The kinetic theory of matter can be used to explain the existence of three states of matter.

38
Solid Liquid gas

Particles are closely packed Particles not so closely Particles much further apart
packed
Particles vibrate within Particle move short Particles move randomly
fixed positions distances
Strong forces of attraction Force of attraction not very No forces of attraction
between the particles strong

KINETIC THEORY AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy or average speed of the
particles.
The kinetic theory states that particles of matter are in a continuous motion. When heat
supplied or removed the particles vibrate faster (increase K.e.) or slower (decrease K.e.)
respectively.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

As heat is continually removed from matter, particles will vibrate slower until they
eventually come to rest. This temperature is called the ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE and
its value is zero Kelvin (–273oC).

KINETIC THEORY AND PRESSURE

39
Pressure of a gas is due to collision of the gas particles with the walls of the container.
Pressure increases when the rate of collision (force) per unit area increases, i.e. when the
particles strike the walls at an increased frequency.

EXPERIMENT: BROWNIAN MOTION

AIM
To verify that matter is made up of particles and the particles are in continuous motion.

PROCEDURE
i . Fill a gas cell with smoke using a burning straw (made of waxed paper)
ii. Replace the lid on the apparatus and set it on the microscope platform.
iii. Connect a lamp to a 12v power supply; the glass rods act as a lens and focuses light
on the smoke
iv. Adjust the microscope such that you can see bright specs dancing haphazardly.
v. The specs are smoke particles seen by reflected light; their random motion is due to
collisions with fast moving air molecules. This is called Brownian motion.

Conclusion

The specs are smoke particles seen by reflected light; their random motion is due to their
collisions with fast moving air molecules in the cell. It is what we call the BROWNIAN
MOTION.

GAS LAWS

CHARLES’ LAW

40
For constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to the temperature

VαT
 V =kT
 V/T =k -(1)
Where k is the constant of proportionality
Equation 1 can be written as
V1/T1 =V2/T2 -(2)

Example
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure in a tube at ice point is 80mm3.
Workout the value of the temperature at 87 mm3.

V1= 80mm3.
T1 = 273K
V2= 87mm3.
T2 =?
T2 =V2T1/V1.
=87x273/80
=296.9K

BOYLE, S LAW
At constant temperature, the pressure is indirectly proportional to the volume, i.e. the
volume decreases as the pressure increases.
P α 1/V
 P =k/V
 PV =k
 P1V1 =P2V2 -(3)

Example
A certain quantity of gas has a volume of 30cm3 at a pressure of 105Pa. What is the
volume when the pressure is 2x105Pa?

V1 = 30cm3
P1 =105Pa
P2 =2x105Pa
V2 =?
P1V1 =P2V2
 V2 =P1V1/P2
=105x30/ (2x105)
= 15 cm3.

THE COMBINED GAS LAW

41
Upon combining equations 2 and 3 we get the combined gas law

P1V1/T1 =P2V2 /T2

Example
In a chemical reaction, 5.00cm3 of gas are collected in a test tube at 110kPa pressure and
a temperature of 290K. Workout the volume of this gas at a pressure of 100 kPa and a
temperature of 273K.

Solution
V1 = 5cm3
P1 =110kPa
T1 = 290k
P2 = 100kPa
T2 =273K
V2 =?

P1V1/T1 =P2V2 /T2

 V2= P1V1T2/T1P2
= 110x103x5x273/(290x100x103)
= 5.18cm3.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of particles.
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K)
O
C = K - 273

Example
o
C K
0 273
10 283
35 308
100 373

Temperature is measured with the help of a thermometer

LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

A thermometer is constructed on the basis that matter expands upon heating and contracts
upon cooling. So the liquid is placed in a glass tube and as the amount of heat changes,
the liquid expands or contracts and this corresponds to the temperature of the substance
being measured.

CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

42
A perfect liquid to be used in a thermometer should have the following characteristics:
(i) Should not cling to the walls of the thermometer
(ii) Should be a good conductor of heat
(iii) Should expand uniformly
(iv) Should have high boiling point
(v) Should have low specific heat capacity
(vi) Should have low freezing point
(vii) Should have high expansivity

Two liquids used in thermometer are mercury and alcohol. They both have advantages
and disadvantages.

MERCURY
Advantages:
- It does not cling to the walls the thermometer
- It is a good conductor and the whole liquid acquires temperature of the
surroundings
- It expands uniformly
- It has high boiling point (357oC)
- It has low specific heat capacity
disadvantages:
- It has high freezing point (-39oC)
- Its expansivity is fairly low
The high freezing point means that mercury cannot be used in winter in countries the
temperature gets low

ALCOHOL
Advantages

- It expands uniformly
- It has a high expansivity
- It has a low freezing point (-115oC)

Disadvantages

- It wets the tube

- It has a large specific heat capacity
- Low boiling point

When constructing a thermometer the following points should be considered

- The walls of the glass should be as thin as possible so that the liquid-in-
thermometer quickly acquires the heat
- The bore should also be fine to give a large change in length for a small change in
temperature.

43
On constructing the thermometer, one end of a clean capillary tube is heated with a
Bunsen burner until it softens and seals the end of the tube. The capillary tube is blown
from the other end forming a bulb. The size of the bulb depends on the range of the
thermometer. The larger the bulb the larger the range.
Next the thermometer is filled with mercury from the open end. There should be no
bubbles of air in the bulb when the thermometer is sealed. This is achieved by heating the
mercury until all the air is expelled. The thermometer is then sealed and cooled, sending
all the mercury back into the bulb.

FIXED POINT OF A THEMOMETER

The next stage is to mark the fixed points of a thermometer, the upper and the lower fixed
points. The lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard pressure
(1 atmosphere), while the upper fixed point is the temperature of boiling water at
standard atmospheric pressure of 760mmHg.
The lower fixed point is achieved by dipping thermometer in pure melting ice and leaving
it for some time

The upper fixed point is achieved by putting the bulb of the thermometer just over pure
boiling water for some time until the mercury head can no longer move

44
After the two fixed points have been marked, the other points can be marked using
formula
θ = x/y*100oC
Where θ is the temperature reading
x is the distance between the mercury head and the lower fixed point
y is the range of the temperature or distance between the two fixed points

Homework
- discuss the differences between the clinical thermometer and the laboratory
thermometer
- Discuss why the clinical thermometer has a kink (constriction) on it

THERMOCOUPLE
These are electrical thermometers which operate from the concept that when two
different metals are placed in contact, a voltage develops between them and it varies with
the temperature. Iron and copper wires can be used to make a thermocouple thermometer.
One of the junctions is kept melting ice while the other is used as a temperature probe.
The voltmeter can be calibrated directly in oC.

45
Thermocouple thermometer can read very high temperatures.

HOMEWORK
Discuss the function and mechanism of the following thermometers:
- Bimetallic thermometer
- Thermister thermometer

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

When a material is heated (unless it is boiling or melting) the temperature usually rises.
The specific heat capacity (C) of a material is defined as the energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg of the material by 1oC. The SI units are J/kg.oC

Specific heat capacity = energy supplied/ (mass x temperature)

Energy supplied = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature rise

(in J) (in kg) (in J/kg.oC ) (in oC )

E = mC∆θ

Where ∆θ = θ2-θ1 is the change in temperature (or temperature rise)

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A LIQUID

46
PROCEDURE

(i) Pour a known mass of a liquid in an empty clean glass.

(ii) Place an immersion heater, stirrer and thermometer and connect the circuit as
shown above.
(iii) Cover the beaker with a jacket of felt to prevent heat loss.
(iv) Switch on the power supply for some time and note it down.
(v) During this time stir the water continually and keep the reading of the
ammeter by adjusting the rheostat if necessary
(vi) Note the temperature rise

Suppose the reading are as follows:

Mass of beaker = m1 kg
Mass of beaker + water = m2 kg
Mass of water = m2 –m1 = m kg
Initial reading of temperature = θ1 K
Final temperature reading = θ2 K
Change in temperature (Δθ) = θ2 – θ1 K
Voltmeter reading = V volts
Ammeter reading = I amps
Time taken to raise the temperature of liquid from θ1 to θ2 = t seconds
The energy required to raise the temperature of water from θ1 to θ2 is equal to the
electrical energy supplied.
 VIt = mCΔθ
Where C is the specific heat capacity
 C =VIt/(mΔθ)
The units are J/ (kg.oC)

Example

Workout the energy required to raise 3kg of water by 12oC. Assumption C= 4200J/kgoC

Some specific heat capacity of some materials

Material Water ice Aluminum Iron Copper Lead mercury paraffin Concrete Brass
Sp heat 4200 2100 900 450 400 130 140 2270 850 380
capacity
J/kg.oC

HEAT CAPACITY (C)

The heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1oC.
The SI units are J/oC.

47
Heat capacity = mass x specific heat capacity

Exercise
1 (a) A 3kW kettle is capable of heating 2kg of water from 20oC to 100oC in 300s. How
much electrical energy is supplied and how much of the energy is used to heat the water?
Explain why more energy is supplied than is used to heat the water?

(c) Water in a plastic jug was put in a fridge where it was cooled from 15oC to 5 oC in
600s. If the mass of the water in the jug was 800g, how much energy was
removed from it to reduce its temperature? How much energy was removed each
second?

2. How much energy is needed for each of the following?

(a) To raise the temperature of 2kg of aluminum by 30oC.
(b) To raise the temperature of 0.05m3 of water in a water tank from
20oC to 60oC. Assume density of water is 1000kg/m3
(c) To heat 20kg of concrete block in storage heater from 10oC to
40oC.
(d) To heat 1.5kg of water in copper kettle of mass 0.05kg from
20oC to boiling point.

MELTING AND BOILING

Melting is process whereby solid turns into a liquid. This process occurs at a temperature
known as the melting point. The melting point of a substance is defined as the
temperature at which the solid phase and liquid phase are in equilibrium under standard
pressure.

FREEZING AND SOLIDIFICATION

This is the process whereby liquid turns into a gas. This process takes place at the melting
point.

BOILING

Boiling is a vigorous process in which liquids are turned into gases. It takes place at a
temperature called the boiling point.
The boiling point of a substance is defined as the temperature at which the saturated
water vapour pressure of a liquid is equals to the pressure of the surroundings. From this

48
definition it follows that the boiling point is raised if the pressure of the surroundings is
increased.

CONDENSATION

This is the process whereby gases are turned into liquids. This takes place at the boiling
point of a substance.

EVAPORATION

Evaporation is a slow process by which liquid is converted into gas. It can take place at
any temperature.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

The following factors will cause increased rate of evaporation:

1. Increased temperature
2. Increased surface area.
3. Reduced humidity
4. Increase in the rate at which air blows across a surface.

COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION

Evaporation brings about a cooling effect if you wet your hands; the water in them starts
to evaporate. As it evaporates, it takes thermal energy away from your skin and your
hands will feel cool. The kinetic theory explains the cooling effect as follows: If faster
particles escape from the liquid, slower ones are left behind, so the temperature of the
liquid is less than before.

COOLING AND HEATING CURVES

When a substance is heated or supplied with heat energy, its temperature increases.
However, this does not happen if the substance is melting or vaporizing. The reason
behind this is that melting and vaporizing involve the change of state of matter from solid
to liquid and liquid to gas respectively. So the heat supplied is used to break free the
particles of a substance so that it is changed to the next state of matter. So the temperature
remains the same. Once all the substance has been changed to the next state of matter, the
temperature begins to increase.

49
Question
Draw a cooling curve of steam with a temperature of 115oC, placed in a deep freezer
with a temperature of –15oC.

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

This is the amount of energy required to turn a solid into a liquid at constant temperature.

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

This is the amount of energy required to turn a liquid into a gas at constant temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (L)

This is the energy required to convert 1kg of a solid into liquid at constant temperature.
The SI units are J/kg
The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 330 000 J/kg

The total energy transferred for a given mass (m) is given by relation
Energy transferred = mL

L is the latent heat of fusion

50
 PROCEDURE

(i) Pour equal quantities of crushed ice into two identical funnels P and Q.
(ii) If the ice has been taken out from a deep freezer, it must be left until it attains
a temperature of 0oC.
(iii) Place an immersion heater connected to an ammeter, voltmeter and rheostat in
P. make sure it is completely covered with ice.
(iv) At the same time as you switch on the immersion heater, place dry empty
beakers of known mass under P and Q.
(v) Note the ammeter and voltmeter reading. If necessary adjust the rheostat to
keep them constant throughout the experiment.
(vi) After several minutes, when a reasonable amount of water has been collected
in beaker P, note the time, remove the beakers and switch off the heater.
(vii) Find the masses of the contents of the beakers.

Suppose the results are as follows:

The mass of the beaker under P before experiment = m1 kg
The mass of the beaker under P after experiment = m2 kg
Mass of ice melted in P during experiment = (m1 –m2) kg
The mass of the beaker under Q before experiment = m3 kg
The mass of the beaker under Q after experiment = m4 kg
Mass of ice melted in Q during experiment = (m4 –m3) kg
Voltmeter reading = V volts
Ammeter reading = I amps
Time for which the heater was switched on = t seconds

51
Funnel Q is a control. It enables the mass of ice melted due to the temperature of the
room to be obtained. It is reasonable to assume that the same mass will be melted in P.
Mass of ice melted by the heater = (m2 –m1) – (m4 –m3) =m kg

The latent heat must be equal to the electrical energy supplied

mL = VIt

L =VIt/m
The units are J kg-1

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (L)

This is the amount of heat energy required to convert 1kg of liquid into gas at constant
temperature. The specific latent heat of water is 2300 000J/kg

The total energy transferred for a given mass (m) is given by relation
Energy transferred = mL

L is the latent heat of vaporization.

52
 (i) Place a heating element in a wide glass tube with a tight-fitted cork at the
bottom.
(ii) Seal the mouth of the wide glass with another tight fitted cork
(iii) Connect the heating element to the power supply
(iv) Connect a condenser to the bottom of the wide glass. The pipe that connects
the condenser and the wide glass should run through the tight-fitted cork.
(v) Half-fill the wide glass with some water or liquid into consideration
(vi) Place a clean-dry beaker whose mass has been determined below the
condenser to catch the water drops.
(vii) Run some water through the condenser to help cool the steam.
(viii) Switch on the power supply
(ix) Note the voltmeter and ammeter readings as the power supply is switched on

Suppose the readings are as follows:

Mass of clean dry beaker = m1 kg.
Mass of beaker and condensed liquid = m2 kg
Mass of condensed liquid (m2 –m1) = m kg
Time taken = t seconds
Average ammeter reading = I Amps

Average voltmeter reading =V Volts

The latent heat of vaporization is given be the relation:

VIt = (m2 –m1)L

 L =VIt/(m2 –m1)
Where L is the latent heat of vaporization

Example 1
How much energy is required to turn 2kg of water from ice to steam?
L(fusion) = 330 000J/kg
L(vaporization)= 2300 000J/kg

Answer
Melting: Energy = mL
= 2x330 000
= 660 000J

Temp rise from 0-100oC : E = mcΔθ

= 2 x 4200 x 100
= 840000J

53
From water – vapour E =mL = 2 x 2300 000 = 4600 000

Etot = 660000 + 840000 + 4600000

= 6100 000J

REFRIGERATORS

Refrigerators use the cooling effect of evaporation. Contained in the freezer compartment
is a liquid called a refrigerant (Freon). This liquid is very volatile. As it evaporates it
absorbs latent energy form the food and air. The vapour is then drawn away by the pump,
which compresses it and turns it into a liquid. This releases thermal energy, so the liquid
heats up. The hot liquid is cooled as it passes through the pipes at the back and the
thermal energy is absorbed by air. Overall, thermal energy is transferred from the things
inside the fridge to the air outside.

54
 ANOMOLOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

Some substances do not always expand upon heating. Over certain temperature ranges
they contract. This behaviour is called anomalous, meaning irregular. If we start with
some ice at –10oC and supply it with heat, it expands just like any other solid until it
reaches a temperature of 0oC. After this it begins to melt while the temperature is
constant (at 0oC). The melting is accompanied by contraction of volume of 8%. Between
0 and 4oC water contracts further, reaching its minimum volume at 4oC. This means that
water has a maximum density at 4oC. Beyond 4oC water begins to expand.

The graph below shows how volume of water changes with volume.

55
 BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE ANOMOLOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

The anomalous expansion of water has an important bearing on the preservation of

aquatic life during very cold weather. As the temperature of the pond or lake falls, water
contracts, becoming denser and sinks. A circulation is set up until all the water has
reached maximum density at 4oC. If further cooling occurs, any water below 4oC will
stay at the top owing to its lighter density. In due course ice forms at the top. So fish can
swim comfortably in water without freezing.

TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

There are three modes of heat energy transfer in matter, namely conduction, convection
and radiation.
CONDUCTION
In this method of heat energy transfer, molecules or particles which posses heat energy
pass it to the next particle which has less thermal energy. In solids particles vibrate but do
not change their mean positions. As the temperature rises, the speed and amplitude of
vibrations increases. Therefore some of this increased energy is passed on from particle
to particle.

EXPERIMENT TO COMPARE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES

56
PROCEDURE
(i) Push the rods of equal dimensions but different substances through the corks
so that their ends stick inside the metal bath of the Ingenhausz apparatus
(shown above).
(ii) With the help of melted wax, attach identical coins to the other ends of the
rods
(iii) Fill the bath with boiling water so that the end of the rods is submerged

OBSERVATION
Coins will fall off the rods at different times.

CONCLUSION
Different substances conduct heat at different rates. Coin stuck on good conductor will
fall off first while the one stuck on bad conductors will fall off last.

EXPT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT WATER IS A BAD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT

PROCEDURE

(i) put some ice in a test tube and a wire gauze as shown above
(ii) fill the test tube with water- the gauze will prevent the ice from floating since
it is less dense than water
(iii) Heat the water at the top of test tube as shown above
Observation
The water at the top boils while there is still some ice at the bottom
Conclusion
Water is a bad conductor of heat.

57
CONVECTION
This is the transfer of heat energy by the actual movement of the particles. This
method only occurs in liquids and gasses. Portions in contact with the heat source
become hotter, expand and become less dense. They then rise to the top and their
place is taken by colder particles which are denser; thus setting up currents.

EXPT TO DEMONSTRATE
CONVECTION

RADIATION

This method of heat energy transfer does not need a media for propagation. Heat
energy is transferred from one place to another even through a vacuum. Heat energy
from the sun is transferred to the earth in the form of infra-red radiation. Any object
which absorbs infra-red radiation is heated up.

EMITTERS AND ABSORBERS OF THERMAL RADIATION

Some surfaces are better emitters of thermal radiation than others. For example a
black saucepan cools off more rapidly than a similar white one because it radiates
heat at a faster rate.
Good emitters of radiation are also good absorbers. White-silvery surfaces are poor
absorbers because they radiate most of the radiation away. That is why in hot sunny
countries houses are always painted white to keep them cool inside

58
 COMPARING ABSORBERS
The rate at which substances absorb thermal energy can be checked with the help of
Leslie’s apparatus.

A liquid if filled in a glass tube as shown above. One end of the tube is fixed to a dark
painted tube while the other bulb is unpainted. A heater is placed in between the two and
higher bulbs. After sometime it can be observed that the liquid level will be low toward
the dark bulb towards the light coloured bulb. The air in the dark bulb has expanded, and
pushed the liquid towards the light-coloured bulb. It can be concluded that black
substances are better absorbers of heat than bright colours.

59
APPLICATOINS OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

The thermos flask is a useful device which almost eliminates conduction, convection and
radiation. It consists of a double-walled glass container with a cork or hollow stopper. In
between the walls is a vacuum. The vacuum prevents heat loss due to conduction and
convection, since they both need a medium for propagation. The inner surfaces are
silvered to prevent heat loss due to radiation. The inner wall is a bad radiator and the
outer wall is a bad absorber.

Homework
1. With the aid of a diagram, explain how the following works:
(i) the car engine radiator
(ii) the water heating system

2. Discuss briefly with the aid of diagrams some of the consequences of

conduction, convection and radiation including cyclones, land and sea
breezes, days and nights in deserts, typhoons, global warming and the
greenhouse effect.

60
 WAVES: LIGHT AND SOUND

A wave is a periodic disturbance in a medium or space that involves the elastic

displacement of material particles. In a wave energy is transported from one point to
another.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WAVES

Waves have the following common properties:

Frequency (f): this is the number of complete oscillation in a second. The SI unit of
frequency is Hertz. f= number of vibrations/time taken

Example1: determine the frequencies of waves (a) and (b) above.

(a) f =n.o. of vibrations/time taken
= 2.5/1 =2.5Hz

(b) f =n.o. of vibrations/time taken

= 4.5/1 = 4.5Hz
Time period (T): this is the time it takes a wave to complete one oscillation. The SI unit
is seconds (s). Time period can be given by T =1/f.
Example2
Determine the time periods of the waves in example 1 above.
(a) T =1/f =1/2.5 = 0.4s
(b) T =1/f = 1/4.5 = 0.22s

61
Wave front: a line or a section taken through an advancing wave in which all particles
are in the same phase

Crest: this is the highest point of a wave.

Trough: this is the lowest point of a wave.

62
Wavelength ( λ): the distance between any two progressive similar points in a wave. e.g.
from one crest to the next or one trough to the next. SI unit is metre (m).

wave speed (v): the distance covered by any point in a wave in one second. SI unit is
m/s

Amplitude (a): the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position.

Amplitude – time graphs

These are graphs that give displacement of a graph against time.

From the graph above we can determine the frequency of the wave, using relation:
f= 1/T
Where T is the time period of the wave.
For example the graph above completes one oscillation in two seconds. So the time
period of the wave is 2 seconds. f=1/T =1/2 Hz.

63
DISPLACEMENT – DISTANCE GRAPHS

These graphs show displacement against distance travelled by the graph.

From the graph above, the wavelength can be obtained. For example the wavelength of
the wave above is 2m.

TYPES OF WAVES

There are two types of waves, namely the progressive or travelling waves and the
stationary or standing waves
1. Progressive or travelling waves:- these are waves in which energy is carried from
one point to another.

2. Stationary waves or standing waves: - these are waves formed when two progressive
waves are superposed on one another when travelling in opposite direction.

64
There are different types of progressive waves:
(i) transverse waves:- these are waves whose direction of displacement of particles is
perpendicular to the direction of wave motion. Waves (a), (b), (c) and (d) above are
transverse waves.
(ii) Longitudinal wave: these are waves whose direction of displacement is parallel to
the direction of wave motion. A typical example is spring waves. A longitudinal wave is
characterised by a series of compressions (regions where particles are close to each other)
and rarefactions (regions where particles are further apart. The wavelength of a
longitudinal wave is the distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
Waves (e) and (f) are longitudinal.

65
 FORMATION OF WATER WAVES USING A RIPPLE TANK

A ripple tank consists of a sheet of glass in a frame to absorb the ripples and prevent
reflection by the sides. The tank stands on legs above a sheet of white paper or painted
hardboard. A lamp above the tank shows shadows of waves or ripples into the white
screen. These shadows are then seen more clearly if they are not viewed through water.
Before use, tank is levelled and water is poured into a depth of
5-10mm.
Plane wave pulses are produced by dipping a rule into the water and circular waves are
produced by dipping any pointed object.
When continuous waves are required, a wooden beam is hung above the water by elastic
bands. A small electric motor with an eccentric shaft is fitted to the beam, which when
switched on, makes both motor and beam to vibrate. A wooden strip is fitted at the
bottom to produce plane waves and wooden sphere to produce circular waves.
Continuous waves can be viewed using a stroboscope. This is a 25cm diameter disc with
a number of equidistant slits cut in it. Pivoted on a handle it is rotated by placing a finger
in a hole near the centre.
If the wave pattern is viewed through the slits as shown in the ripple tank diagram it is
found that for certain speeds of rotation, the waves appear to be at rest. This occurs when

66
the time taken for successive slits to cross the line of sight is exactly equal to the time
taken by a wave crest to move into the position occupied by the one in the front. If the
speed of rotation of the stroboscope is varied, waves can be seen to move forward or
backwards.

EFFECT OF DEPTH ON SPEED OF A WAVE

When straight waves pass from deep to shallow water, their wavelength becomes shorter.
Both the short and long waves however appear at rest when viewed simultaneously
through a stroboscope. This shows that the change in wavelength does not change the
frequency.

A flat piece of plastic makes the water more shallow, which slows the waves down.
When the waves slow down they change direction. This effect is called refraction.

Refraction can be explained as follows. The waves keep oscillating up and down at the
same rate (frequency), so when they slow down the wavefronts close up on each other.
Since the frequency is unchanged, a decrease in wavelength must cause a decrease in
speed of the wave.

67
DIFFRACTION

The waves bend around the sides of an obstacle, or spread out as they pass through a gap.
This effect is called diffraction.
Diffraction is only significant if the gap is about the same size as the wavelength. Wider
gaps produce less diffraction.

68
REFLECTION

When an object is placed on the path of the waves as shown above, the waves are
reflected from the surface at the same angle as they strike it.

SOUND WAVES

Sound waves are waves that come from a vibrating source. When an object vibrates it
causes the air in the neighbourhood to vibrate and this disturbance travels in the form of
longitudinal waves.

69
LONGITUDINAL WAVES

These are waves in which the particles of a media vibrate in the same direction as the
wave. Owing to this longitudinal motion of wave particles, sound waves consist of a
series of compressions and rarefactions. A compression is a region where the particles are
close to each other and a rarefaction is a region where particles are far apart from each
other.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES

Frequency: sound waves are caused by vibrations. The number of vibrations per a second
is known as the frequency of the sound wave. The standard unit of frequency is hertz
(Hz).
AMPLITUDE: this is the distance from the middle if the wave to the highest point.

WAVELENGTH: this is the distance from one compression to the next.

70
SOUND WAVES REQUIRE A MEDIUM FOR PROPAGTION

Sound waves require a medium for propagation. Sound waves travel through solids,
liquids and gasses. This is because vibrations of the particles of a medium are the ones
that help to transmit the sound waves.

EXPERIMENT: TO DEMONSTRATE THAT SOUND NEEDS A MEDIUM FOR PROPAGATION

(DRAW DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC BELL FROM PP 313 ABBOTT)

an electric bell is placed in a bell jar as shown above. The bell jar is the connected to the
electrical power supply. When the power is switched on, the bell rings.
Next the air is evacuated from the bell jar. If the power is switched on, the gong can be
seen to move but no sound can be heard.
Conclusion: sound needs a medium for propagation.

SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

Medium Speed of sound (m/s)

Gas (air) 330
Liquid (water) 1500
Solid (concrete) 5000
Solid (steel) 6000

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

It has been determined experimentally that speed of sound is directly proportional to

(pressure /density)1/2

TEMPERATURE: velocity of sound increases with temperature.

Anything which changes the density of air without altering the pressure will cause an
increase in velocity of sound. Temperature can bring that about. if the temperature of air
increases at constant pressure, the air will expand according to Charles’s law and
therefore become less dense. The ratio (pressure /density) will increase and hence the
velocity of sound increases with temperature.

HUMIDITY: Changes in humidity affects the speed of sound in air. The density of water
vapour is less than the density of dry air at the same pressure. At night when humidity
tends to rise, sound travels faster. Sound can be heard more clearly on a quiet misty night.
NB: it should be noted that the following factors have no effect on speed of sound.
(i) Pressure: if the pressure of a fixed mass of air is doubled, the volume will be halved
and hence the density will be doubled. Thus at constant temperature the ratio (pressure
/density) will always remain constant.

71
(ii) Pitch and loudness. Pitch and loudness have no effect on the speed of sound.

THE WAVE EQUATION

The speed of sound in air can be given by the wave equation;

Speed of sound(v) = wave frequency(f) x wavelength (λ)

v =fλ
NB: λ is a Greek symbol for lambda and it is used to represent frequency

Example: the wavelength of a sound wave is 0.04m and its frequency is 50 000Hz.
Calculate the velocity of the wave.
Answer:
v =fλ
f = 50 000Hz
λ = 0.04m
v =50 000x0.04
= 2000m/s
MEASURING THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

Method 1
The echo method

This method takes advantage of the fact that when sound waves hit a hard surface they
are reflected back, a process called an echo.
Suppose a man is standing a distance S(m) away from a wall. He claps his hands and at
the same time another man starts the stop watch. He stops it when an echo is heard and
the time is recorded.

The sound waves have to travel a distance of 2xS before it can be heard. We can then
obtain the speed from the equation: speed = distance covered / time taken
to get v = 2S/t

Example:
A man stands 660m from a gorge and makes a loud shout. He simultaneously starts the
stopwatch. He then hears the echo after 4 seconds. Calculate the speed of sound in air.

72
ANS
v = 2S/t = 2x 660/4 =330m/s

Example 2

A man standing in a gorge between two large cliffs gives a sharp shout. He hears the
echoes, the first after 1second and the next after 1.5 seconds. The speed of sound is
330m/s. what is the distance between the cliffs.

let x be the distance of the man from one cliff and Y the distance from the other

Sound waves cover the distance of 2X in 1second

Therefore 2X = 1x330 =330
 X = 165m

The other sound waves also cover a distance of 2y in 1.5 seconds

Therefore 2Y= 1.5x 330 = 495
 Y =247.5m
Distance between the two cliffs = X+ Y
= 165 + 247.5
= 412.5m
METHOD 2
Another way of measuring the speed of sound is by having two people standing
some distance S (m) apart.

Man A holding a flash gun and B a stop watch. When A fires the gun, B sees the
flash and starts the stop watch. He stops it when he hears the sound and records
the time taken. The speed of sound can then be calculated using formula v = S/t.

Example
Letoni stands 660maway from Dr Letamo who is holding a stopwatch. Letoni
fires a gun when he sees a flash and stops it 2 seconds later when he hears the
sound. Calculate the speed of sound in air.

v = S/t
= 660/2

73
 = 330m/s

THE OSCILOSCOPE METHOD

A more sophisticated and accurate method is by use of the oscilloscope. A louder

speaker emits pulses at regular intervals and this registers on the cathode ray
oscilloscope. When the pulse is received by the microphone, it will also register
on the oscilloscope. If the characteristic of the time base is known, the time
interval between the two pulses can be found. The distance between the louder
speaker and the microphone is measured. The speed of sound can be found by
relation:

Speed = distance /time

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY OF HUMAN BEINGS

Not all sound can be heard by human ears. Human beings can hear sound waves
with frequency range between 20Hz and 20 000Hz. This frequency range is called
the audible frequency range for human beings.
Other animals such as dogs and bats can hear sound waves frequencies above 20
000Hz. This is called ultrasonic sound.

74
 AUDIBLE FREQUENCY FOR DIFFERENT ANIMALS

Animal Audible frequency range (Hz)

Human beings 20 – 20 000
Dogs 20 – 50 000
Bats 20 – 120 000

Any sound wave with frequency above 20 000Hz is known as ultrasonic sound
or simply ultrasound. Bats use ultrasound for locating insects and other objects
in front of them. They send a series of ultrasound pulses and their specially
shaped ears pick up the reflections. This process is called echo-location.

USES OF ULTRASOUND

i) echo- sounders:- ships use echo-sounders to measure the depth of water

beneath the sea. An echo-sounder sends pulses of ultrasonic sound towards the
seabed, and measures the time for each echo (reflected sound) to return. The
longer the time, the deeper the sea.

If a signal se sent into the depth of the sea, it covers distance of 2d before it can be
detected by the sensor. If it takes time t(s) then the total distance travelled can be
given by:

2d = v x t
=> d = vx(t/2)
This equation above implies that it takes the signal t/2 seconds to reach the
seabed.

Example

75
If a pulse of sound takes 0.2 seconds to travel to the seabed and return, and the
speed of sound in water is 1400m/s. calculate the depth of the sea.
d = vx(t/2)
= 1400x 0.2/2
= 140m

ii) metal testing:- the echo- sounding principle can be used to detect flaws in
metals. A pulse of ultrasound is sent through the metal. If there is a flaw (tiny
gap) in the metal, two reflected signals are picked up by the detector. The pulse
reflected from the flaw first followed by the one from the end of the metal.

Medical application of ultrasound

(i) WOMB SCANNING

Ultrasound can be used for scanning and monitoring the development of a baby in
its mother’s womb. A transmitter sends pulses of ultrasound into the mother’s
womb. The transmitter also acts as a detector and also picks up the reflected
waves from the baby and different layers inside the body. The signals are
processed by a computer which displays an image on the screen. Ultrasound is
safer to use than X-rays, since X-rays can destroy the cells of a developing baby.

REMOVAL OF KIDNEY STONES

as people get older, their kidneys are unable to remove some waste products
quickly from the body, so they crystallize to form what is called kidney stones.
They are very painful. With ultrasound they can be removed without having to cut
open the body. A high energy shock-wave is used to smash the stones onto tiny
pieces. They then come out with urine.
An ultrasonic beam is used because:
- it is a narrow beam that can be focussed at the right place

76
 - it can transfer more energy than an audible wave

OTHER USES OF ULTRASOUND

- cleaning spectacles
- cleaning jewellery, clothes and street lamps
- Shaking plaque off ones teeth.
- Killing bacteria in milk ( by vibrations)
- Locating oil grounds or mines

Exercise
a) (i). What is ultrasound?
ii). Give two medical uses of ultrasound
iii). what is an echo-sounder used for and how does it work?
b) A boat is fitted with echo-sounder which uses ultrasound of frequency 40kHz.
Assuming the speed of sound in water is 1400m/s,
(i) Calculate the wavelength of ultrasound in metres
(ii) If the ultrasound takes 0.06 seconds to travel from boat to seabed and back, what is
the depth of the sea?

ECHOES AND REVERBERATIONS

Echoes are produced by reflections of sound from a hard surface such as a wall or cliff.
Suppose a person claps his hands when he is standing some distance from a cliff and
listens to the echo. The time that elapses before an echo can be heard depends on his
distance from the cliff. Now, in order that the echo can be heard separately from the
original sound, it must arrive at least 0.1 seconds later. Since sound travels at about
330m/s, the reflected wave must have travelled at least 33m, and consequently the
minimum distance must be about 17m from the wall.
When the reflecting surface is less than this distance, the echo follows closely upon
original sound that one cannot distinguish the two sounds. One merely receives an
impression that the original sound has been prolonged. This effect is called
reverberation.

FREQUENCY AND PITCH

77
Frequency is the number of vibrations a wave produces per a second. The standard unit of
frequency is Hertz (Hz). Waves with high frequency have high pitch. Pitch is how high
the wave is.
From the figure above, wave (c) and (d) have high frequencies and hence high pitch.

AMPLITUDE AND LOUDNESS

The amplitude of a wave is the distance from the middle of a wave to the highest. Sound
waves with large amplitude are loud ones and those with small amplitude are quiet ones.
Waves (a), (c) and (e) have small amplitude and hence they are quiet while (b) and d
hence large amplitude and therefore they are loud.

QUALITY OF SOUND

The sound quality of a wave depends on the nature of the wave. Consider (a), (b) and (e)
above. These waves have the same frequencies but (e) has a different wave form
altogether. So the sound produced in (e) will be different form (a) and (b). so sound
quality is independent of frequency and amplitude.

78
EFFECT OF MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS ON SOUND QUALITY

In an empty room or hall, the reflected sound can take a long time to die away. This time
is called reverberation time. A long reverberation time makes it difficult to hear someone
speaking.
The acoustics of a factory or house can be improved by using curtains, carpets, and soft
materials to absorb sound. Concert halls are very carefully designed with absorbers to
ensure the right amount of reverberation. Excessive reverberations make the sound
quality to be poor.

LIGHT

Light is a form of energy that enables us to see things.

NATURE OF LIGHT

Light energy is made up of a bundle of waves called photons. A stream of photons

moving in the same direction is called a ray of light. Several rays of light in the same
direction make up a beam of light.

SPEED OF LIGHT

Light waves are the fastest thing in the universe. They travel at the speed of 3x108m/s.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT

When light rays strike a shiny surface, they bounce back. This bouncing back of light is
called reflection. There are two types of reflection, namely regular and irregular
reflection.

Regular reflection

This is the reflection that occurs when a parallel beam of light strikes a flat surface.

79
Diffuse reflection

When a parallel beam of light strikes a flat surface, they remain parallel after reflection,
as shown above.

LAWS OF REFLECTION

80
When a ray of light strikes a mirror as shown on the figure above, it is reflected.
The incoming ray is the incident ray and the outgoing ray is the reflected ray.
The line at right angles to the mirror is the normal.

There are two laws of reflection and they apply to any reflecting surface.
(i) The angle of incidence (i) is always equal to the angle of reflection (r).

(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS

Images formed by plane mirrors have the following characteristics:-

(i) Virtual

(ii) Lateral inverted

(iii) Same size as the object.

(iv) Same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.

81
Virtual images cannot be put on screens because they really do not exist.

USES OF PLANE MIRRORS

- To view inaccessible objects. e.g. dentists use mirrors to look at a patient’s

teeth
- Plane mirrors can be used by drivers to see concealed driveways or blind
turns (blind spots)
- Large mirrors hung at 45o to the vertical enables TV viewers to see what is on
the table. See figure below.

82
USES OF CURVED MIRRORS

- Convex mirrors are used to provide a large field of view such as in a car
driving mirror or security mirror.

83
REFRACTION OF LIGHT

When light moves from one medium to another one, with different optical density, it
bends. This phenomenon is called refraction of light. A necessary condition for refraction
to occur is that the incident ray or beam should not be at 90o to the surface which it
strikes. (i.e. it should not be perpendicular to the normal). The deviation of the ray (or
the wavefronts) occurs because the light travels at different speeds in the different media.

SNELL’S LAW

1. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the angle to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a particular set of media
Sin i/sin r = constant

84
2. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane

Exp: demonstration of Snell’s law of refraction

Apparatus
Ray box,
Power supply
Glass block
Sheet of plain paper

PROCEDURE

- Draw an outline of the glass block

- draw the normal line along the refracting line
- use a ray box to project a ray of light to where the normal line intersects with the
refracting surface
- Mark with crosses along the incident and refracted rays
- draw a line to join the emergent and incident rays
- measure and record the angles of incidence and refraction
- repeat the procedure with different angles.

85
Results

Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Sin i/ sin r

35
40
50
60
70
80

REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

The constant ratio of sin i to sinr referred to in Snell’s law is called the refractive index.
Refractive index (n) = sin i/sinr
Different media have different refractive index. Refractive index can be understood as so
form of optical density.

REFRACTIVE INDEX FOR CERTAIN SUBSTANCES

Substance Refractive index Speed of light (m/s)

Air 1.0 300 000 000
Water 1.33 225 000 000
Perspex 1.5 200 000 000
Glass About 1.5 200 000 000
Diamond 2.4 120 000 000

Refractive index can also be obtained using the relation below

Refractive index = speed of light in vacuum/speed of light in a medium

Example
A ray of light incident on a glass block at an angle of 60o from the glass block gets
refracted by 40o.
(i) Find the refractive index of the glass
(ii) Calculate the speed of light in the glass

(i) n = sini/sinr
= sin60/sin35
= 1.51

86
(ii) Speed of light in glass = speed of light in vacuum/n
= 300 000 000/1.51
= 200 000 000 m/s
Exercise 1
Light has a speed of 2.256x108m/s in a certain medium. What medium could this be.

Ans: water

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY OF LIGHT

The principle of reversibility of light the paths of light are reversible.

The refractive indices for a ray passing from air to glass and from glass to air may be
distinguished by symbols ang and gna respectively.

So we have that ang sini/sinr

By the principle of reversibility of light we have that

gna =sinr/sini

Hence ang=1/ gna

EXAMPLE1
The critical angle of air to diamond is 2.4. Calculate the refractive index of diamond to
air.
ANS: and = 2.4
dna =1/ and =1/2.4 = 0.42
Example 2
Calculate gna if ang= 1.5

Ans: gna = 1/ ang =1/1.5 = 0.67

example1
Diamond has a refractive index of 2.4. Calculate the critical angle for diamond.

c= sin-1(1/n)
= sin-1(1/2.4)
= 24.6o.

87
 REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

A thick slab of glass appears to be about two thirds of its real thickness when viewed
from vertically above. Similarly, water in a pond appears to be about three quarters of its
true depth. The figure below shows how it comes about. Rays from point O at the bottom
of the slab are refracted away from the normal where they leave the glass and enter the
pupil of the eye as though coming from a virtual image I above O. the diameter of the eye
is so small that only the rays very close to the normal will enter it.

RELATION BETWEEN REFRACTIVE INDEX REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

Consider the figure (b) above.

The emergent ray BC seems to be coming from a virtual image I, so that AI is the
apparent depth of the slab. By applying the principle of reversibility of light, the
refractive index is given by

88
CRITICAL ANGLE (C) AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

This is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90o. Thus the refracted
ray moves along the boundary of the two media.

89
At the critical angle a feint ray is refracted back into the medium where it came from.
When the angle of incidence is such that it exceeds the critical angle, the ray of light is
refracted back into the medium where it came from, at an angle that is equal to the angle
of incidence as shown in figure (c) above. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection (TIR). The conditions necessary for TIR to occur is that
(i) The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.
(ii) The ray should be moving from an optically dense medium to a less optically dense
one.

RELATION BETWEEN REFRACTIVE INDEX AND CRITICAL ANGLE

From the principle of reversibility of light, we have that

gna =1/ang.
SinC/sin90 = 1/ang
But sin90 =1
Therefore sinc = 1/ang
Or ang = 1/sinc

So generally n = 1/sinc
Or c= sin-1(1/n)

2. Find the refractive index of a medium with a refractive index of 1.65.

c= sin-1(1/n)
= sin-1(1/1.65)
=37.3o

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

A ray undergoes total internal reflection if:

- the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle

- the ray is moving from an optical dense medium to a less optical dense
medium. e.g from glass to air.

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

(i) Optical fibre:- an optical fibre is a thin flexible light pipe. It is made of very narrow
core surrounded by cladding made from a very pure glass. The inner core is optical

90
denser than the cladding. Rays of light entering the core at an angle greater than the
critical angle will be totally internal reflected along the whole length of the fibre and
emerge from the other side without loss of the intensity.
Uses of optical fibres:
(i) Optical fibres are used in the medical field as endoscopes. This is a collective name
for a group of such instruments that are used in medicine and internal surgery to examine
various body cavities.
(ii) Communication: optical fibres have replaced copper cables in communication since
they can carry a lot of signals at once, are fast and impossible to bug.

MIRAGE

Mirages can often be seen on hot days as a pool of water on the road some distance
ahead. One explanation is that the light form the sky is gradually refracted away from the
normal as it passes through layers of warm but less dense air near the hot road. Warm air
has a slightly smaller refractive index than the cool air and when the light meets a layer
ate the critical angle is suffers total internal reflection. To an observer the total internal
reflection appears as a puddle of water on the road.

LENSES

There are two types of lenses, namely concave and convex lenses.

91
A convex lens will refract parallel rays so that they converge to a point.

DIVERGING LENS( CONCAVE LENS)

This is a lens that causes the rays to spread out (diverge).

FEATURES OF A DIVERGING LENS

(i) PRINCIPAL AXIS

A horizontal line that passes through the centre of the lens is called the principal focus.

92
(ii) OPTICAL CENTRE (0)

A special point at the centre of the lens where rays pass without being refracted is called
the optical centre.

(iii) PRINCIPAL FOCUS (FOCAL POINT)

This is the point along the principal axis where rays originally parallel and close to the
principal axis converge after being made to pass through the lens.
NB: a biconvex lens has two principal foci. One on each side of the lens.

(iv) FOCAL LENGTH

The length between the optical centre and the focal point is called the focal length.

93
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENSES

in ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position and
size.
(i) A ray through the centre passes straight through the lens.

(ii) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focal point (F) after leaving the
lens.

(iii) A ray through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis.

94
 EXAMPLES OF RAY DIAGRAMS

IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX LENSES

Images formed by convex lenses (except if the object is placed between F and the lens)
are real inverted. Real images are those that can be put on a screen because they are
formed by actual intersection of rays.
However if the object is placed between F and the lens, the image formed is virtual and
upright. Virtual images cannot be put on the screen because they are not formed by actual
intersection of rays.

95
EXERCICE
(a) Construct ray diagrams of objects at the following positions:
(i) at 2F
(ii) beyond 2F
(iii) at infinity (far from 2F)

96
(iv) between F and 2F
(v) at F
(vi) between F and the lens

(b) From the above ray diagrams, describe the following:

(i) position of the image
(ii) size of the image
(iii) is the image real or virtual?
(iv) is the image upright or inverted?

CONVEX LENS AS A MAGNIFYING GLASS

If an object is closer to a convex lens that the principal focus, the rays never converge.
Instead they appear to come from a position behind the lens. The image is upright and
magnified. It is called a virtual image because no rays actually meet to form it and it
cannot be picked up on a screen. Used like this a convex lens is often called a magnifying
glass.

If the object is placed at F’ the image is at infinity.

97
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

THE CAMERA

A camera uses a convex lens to form a small, inverted, real image on a piece of film at
the back.

Draw the diagram of a camera from Abbott pp269

A simple camera comprises of the following parts:

The Lens: - it is moved in or out to make focussing adjustments. In many cameras this
happens automatically.

The Shutter: - it opens and shuts quickly to let a small amount of light into the camera.
On some cameras the speed of the shutter can be adjusted.

The Film: - it is kept in the darkness until the shutter opens. It is coated with light
sensitive chemicals which are changed by different shades and colours in the image.
When the film is processed, these changes are fixed and the developed film is used to
develop the photograph.

The Diaphragm:-this is a set of sliding plates between the lens and the film. It controls
the aperture (diameter) of the hole through which the light passes. In bright sunshine, a
small aperture might be used to cut down on the amount of light reaching the film.

THE PROJECTOR

a projector uses a convex lens to form a large, inverted, and real image on a screen. The
object is a brightly lit film with a picture on it.

98
The projector has the following parts:
The projector lens: - forms the image on the screen. To get a large image the lens has to
be long away from the screen. The lens is moved backwards or forwarding its holder to
make focusing adjustments.
The film transparency: - must be upside down to get an upright picture on the screen.
As the image is large and distant, the film must be positioned just outside the principal
focus of the focusing lens.
The Condenser lens:- concentrates light on the film so that it is very bright and evenly
lit.

99
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGER

to enlarge a negative, the negative film is placed onto the holder of the enlarger. A
powerful lens is used for the ray production and two lenses (condenser) are arranged to
give even a better illumination of the frame of the film.
First the image of the frame is prefocused on the base sheet. Then the light is switched on
for a certain time to expose the paper which is to be developed, fixed and glazed. Pictures
are then printed in the darkroom to protect the photographic paper.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Light is just a small part of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves. Our eyes cannot
detect other parts. The wavelengths of the EM spectrum range from more than 1000m

100
(radio waves) to 10-12m(X and g rays). All members of the EM spectrum travel at a
constant speed of 3x108m/s in a vacuum.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND LIVING CELLS

(i) Microwaves penetrate tissues and are absorbed by the water content of living cells,
causing internal heating which may damage or even kill the cells

(ii) Infrared radiation is absorbed by the skin cells causing internal heating which may
damage the skin tissue.

101
(iii) Ultraviolet radiation damages the cells of the retina of the eye. Special protective
goggles must be worn by users of ultraviolet lamps. UV radiation also damage cells
below the skin because it can penetrate more than infra-red radiation. Users of sunbeds
must not exceed recommended exposure times or several burns will result. UV causes
sun burn and may also cause skin cancer. To prevent sun burn the sunbathers should use
skin creams to block the UV radiation, preventing it from reaching the skin.

(iv) X-rays and gamma (g) radiation create ions in substances they pass through.
Living cells are damaged by ionising radiation. High doses kill living cells and low doses
can cause cell mutation and cancerous growth. For this reason a film badge must be
carried by anyone using X-rays and g equipment if the badge is over exposed the wearer
is not allowed to continue working with the equipment. There is no evidence for lower
limit below which cells cannot be damaged. The maximum permissible dose limit is a
legal limit decided on the basis of acceptable risk.

Exercise
Fill in the table for missing wavelengths and frequency

Ray Speed (m/s) Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (m)

G 3x108 5x10-11
X 1019
UV 9x10-9
Infra red 1013
Visible light 7x10-7
Radio waves 105

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

102
MAGNETISM

Properties of a magnet

- they have two poles, the north and south pole

- like poles of a magnet repel and unlike poles attract
- when hung horizontally on a flexible string, a magnet will rest such that it is
aligned along the north-south poles of the earth
- they attract the magnetic materials around them
- they have field lines called magnetic field lines around them

MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Magnetic materials are those materials that can be magnetised (with relative ease).
Examples are iron, cobalt, steel nickel. Non magnetic materials are those that can not be
magnetised. Examples are brass, tin, wood, plastic, aluminium.

THEORY OF MAGNETISM

this theory regards each individual atom or molecule as a small magnet with north and
south poles, i.e. as a dipole. A close group of these atoms, known as a magnetic domain,
may have the magnetic axis on each atom or molecule pointing the same direction. This
causes the whole material to be magnetised. If the magnetic domains are pointing in
different directions, then the net magnetic effect is zero and the material is unmagnetised.

MAGNETIC FIELD

Around every magnet there is a field of force known as magnetic field. Any magnetic
material which is placed there is affected by the field.

EXPERIMENT 1: TO PLOT A MAGNETIC FIELD WITH IRON FILLINGS

103
- Place a piece of paper on the top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron fillings
lightly over the paper.
- Tap the paper gently. The fillings will fall into the pattern showing lines of
force.
- Mark and draw the line of force
NB: lines of force are vectors, thus they have direction as well as magnitude. The
spacing of the lines indicates the field strength. The closer the field lines the
stronger the magnetic field.

EXPERIMENT2: TO PLOT A MAGNETIC FIELD WITH SMALL COMPASSES

- Place a bar magnet onto a sheet of paper

- Place a small compass near the magnet as shown in positions (i) as shown in
the figure below.
- When the needle has settled, mark the ends of the needle with a compass
- Then move the compass to position (ii) so that the south pole rests on the
previously marked north pole.
- Put a third dot against the north pole
- Move the compass to position (iii) and repeat the procedure.
- Continue this until the compass has reached the south pole of the magnet
- Join the dots. The line produced represents the line of force.
- Repeat the procedure for other lines of force.
- The advantage of this method is that it gives the direction of the lines of force.

COMBINED MAGNETIC FIELD

104
Magnetic fields react with each other. The force at any point in a combined field is the
resultant of the two fields of force.
- Where the lines are close to each other the fields are strong and where they are well
spaced the field is weak.
-The points marked X is the figures (b), (c), (d) and (e) below are neutral points. These
are points the resultant magnetic forces are zero.
-if the field lines are parallel , straight and equal distance from each other, then the
magnetic field is uniform.
- the radial magnetic field is one in which the magnetic fields spread out from a point
rather like the radii of a circle.

Magnetic materials affect any magnetic fields in which it is placed. If the magnetic
material is an iron ring (figs below) no lines of force will penetrate the ring. A hollow
box made of a magnetic material may be used to screen instruments from magnetic
effects.

105
MAKING MAGNETS

(i) STROKING

Magnets can be made stroking steel bars with a magnet. There re two ways in which this
can be done, namely single and double (divided) touch.
In single touch the steel bar is stroked from end to end several times in the same direction
with one pole of a magnet. Between the successive strokes, the pole is lifted high above
the bar; otherwise the magnetism already induced will be weakened. The disadvantage of
this method is that it produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the end of the bar than
the other.
In double or divided touch the steel bar is stroked from the centre outwards with unlike
poles of magnets simultaneously. In both methods the polarity produced at the end of the
bar where the stroking finishes is of opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.

(ii) ELECTRICAL METHOD

106
one way of making a magnet is by using electric current. A cylindrical coil wound with
500 or more turns of insulated copper wire is connected in series with a 6 or 12V electric
battery and a switch. This type of a coil is called a solenoid. A steel bar is placed inside
the coil and current switched on and off. On removing and testing the bar it is found to be
magnetised. The current should not be switched on for too long because this will damage
the coil through overheating.

The polarity of the magnet depends on the flow of current. If, on looking at the end of the
bar, the current is flowing in a clockwiSe direction, that end will be the South Pole; if it’s
aNticlockwise it will be North Pole.

INDUCED MAGNETISM

When a piece of unmagnetized steel is placed either near or in contact with a pole of a
magnet and then removed, it is found to be magnetised. This is called induced
magnetism. Tests with a compass will reveal that the induced pole nearest to the magnet
is of opposite sign to that of the inducing pole.
Induced magnetism can form magnetic chains as shown below.

107
DEMAGNETIZATION

A magnet can be demagnetised by placing it inside a solenoid in through which an

alternating current is flowing. The magnet is then slowly withdrawn, while the current is
still flowing to a distance of several metres from the solenoid in the east-west direction.
The alternating current will take the magnet through a series of ever-diminishing
magnetic cycles, until it is completely demagnetized.

Other methods of demagnetization are hammering, heating and dropping.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

IRON
Iron is called a soft magnetic material because it is easy to magnetise and also looses its
magnetism easily. Iron is used in electromagnets and transformers. It is also used as a
magnetic material in reed switch

STEEL

Steel is a hard magnetic material because it is hard to magnetise and also does no loose
its magnetism so easily. It is used too make permanent magnets. Permanent magnets are
used in compasses and as magnetic catches to keep cupboard doors shut. Fridges and
deep freezers have magnetic strips all around the doors to keep the doors completely
closed so as to keep the air inside. It is also placed in the oil sump tank of a car engine so
that it collects any bits of steel that are worn off the engine.
Iron oxide is another hard magnetic material. It is used to make computer disks, video
tapes, and the recording tape for tape recorders.

108
ELECTRICITY

MICHAEL FARADAY

When a pen is rubbed against somebody’s hair it attracts pieces of paper brought next to
it. The explanation to this phenomenon is that the some charges are induced in the pen as
it is rubbed. During this rubbing, some electrons are transferred from the pen to the hair,
leaving the pen positively charged. When it is brought next to a paper, the pen attracts
some negative charges on the paper as shown below.

Similarly when polythene and cellulose acetate strips are rubbed with a piece of cloth,
they become negatively and positively charged respectively. There are two types of
charge, namely the positive and negative charges. When a polythene strip is rubbed with
a cloth, some outer electrons are scrapped off the cloth and move on to the polythene.
This means that the polythene has some extra number of electrons (so it is negatively
charged) and the wool has fewer electrons so it is positively charged.

109
When the cellulose acetate (or glass) is rubbed, it transfers the electrons to the cloth so it
becomes positively charged.
Draw the diagram to show the movement of electrons in this case.

ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES

Electric charges are measured in coulombs(C).

When like charges are brought together, they repel and unlike charges attract.
Electric charges can be detected by a gold-leaf electroscope. The gold-leaf electroscope
can also be used to detect the nature and strength of a charge (just roughly)

(I) TO DETECT THE PRESENCE OF CHARGE ON A BODY

When a negative charge is brought near the cap of the electroscope, the negative charges
on the cap are repelled leaving the positive charges on the cap. The negative charges are
pushed down to the metal rod and the gold leaf. This causes the gold leaf to deflect from
the metal rod.

110
TO CHARGE THE GOLF-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE BY CONTACT

When a negatively charged ebonite rod is rolled on the cap of the electroscope, some of
the electrons move from the polythene to the electroscope, where they will spread out
over all the metal parts and cause the golf leaf to rise.

TO TEST FOR A SIGN OF THE CHARGE ON A BODY USING A GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

Having charged the electroscope negatively with an ebonite rod, another negative charge
brought near the G-L electroscope will result in a further divergence and a positive one
will result in a collapse. This can be summarised as follows.

Charge on the Charge brought near the Effect on leaf divergence

electroscope electroscope
+ + Increase
- - Increase
+ - Decrease
- + Decrease
+or - Unchanged Decrease

How would you determine using a G-L electroscope whether a substance is conductor of
electricity or not?

CHARGING BY INDUCTION

111
For a charge of given sign it is necessary to start with an inducing charge of opposite
kind. When a negatively charged rod is brought near the conductor at point A. some of
the electrons will be repelled towards B by the excess of electrons in the rod thereby
creating a negative induced charge at B and positive induced charge at A. when the
conductor is earthed by touching, the electrons flow to the earth leaving the positive
charges behind.

Exercise
Describe how a conductor will be charged negatively.

CHARGING TWO SPHERES BY INDUCTION

(i) Two insulated brass spheres A and B are placed together as shown above.
(ii) A negatively charged rod is brought near A. the positive charges will be induced at A
and negative at B.
(iii) Still holding the rod in position, sphere B is moved away from A.
(iv) The positive charges will be distributed uniformly on sphere A and negative on B.

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION ON A PEAR SHAPED CONDUCTOR

Charges are always concentrated at appoint of great curvature (small radius) than at
points of small curvature.

112
HOW LIGHTNING IS FORMED

In a thundercloud, strong air currents cause electrical charges to separate from one
another. Positive charges are driven towards the top of the cloud and negative charges
towards the bottom. The negative charges or ions at the base of the cloud attract positive
charges on the ground beneath the cloud. When the amount of charge becomes large
enough, a spark begins to form. In a fraction of a second tremendous amount of
electricity flows through the air, which heat it to incandescence, forming a lightning bolt

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS

Buildings are protected from lightning by providing them with metallic lightning rods
extending to the ground from a point above the highest part of the roof. These rods form a
low-resistance path for the lightning discharge and prevent it from traveling through the
structure itself.
Draw diagram of lightning rod on page 286 Rowell
Read about lightning and answer the following questions.
(i) How is lightning formed?
(ii) How does lightning discharge occur in lightning rods?
(iii) Why are lightning rods sharp pointed?

Electric field lines

When like charges are brought next to each other, they repel one another and unlike
charges attract. Every charge has got field lines surrounding called the electric field lines.

113
They travel from + to - . When a charged particle is placed in the line of field it will
experience a force of attraction or repulsion.

Draw lines of force between two like poles

Electric current (I)

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge. (Or the amount of charge flowing
through a point per unit time. It can be calculated by formula:
I = Q/t
Where: - Q is the charge
- t is the time taken.
Electric current is measured in ampere or amps (A) with the help of an ammeter.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f.)

In a cell or battery chemical changes take place and they produce the energy that
is required to drive change around the circuit. This energy is called electromotive
force. By definition, the emf is the maximum energy expended per coulomb of
electricity when a charge is driven around the circuit.
Emf is the total energy that the cell has. It is measured in volts.
Emf = W/Q
Where W is the total work done
Q is the charge
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Potential difference is the voltage drop across an electrical appliance, e.g. resistor, bulb. It
is also measured in volts.
V = Energy/Change 1V =J/C
The potential difference is measured with the help of a voltmeter which should be
connected in parallel to the appliance.

114
RESISTANCE
Electrical appliances like bulb, electric heater, and electric iron tend to resist the
movement of electrons. We say they offer resistance to the flow of current. The greater
the resistance, the more the voltage needed to push the electrons through the wire.
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Resistance is given by formula
R=V/I
Where V = voltage on volts.
I = current in Amps
R is the resistance in Ω
Example
A 2V cell is connected to a wire of resistance 20Ω. Calculate the current flow through
the circuit.

Ans: 0.1A.

Relationship between resistance, area of cross-section and length of a conductor

R al
R a1/A

Upon combining the two equations above we get

R= ρ l /A
Where - ρ is the resistivity
-A is the cross-sectional area
-l is the length of the wire
Example
Calculate the resistance of a uniform copper wire of length 10m and diameter1.5mm. The
resistivity of cu is 1.7x10-8Ω m.
Ans. 0.1Ω .
Resistors
These are electrical appliances used to control the amount of current flowing in a circuit.
There are two types of resistors namely fixed and variable resistors (rheostats).

115
Fixed resistors do have some colour coding which can be used to determine their
resistance.

Colour 1st band 2nd band 3rd band

1st digit 2nd digit n.o. of zeros
Black 0 0 0
Brown 1 1 One
Red 2 2 Two
Orange 3 3 Three
Yellow 4 4 Four
Green 5 5 Five
Blue 6 6 Six
Violet 7 7 Seven
Grey 8 8 Eight
White 9 9 nine

4th band colour

tolerance
None ±20%
Silver ±10%
Gold ±5%
Red ±2%
Brown ±1%

OHM’S LAW

116
Ohm’s law states that for any metallic (ohmic) conductor, the ratio V/I is always
constant.
The ratio V/I =R
INVESTIGATION OF OHM’S LAW

Connect the circuit as shown above.

Vary the current and voltage using the variable resistor and tabulate the results in the
table below.

Pd (V) I (A) V/I R

Plot the graph of Pd (V) against I (A).

117
NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS
Non-ohmic conductors do not obey ohm’s law. Examples are diode, transistor e.t.c.

LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law holds at low temperatures. As the current flowing through the conductor is
increased, the conductor begins to heat up and eventually ohm’s law ceases to hold. This
can be summarised in the graph below.

SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Symbols for electrical appliances

118
Draw a circuit with the following components:
(i) Battery, ammeter, 2 bulbs in series, 2 voltmeters and a switch.
(ii) Battery, ammeter, 2 bulbs in parallel, voltmeter and a switch.

RESISTORS IN SERIES

If resistors are connected in series, the total resistance is the sum of the individual
resistor.
RT=R1+R2+R3…Rn

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

119
If resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance can be obtained by taking the
sum of the responses of the individual resistors.
1/R+1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+1/R4…1/Rn

Example
Two resistors of 2Ω and 5Ω are connected in series
i) Calculate the total resistance

RT= R1+R2
=2+5
= 7Ω

(ii) Calculate the total resistance if they are connected in parallel.

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2

1/RT = 1/2 +1/5

RT =10/7 =1.4Ω

EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the total current flowing through the circuit below.

RT= R1+R2
=2+5
= 7 Ω.

I=V/R
=7/7
= 1A.

120
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2
= ½ +1/5
= 7/10
RT =10/7Ω

I=V/R
= 10A.
VOLTAGE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
For a parallel circuit, the p.d across each resistor is equivalent to the p.d across the
source.

V=V1=V2=V3.

121
CURRENT FLOW THROUGH A CIRCUIT

(i) Series circuit

The current recorded at the ammeters A1, A2, A3 and A4 is the same. The current at any
point in a series circuit is the same.
A1=A2=A3=A4.

Example
Calculate the current flow in the circuit below.

RT=R1+R2+R3
= 2+3+4
= 9Ω
I= V/R
=4.5/9
= 0.5A
This is the current at any point in the circuit.

PARALLEL CCT

A1=A2+A3=A4

122
The current at A1 is the total current in the cct. The current splits at junction J1 and flows
through R1 and R2. It then rejoins at J2 to give the current equivalent to A1 at A4.
Example 1

method1
Current @ A2: I2= 8/4
=2A
Current @ A3: I3= 8/2
=4A
Current @ A1 =I2+I3
=2+4
=6A ( = current @A4)

method2
Total resistance in the cct: RT = R1R2/(R1+R2)
=4*2/(4+2)
=8/6 =0.75Ω .

Total current =V/RT

=8/0.75
= 6A this is the current @ A1 and A4
Current @ A2: I= 2/(2+4)*6=2A
Current @ A3: I= 4/(2+4)*6= 4A.

Example 2
Find the current flowing through each resistor in the circuit below

123
For the parallel loop

RT = R1R2/(R1+R2)
=5*9/(5+9)
=45/14Ω .

RT=R1+R2= 45/14=6 = 9.21Ω .

Current at A1: I1=V/RT =8/9.21

= 0.87A (that’s the total current in the cct).

Current through 2Ω &3Ω resistors: I= 9/(9+5)*0.87 =0.56A.

Current through 4Ω &5Ω resistors: I= 5/(9+5)*0.87 = 0.31A

Current at 6Ω resistor =0.87A
PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY
Electricity can be used in our homes or industry for heating, lighting, running machines,
security and communication. In all these uses, electrical energy is dissipated in the
electrical appliances.

ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical power is given by relation:

P=VI NB V=E/Q, I=Q/t

SI unit watt (W) P=(E/Q)*(Q/t)
= E/t

Example 1

124
An electrical appliance is marked 600w, 20A. Calculate the electrical power required to
operate the appliance.
P=VI =600*20
=12000W
=12kW
ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Electrical energy is given by relation:

E=VIt

Example2
If the appliance in example1 is run for 10sec, calculate the energy dissipated.
E=VIt =12 000*10
=120 000J
=120kJ

ELECTRICAL COST
Electrical energy in our homes is measured in kWh. (Kilowatt. Hours).

E= power * time
(kW) (hr)
1kWh is the energy that would run a 1Kw appliance for 1 hour.

1kWh =1000W*3600s
=3600 000J
Electrical cost = kWh*unit cost

The unit cost is the cost for 1kWh.

Example1
Calculate the electrical cost if a 3kw appliance is run for 2hrs, given that the unit cost is
P0.25.
Ans:
Cost = kWh*unit cost
=3*2*0.25
=P1.50
Example2
Calculate the electrical cost if a 200W appliance is connected for 20hrs. the unit cost of
electricity is P0.25.
Ans P1.00

Example 3
An appliance marked 100V, 20A is connected to an electrical power supply for
50minutes. Calculate the cost of electricity if the unit cost is P0.25.

125
Ans P0.21

DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY

Despite the good uses of electricity, it can be hazardous to our lives if not handled with
care. It can cause electrical shock that can lead to injuries or death. It can also burn down
some buildings in case of short circuits. Below are some of the factors that can lead to
electrical shock or short circuits.
1. damaged insulation –naked wires
2. Overheating of cables
3. Damp conditions
4. Overloading

Homework
How can the above hazards be prevented?

Fuses

Electrical fuses are used for breaking ccts if too much current flows in the cct. It is
usually made from a thin wire of tin that melts if overloaded with current.

Fuses do have ratings. A fuse marked 3A will melt if a current greater than 3A flows
through it. Fuses are always put in live wire so as to prevent appliances form damage by
electricity.

126
HOUSEHOLD WIRING

HOMEWORK

1. Discuss the advantages of connecting the bulbs in parallel.

2. What are the necessary diagnostic steps to be followed in case of an electrical fault in
an appliance?
Ans:
Check fuses, misconnection and short circuit.
There are three conducting wires, namely live neutral and earth.

Live wire (L):- carries current from appliance to the source. It is the wire on which the
fuse is connected. Colour- red or brown

Neutral (N):- caries current from the appliance to the source. Colour- blue
Earth (N):- carries current to earth in case of short circuit or overload to prevent damage
on the appliance or building. Colour – green& yellow.

HOMEWORK
Draw a fused plug

Example
A vacuum cleaner has rating of 460W on 230V mains. What fuse from a 3A, 5A and 13A
fuse should be fitted in the plug?

Ans: 3A

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

If a wire is moved so that it cuts across the magnetic field lines (magnetic flux), then
electric current is induced in the wire. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic
induction. This is because the electrons in the coil have been given a push as the wire
moves across the magnetic field lines.
The magnitude of the induced current can be increased by:
(i) Using a stronger magnet
(ii) Increasing the speed of the wire
(iii) Increasing the number of coils on the wire

Lenz’s law
It states that the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change that
produces it.

Lenz’ law is shown in the diagrams above. When the north pole of a bar magnet is
moving in, the end of the current flows so as to produce a North Pole at the end of the
coil. This means that the current is opposing movement of the magnet by repelling it.
When the North Pole moves out, the current flows the other way to make the South Pole
which opposes the movement (by trying to attract it)

This simple phenomenon is the basis for construction of a.c generator.

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A.C GENERATOR

A generator can be built with a rotating coil and fixed magnet. As the coil rotates, it cuts
the magnetic field lines and current is induced. As the coil rotates, the current is
conducted in and out by way of slip rings and carbon brushes.
The direction of induced current can be determined by Fleming’s Right hand rule.

The current produced above is alternating current which means that the direction of flow
always changes every half cycle.

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When the coil is in a vertical position, it is parallel to the direction of magnetic field lines
so no cutting takes place, therefore the e.m.f induced is zero. During the first quarter of
the cycle, the e.m.f increases from zero to maximum or peak value when the coil is in the
horizontal position. After that the e.m.f decreases during the second quarter of the
rotation and once more becomes zero when the coil is in the vertical position with the
side B uppermost. During the second half of the rotation, the e.m.f. generated follows the
same pattern as that of the first half, except that the direction of the e.m.f. has reversed.
The reversal occurs since the direction of the sides A and B across the magnetic flux is
now reversed.
If this alternating e.m.f is applied to an external resistance, R an alternating current (a.c.)
will flow through it.

Transformer
The principle of electromagnetic induction is used to develop transformers. A transformer
is a device that can be used to step up (increase the amount of) e.m.f. or step it down
(decrease the amount of).

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When current is switched on in the primary coil, the magnetism is induced in the iron
core due to ever changing direction of e.m.f. This means that the polarity of the
electromagnet changes with e.m.f and hence cut through the coil in the secondary coil.
This causes electrical e.m.f to be induced in the secondary coil.
The amount of e.m.f induced in the secondary coil depends on the e.m.f applied to the
primary and on the relative numbers of turns in the two coils. If Ns > Np the transformer
is a step up transformer and if Ns< Np the transformer is a step down transformer.
We also have that Vp/Vs=Ns/Np

For a 100% efficient transformer we have that:

Secondary power input = primary power input
VsIs =VpIp

Example

A step down transformer is required to transform 240V ac to 12V a.c. for a model
railway if the primary coil has 1000 turns, calculate Ns.
ANS; 50 turns.

USE OF TRNSFOMERS IN HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION

(i) Transformers are used to get low voltages from the 230v a.c mains for door bells,
radios, computers, hifi equipment.
(ii) Resistance welding
If the primary coil has 1000 turns and the secondary coil has 5 coils, it is a step down
transformer of ratio 200:1. In a perfect transformer, the current will be stepped up in
the same ratio. So the current of 1a in the primary will give a secondary current of
200A. This current can heat the nail until it melts. The current can be used to melt
two nails together or join two pieces of metal. This is called electric welding.

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 iii) National grid system
To transfer energy from the power station to your home we could either :

(a) Use low voltage and high current

(b) Use a high voltage and low current

Method (a) is very wasteful as high current heats up the power lines.
Method (b) is used with transformers at each end of the grid to change the voltage. This is
the main reason for using the a.c in the grid (because transformers do not work with d.c)

Example

Find the power wasted as internal energy in the cable when 10kW is transmitted through
a cable of resistance 0.5Ω (a) at 200V (b) at 200kV

Ans (a) 1.25kW (b) 0.00125W

What conclusion can be drawn from the answers to the problem above.

Magnetic effect of current

When a magnetic compass (originally pointing north) is placed near a current-carrying

conductor, it is found to deflect

When the electric current is switched off, it realigns itself in the north-south direction. It
can be concluded that the current carrying current has a magnetic field around it.
The direction o current can be obtained by the right hand grip rule. Fingers held around
the conductor represent the direction of magnetic field lines and the thumb the direction
of current.
If an iron core is insulated with an insulated wire and the current is turned on, the iron
core is turned into a magnet. The magnetism will be present if and only if the current is
flowing through the coil. This is an electromagnet.

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FACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

- using a larger current

- using more turns of wire in the coil
- using the soft iron core
- bringing the poles together as shown below

Uses of electromagnets

- cranes
- electric bell
- electromagnetic door bell
- removal of splinters of iron from patients
- electromagnetic relay
- current breaker
- telephone earpiece

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THE MOTOR EFFECT
If a piece of wire carrying current is placed in magnetic field lines, it moves. The
direction of the motion can be deduced by Fleming’s left hand rule.

The force on the wire is increased is increased by:

- using a larger current
- using a stronger magnet
- using a greater length of wire in the field (coil)
Simple electric motor

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The diagram above shows a simple d.c motor. It runs on direct current (d.c), the one way
current that flows from the battery.
The coil is made up of insulated copper wire and it is free to move between the poles of a
magnet. The commutator or split ring is fixed to the coil and rotates with it. Its purpose is
to reverse the current. The brushes are two carbon contacts which rub against the
commutator and keep the coil connected to the battery.

When the coil is horizontal, the forces have their maximum turning effect on the coil.
With no change in the forces, the coil will eventually come to rest in a vertical position.
However, as the coil overshoots the vertical, the commutator changes direction of the
current through it. So the forces change direction and push the coil further until it is
vertical again. The cycle is complete and is repeated again.

The turning effect of the coil can be increased by:

-increasing the current
-increasing the number of turns in the coil
-increasing the area of the coil

Homework
- describe the action of a microphone
- describe the action of a loud speaker
- Relate the use of microphone and loudspeakers to communication e.g.
telephone receiver.

INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

THERMIONIC EMISSION
If a tungsten filament is heated to about 2000oC, some of the electrons in the white-hot
metal gain enough energy to escape from its surface. This is called Thermionic emission
and it occurs in other metals and metal oxides as well.

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In a vacuum tube above, there are two electrodes, the anode (+) and the cathode (-) the
cathode in this case is the tungsten filament. Normally electrons cannot cross the gap to
the anode, so the ammeter reads zero. However when the filament is switched on, the
electrons begin to flow as the electros escape from the hot surface and are attracted across
to the anode (+). With air in the tube rather than a vacuum, the electrons would collide
with gas and also the white hot filament will burn up.

The electrons produced can be deflected by magnetic and electric field.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) uses a narrow beam of electrons to trace out
waveforms and other signals on the fluorescent screen. There is a bright spot on the
screen where the beam strikes. By deflecting the beam, the spot can be moved about. If it

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moves fast enough, it appears as a line. To deflect the beam, there are two sets of
deflection plates.
The Y- plates
Move the beam vertically. This happens when an external source of voltage is connected
across the Y-input terminals.

The X-plates

-moves the beam horizontally. Normally the movement is produced by a circuit called the
time base, inside the oscilloscope.

MEASURING WITH AN OSCILLOSCOPE

The y-input is connected to an ac supply. From the waveform on the screen and the
setting on the oscilloscope controls, the voltage and the frequency of the supply can be
found as follows.

MEASURING PEAK VOLTAGE

The gain is set, say to 5V/cm. This means that the spot is deflected by 1cm vertically for
every 5v across the y input terminals. The peak to peak voltage is represented by the
distance marked amplitude on the waveform. As the amplitude is 2cm, peak voltage
=2.0cm x 5V/cm = 10V

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MEASURING THE TIME AND FREQUENCY

The time base control is set to 10ms/cm. This means that the spot takes 10ms (0.01s) to
move 1cm horizontally. As the peak to peak distance is 4m.

Peak to peak time = 4.0cm x 10ms = 40ms =0.04s. this is the time taken for the spot to
trace out one complete cycle of waveform. This is known as the time period (T).
So T =1/f
 f=1/T
=1/0.04
= 25Hz

TELEVISION TUBE

Like an oscilloscope, a TV tube has a source of electrons at one end and the fluorescent
screen at the other. In a typical tube, the magnetic deflection coil pulls three electrons
beams in a zigzag path over the screen area. The screen is coated with fluorescent strips
which glow red, green and blue when the beam strike them. Together the glowing strips
make up a full Colour picture.
POTENTIAL DIVIDER (POTENTIOMETER)

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 A battery provides a fixed e.m.f, e.g. 12v. However we often wish to provide different
voltages. To do this we need a potential divider.

Consider a cct below.

if we apply ohm’s law

V1=IR1 for resistor R1 -------------------------------(1)
V = I(R1+R2) for resistors in series----------------(2)

Dividing equation 1 by 2 we get

V1/V = R1/(R1+R2)
 V1 = R1/(R1+R2)V ----equation for potential divider

Consider the potential divider circuit below

A fixed voltage of a battery is supplied across the full length of the wire AB. As the slider
S is moved to different positions, the voltage across Bs varies. If S is at B the output
voltage is zero. If S is at A, the output voltage is the full voltage. If s is half way between
B and a, the voltage is half the input voltage.

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QUESTION
What happens to the current?

Uses of the potentiometer

- Used in radio and tape recorders as volume control and tone controls.
- They are also used as voltage dividers in electronic ccts

THERMISTOR

A thermistor is a resistor that is temperature dependent. It is made up of semiconductor

materials. When the temperature increases, the resistance decreases and as the
temperature decreases the resistance increases. So thermistors become better conductors
of electricity when the temperature increases. They can be used as automatic switches in
the fire alarms. As the temperature increases because of the fire, the thermistor becomes a
better conductor and the bell rings.

Homework
Draw the graph of current against voltage as the temperature of the thermistor is
increased.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

They have high resistance in the dark and low resistance in the light.

USES
- Used in electronic switches which switch lights on at night and off during the
day.
- Used as photographer’s light meter if it is calibrated
- It is used to alter the aperture in automatic cameras

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REED SWITCH

A reed switch consists of a glass tube with two iron reeds sealed in it. If the iron is
unmagnetized, there is a gap between the reeds, and no current can flow. This switch is
said to be normally open (NO).
If a magnet is brought near the reed switch, it magnetizes the reeds as shown below

As a result the two reeds are attracted towards each other, and they bend and touch each
other.

NORMALLY-CLOSED REED SWITCH

If an extra non-magnetic material is added to the reed switch as shown below, it can be
used as a normally-closed (NC) switch. The current flow from b to c until a magnet is
brought near.

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USES
- A normally-closed reed switch can be used in burglar alarm.
- A normally-open switch cab be used as a safety switch on the door of the microwave
oven

Homework
Explain with the aid of a diagram how the NC and NO reed switches can be used in door
alarms and microwave ovens.

REED RELAYS

If a reed switch is put inside a wire (an electromagnet) it can be operated by a current in
the coil. This is a reed relay.

TRANSDUCERS

They are devices that convert electrical signals into other forms. Examples are : LDR,
thermistor, reed switch, pressure switch. Transducers can be divided into three categories
as shown below.

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 Input Transducers processor Output Transducer

Reed switch transistor lamp

LDR amplifier bell
thermistor logic gates loudspeaker
microphone CRO
Meter (ammeter,
voltmeter)

CAPACITOR

It is a device that is used for storing electric charges. The simplest form consists of two
parallel metal plates separated by air or some other insulating material such as mica.

The amount of charge stored is measured in coulombs. A coulomb is a large (charge

carried by about 6x1018 electrons). So we always use micro coulombs (1mC =10-6C).

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E.g. the dome of the Van De Graaff generator stores about 1mC, a lightning flash might
contain 10C.

USES
- Smoothing out current changes.
- Passing on signals from one circuit to another
- Tuning circuits so that they respond to signals of one frequency.

ASSIGNMENT
How can a capacitor are used in a time delay ccts

A LIGHT –SENSITIVE SWITCH

The circuit above demonstrates a principle used in lamps which come on automatically at
night. The LDR is part of the potential divider. In daylight, the LDR has a low resistance
and low share of the battery voltage- too low to switch the transistor on. In the darkness
the resistance of the LDR rises considerably, and so does its share of the battery voltage.
Now the voltage across the LDR is high enough to switch the transistor on, so the bulb
lights up.

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 A TIME–DELAY SWITCH

When you close the main switch in the cct above there is a time delay before the bulb
lights up. It is caused by the capacitor in the potential divider. The capacitor charges up
very slowly and it is several seconds before the voltage across it is high enough to switch
the transistor on. The time delay can be increased by increasing the capacitance or the
resistance of the upper resistance.

A TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE SWITCH

The circuit above is used in fire alarms. The thermistor is part of the potential divider. At
room temperature the thermistor has a high resistance and a major share of the battery
voltage. As a result, the voltage across the lower resistor is not enough to switch the
transistor on. When the thermistor is heated, its resistance and the lower resistor gets a
larger share of the battery voltage. So the transistor is switched on.

The cct has two extra features:

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 - The transistor does not switch on the bell directly. Instead it switches on the
relay, which switches on the bell.
- The relay has a diode across it. This protects the transistor from voltages
generated (by electromagnetic induction) when the relay coil is switched on
and off.

DIODES

Diodes are devices that allow current to flow through them in one direction only. Most of
them are made from special treated crystals of silicon.
When a diode is forward biased, it has an extremely low resistance and therefore current
can flow through them with ease. When the diode is reverse biased, it has an extremely
high resistance and it becomes difficult for the current to flow.

Diode can be used to change AC to DC. The process is called rectification. The diodes
that do it are known as rectifiers.

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

RADIOACTIVITY

it is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclei and it is usually accompanied by

the emission of radiation.

This is the process whereby the nuclei of certain heavy nuclei of certain heavy elements
e.g radium, spontaneously disintegrate and emit alpha (a),beta (b) and gamma (γ).

NATURE OF RADIATION

Alpha particle – it is the helium nucleus i.e. two protons and neutrons.

Beta: - these are high energy electrons. They are emitted with varying speeds, some with
the speed approaching that of light (3 x 108 m/s).

Gamma rays: - they are electromagnetic waves. It is the energy that is emitted as the
nucleons stabilises after emitting alpha particles.
Examples of radioactive materials are
Uranium
Plutonium
Radium

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 SUMMARY

Type Nature Charge radioactive absorbed by Ionising deflected by

source power an electric or
magnetic field
Alpha Helium nucleus +2 Americium sheet of paper strong Very small
4
2He ( 2 protons and 241 deflection by
2 neutrons) electric field
towards –ve)
Beta High energy -1 Strontium 5mm sheet of Weak Large electric
(01e electrons 90 aluminium plate ( towards
+ve plate)
Gamma High energy None Cobalt (60) 25mm sheet of Very No deflection
electromagnetic lead (reduces weak
wave its intensity by
half

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIATIONS

Ionising effect
The different radiations a, b and g ionise air differently. The ionising power depends on
the momentum (mass x velocity) of the radiation. The heavier particles will ionise more
air molecules. The ionising effects of radiations are investigated using cloud chambers.

THE CLOUD CHAMBER

The cloud chamber contains a supersaturated alcohol vapour in a dust free atmosphere.
When the radiation passes through the chamber, a string of ions are formed as the
radiation knocks electron from air molecules. This serves as a condensation nuclei, as the
saturated vapour condenses around them so that the path shows up as a vapour trail. A
strong electric field removes the ions and hence clears a cloud soon after it has been
made.

INTERPRETING CLOUD CHAMBER TRACKS

(i) ALPHA TRACKS

The tracks made by alpha particles are straight and thick, showing little or no deviation
and intense ionisation. They are approximately the same length, indicating that they are
emitted with the same energy.

148
(ii) BETA TRACKS.
High energy beta particles produce thin but more or less straight tracks. The tracks are
thinner than those of alpha particles because they make ionising collisions much less
frequently and therefore there are fewer condensation nuclei. For average beta particles,
the tracks are tortuous because the particles are easily deflected.

(iii) GAMMA TRACKS

Unlike the alpha and beta particles, gamma rays are energies not particles, therefore they
cannot ionise air by colliding with molecules. When gamma rays pass through air
molecules, an electron in the shell of the atom gets enough energy to be liberated from
the atom. The ejected atom will then collide with air and ionise the air molecules. The
tracks are thin.

PENETRATION POWERS.

The radiations penetrate different materials differently. The penetration of radiation

depends on:
(i) The mass of the particle. The larger the particles the lower the penetrating power.

149
(ii) Density of the absorbing materials. Materials with high density are not easy to
penetrate.
(iii) The charge of the radiation. When positively charged particle approaches a nucleus it
will be repelled. A neutral particle will however not be deflected.

BACKGROUND RADIATION

This is the radiation that is detected even when there is no visible source of radiation..
Background radiation is always present. There are several sources of background
radiation, namely:
(i) Cosmic radiation from the outer space.
(ii) Radiation from the sun.
(iii) Rocks in the earth that contains traces of radioactive substances.
(iv) Artificial and natural occurring radioisotopes
(v) Production of nuclear explosions.

DEFLECTION BY MAGNETIC FIELD

(i) MAGNETIC FIELD

If the alpha and beta particles are made to pass through a magnetic field, they are
deflected as shown below. The gamma rays are not deflected as they have no charge. The
direction of deflection of a particular radiation depends on:
(ii) The nature of the particle and
(ii) The direction of the magnetic or electric field.

150
The direction of the deflection can be determined using Fleming’s left hand rule.

ELECTRIC FIELD

DANGERS OF RADIATION

When the radiation enters the cells of the body, molecules of the cells are ionised. The
ions formed can change the morphology of living the cells or destroy them. Large amount
of radiation can stop cells from multiplying or working and this causes death. If radiation

151
cannot kill it causes cancer and birth defects in children. Radiation can also kill the cells
of the gonads (testes or ovaries) and cause sterility. It also causes leukaemia (cancer of
the blood).

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING RADIATION

Radioactive isotopes are stored in lead boxes. Often the box has the symbol below.

-this symbol is a warning sign that people should take all the necessary precautions.
-radioactive sources must always be shielded. They also should not be picked up with
bare hands; weak radioactive source must be picked up with the help of the tongs or
forceps.
-People working with radioactive source must wear badges that help to detect the amount
of radiation.
-no food or drinks must be brought near a place where radioactive sources are used.
-prolonged exposure to radiation can cause mutation.

Detectors of radiation
Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays
DETECTORS -cloud chamber -Photographic plate -G-M tube
-spark counter -cloud chambers -cloud chamber
-photographic film photographic film
-thin window G-M
tube
-gold leaf electroscope

152
ALPHA DECAY

It is the radioactive decay of a nucleus giving off an alpha particle. The remaining
nucleus (new element) has its atomic number decreased by two and its mass number
decreased by 4.

Examples are:

BETA DECAY

is the radioactive decay of nucleus by conversion of a neutron into a proton, giving off
alpha particle (high energy electron). The remaining nucleus (new element) has its atomic
number increased by 1, but its mass number remaining the same.

Neutron proton + electron (b-emission).

Since a neutron has changed into a proton the number of heavy particles in the nucleus
has not changed so the mass number of the atom stays the same. A proton is made so the
proton number increases by 1.

153
NUCLEAR FISSION

- the breaking or splitting down of an atom (nucleus) into two halves

- A process whereby a heavy unstable nucleus split up into two or more smaller
nuclei.

A neutron is used to bombard a heavy nucleus since it is not repelled by the charges of
the nucleus.
The bombardment of uranium (U-235) nucleus splits it into 2 nuclei of roughly the same
mass. This reaction is called nuclear fission.

When U-235 undergoes fission, the two fragment products are flying apart at a
tremendous speed and the gain energy from the mass. The mass of the product is slightly
smaller than the mass of U-235. Experiments in atomic physics show that the mass is
destroyed, there is mass deficit and therefore the laws of conservation of energy are not
applied here.
Energy released is given by Albert Einstein’s famous equation.

154
E =mC2.
Where m= mass loss
C = speed of light

Albert Einstein

PRODUCTS OF FISSION OF U-235

(i) Fission products (new elements) are unstable and they emit radiation. Disposal of
these radioactive products as waste material is a problem.
(ii) The fission energy appears mostly as kinetic energy of the fission fragments which fly
apart at high speed.
(iii) Other neutrons called fission neutrons are emitted in the process. These fission
neutrons in turn bombard other U-235 nuclei hence causing a chain reaction.

155
Fission is likely to occur when neutrons are moving at moderate speed because their
chances of escaping are low.

NUCLEAR REACTOR
Nuclear reactor obtain energy from the same reaction as the nuclear bomb: the fission of
235
U. In reactors, fission is carried out in a controlled way. The reactors use naturally
occurring uranium which is a mixture of 235U and 238U. Only 235U undergoes fission with
slow neutrons. Neutrons from the fuel rods go into the graphite core, where they collide
with graphite atoms and loose kinetic energy. The graphite is called a moderator because
it slows down the neutrons. The neutrons then pass into the fuel rods and cause fission.
The boron steel rods control the rate of fission by absorbing some neutrons. The heat
generated by nuclear fission warms a coolant fluid which circulates through the
moderator. The coolant may be water (as in pressurised water reactors) or gas e.g.
carbon-dioxide (as in gas cooled reactors) the heat is used to turn water into steam. Steam
drives a turbine and generates electricity.

DRAW DIAGRAM OF REACTOR ON P 80, ABORT

NUCLEAR FUSION
This is the union of light nuclei to form heavier nuclei. Reactions like can be done in a
hydrogen bomb.

When two atoms of 2H (deuterium) collide at high speed the nuclei fuse together. An
isotope of helium and a neutron are produce. When this happens a large amount of energy
is produced.

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

1. RADIOACTIVE DATING
the uranium 238 in rocks decay steadily with a very long half-life 4500 million
years. It changes slowly in to lead by measuring how much of the uranium has changed
in to lead. It is possible to calculate the age of the rock. With once living material carbon
-14 is used.

Checking joints

156
If a gamma source is placed on one side of the welded metal and a photographic
film on the other side weak point or air bubbles will show up on the film.

Sterilising
Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria, mould, insects in food, even after food has been
packaged.
i) Radiotherapy –cancer cells in a patient can be destroyed by gamma rays.
ii) Gamma are also used to sterilise hospital equipment

3. Radioactive tracing
a method of following substances by introducing radioactive isotopes called tracers.
-radioactive fertilizers can be fed in to plants and then traced through the plant
using GM counter. This method helps develop better fertilizers.
Half life (t1/2)
Half-life of a radioactivity is the time taken for half the atoms in a given sample to decay.
e.g. if there are n atoms if substance x, they will reduce to n/2 in time t1/2.different
substances have different half lives, from a few seconds to thousands of years.

Substance Half-life
214
Po 10-6
218
Po 3 minutes
210
Bi 5days
Radium 1620yrs
Thorium 1010yrs

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